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reactant side has a greater number of moles than does the product side. The system tries to counteract the decrease in partial pressure of gas molecules by shifting to the side that exerts greater pressure. Similarly, if we were to increase pressure by decreasing volume, the equilibrium shifts to the right, counteracting the pressure increase by shifting to the side with fewer moles of gas that exert less pressure. If the volume is increased because there are more moles of gas on the reactant side, this change is more significant in the denominator of the
2561:. While it is true that the total pressure of the system increases, the total pressure does not have any effect on the equilibrium constant; rather, it is a change in partial pressures that will cause a shift in the equilibrium. If, however, the volume is allowed to increase in the process, the partial pressures of all gases would be decreased resulting in a shift towards the side with the greater number of moles of gas. The shift will never occur on the side with fewer moles of gas. It is also known as Le Chatelier's postulate.
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consider Le
Chatelier's principle for such states. For this exercise, rates of flow and of chemical reaction must be considered. Such rates are not supplied by equilibrium thermodynamics. For such states, there are no simple statements that echo Le Chatelier's principle. Prigogine and Defay demonstrate that such a scenario may exhibit moderation, or may exhibit a measured amount of anti-moderation, though not a run-away anti-moderation that goes to completion. The example analysed by Prigogine and Defay is the
2422:, is one that does not react with other elements or compounds. Adding an inert gas into a gas-phase equilibrium at constant volume does not result in a shift. This is because the addition of a non-reactive gas does not change the equilibrium equation, as the inert gas appears on both sides of the chemical reaction equation. For example, if A and B react to form C and D, but X does not participate in the reaction:
33:
2124:
2687:. The Gibbs approach requires thermodynamic equilibrium. The Gibbs approach is reliable within its proper scope, thermodynamic equilibrium, though of course it does not cover non-equilibrium scenarios. The De Donder approach can cover equilibrium scenarios, but also covers non-equilibrium scenarios in which there is only
2667:
A simple body or a complex thermodynamic system can also be in a stationary state with non-zero rates of flow and chemical reaction; sometimes the word "equilibrium" is used in reference to such a state, though by definition it is not a thermodynamic equilibrium state. Sometimes, it is proposed to
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Changing the volume of the system changes the partial pressures of the products and reactants and can affect the equilibrium concentrations. With a pressure increase due to a decrease in volume, the side of the equilibrium with fewer moles is more favorable and with a pressure decrease due to an
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Changing the concentration of a chemical will shift the equilibrium to the side that would counter that change in concentration. The chemical system will attempt to partly oppose the change affected to the original state of equilibrium. In turn, the rate of reaction, extent, and yield of products
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of gas on the left-hand side and the number of moles of gas on the right-hand side. When the volume of the system is changed, the partial pressures of the gases change. If we were to decrease pressure by increasing volume, the equilibrium of the above reaction will shift to the left, because the
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Suppose we were to increase the concentration of CO in the system. Using Le
Chatelier's principle, we can predict that the concentration of methanol will increase, decreasing the total change in CO. If we are to add a species to the overall reaction, the reaction will favor the side opposing the
2658:
In theory and, nearly, in some practical scenarios, a body can be in a stationary state with zero macroscopic flows and rates of chemical reaction (for example, when no suitable catalyst is present), yet not in thermodynamic equilibrium, because it is metastable or unstable; then Le
Chatelier's
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If the temperature were increased, the heat content of the system would increase, so the system would consume some of that heat by shifting the equilibrium to the left, thereby producing less ammonia. More ammonia would be produced if the reaction were run at a lower temperature, but a lower
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The principle can be stated in two ways, formally different, but substantially equivalent, and, in a sense, mutually 'reciprocal'. The two ways illustrate the
Maxwell relations, and the stability of thermodynamic equilibrium according to the second law of thermodynamics, evident as the
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increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed in the reaction. The use of a catalyst does not affect the position and composition of the equilibrium of a reaction, because both the forward and backward reactions are sped up by the same factor.
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is different from Le
Chatelier's principle, in that homoeostasis is generally maintained by processes of active character, as distinct from the passive or dissipative character of the processes described by Le Chatelier's principle in thermodynamics. In
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is positive and energy is consumed), heat is included as a reactant. Hence, whether increasing or decreasing the temperature would favor the forward or the reverse reaction can be determined by applying the same principle as with concentration changes.
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If the equilibrium of a system is disturbed by a change in one or more of the determining factors (as temperature, pressure, or concentration) the system tends to adjust itself to a new equilibrium by counteracting as far as possible the effect of the
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The effect of changing the temperature in the equilibrium can be made clear by 1) incorporating heat as either a reactant or a product, and 2) assuming that an increase in temperature increases the heat content of a system. When the reaction is
2084:. As the concentration of CO is increased, the frequency of successful collisions of that reactant would increase also, allowing for an increase in forward reaction, and generation of the product. Even if the desired product is not
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are design elements that protect systems against stress applied in undesired manners to relieve it so as to prevent more extensive damage to the entire system, a practical engineering application of Le
Chatelier's principle.
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that specifies a cardinal function of state, of the energy kind, or of the entropy kind, as a function of state variables chosen to fit the thermodynamic operations through which a perturbation is to be applied.
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to be independent variables, though in the Gibbs approach, such variables are not independent. Thermodynamic non-equilibrium scenarios can contradict an over-general statement of Le
Chatelier's Principle.
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addition of the species. Likewise, the subtraction of a species would cause the reaction to "fill the gap" and favor the side where the species was reduced. This observation is supported by the
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is so. Obviously, to give this scenario physical meaning, the 'driving' variable and the 'moderating' variable must be subject to separate independent experimental controls and measurements.
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increase in volume, the side with more moles is more favorable. There is no effect on a reaction where the number of moles of gas is the same on each side of the chemical equation.
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In the above reaction, iron (Fe) and molybdenum (Mo) will function as catalysts if present. They will accelerate any reactions, but they do not affect the state of the equilibrium.
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all other externally controlled state variables remaining constant. The response illustrates 'moderation' in ways evident in two related thermodynamic equilibria. Obviously, one of
2004:. The principle is typically used to describe closed negative-feedback systems, but applies, in general, to thermodynamically closed and isolated systems in nature, since the
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Changing total pressure by changing the volume of the system changes the partial pressures of the products and reactants and can affect the equilibrium concentrations (see
1424:'Driving' variable forced to change, 'moderating' variable allowed to respond; compared with 'driving' variable forced not to change, 'moderating' variable forced to change
1043:'Driving' variable forced to change, 'moderating' variable allowed to respond; compared with 'driving' variable forced to change, 'moderating' variable forced not to change
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of the products and reactants, but if the number of moles of gaseous reactants is equal to the number of moles of gaseous products, pressure has no effect on equilibrium.
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The concept of systemic maintenance of a stable steady state despite perturbations has a variety of names, and has been studied in a variety of contexts, chiefly in the
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to receptors may shift the equilibrium according to Le
Chatelier's principle, thereby explaining the diverse phenomena of receptor activation and desensitization. In
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will respond in such a way as to reduce or minimize that stress. Moreover, the response will generally be via the mechanism that most easily relieves that stress.
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Le
Chatelier–Braun principle analyzes the qualitative behaviour of a thermodynamic system when a particular one of its externally controlled state variables, say
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Kay, J. J. (February 2000) . "Application of the Second Law of
Thermodynamics and Le Chatelier's Principle to the Developing Ecosystem". In Muller, F. (ed.).
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In scenarios outside thermodynamic equilibrium, there can arise phenomena in contradiction to an over-general statement of Le Chatelier's principle.
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While well rooted in chemical equilibrium, Le Chatelier's principle can also be used in describing mechanical systems in that a system put under
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from an amine and aldehyde). This can be achieved by physically sequestering water, by adding desiccants like anhydrous magnesium sulfate or
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2789:—"just-binding" in leaving initial equilibrium unchanged—reduce the response to a parameter change. Thus, factor-demand and commodity-supply
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When heat is added and the temperature increases, the reaction shifts to the right and the flask turns reddish brown due to an increase in NO
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The two ways of statement differ in their respective compared protocols. One way posits a 'changed driver, no moderation' protocol (denoted
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When heat is removed and the temperature decreases, the reaction shifts to the left and the flask turns colorless due to an increase in N
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a constant value. The effect of temperature on equilibria, however, involves a change in the equilibrium constant. The dependence of
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2554:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\mathit {a}}A{}+{\mathit {b}}B{}+{\mathit {x}}X<=>{\mathit {c}}C{}+{\mathit {d}}D{}+{\mathit {x}}X}}}
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are hypothesized to be lower in the short run than in the long run because of the fixed-cost constraint in the short run.
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of the 'moderating' variable is also measured. With that knowledge, then the 'fixed driver, moderation imposed' protocol
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against perturbations that satisfy certain criteria; this is essential to the definition of thermodynamic equilibrium.
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Changing total pressure by adding an inert gas at constant volume does not affect the equilibrium concentrations (see
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As systems are moved away from equilibrium, they will utilize all available avenues to counter the applied gradients
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2149:. This demonstrates Le Chatelier's principle: the equilibrium shifts in the direction that consumes energy.
514:. Also as a necessary part of the scenario, there is some particular auxiliary 'moderating' state variable
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Silberberg, Eugene (1971). "The Le Chatelier Principle as a Corollary to a Generalized Envelope Theorem".
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of how temperature variations changes the equilibrium to the variations of pressure and what's now called
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fr:s:Page:Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des sciences, tome 099, 1884.djvu/786
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Ecosystems as Self-organizing Holarchic Open Systems: Narratives and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
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Le Chatelier's principle applied to changes in concentration or pressure can be understood by giving
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Le Chatelier's principle is sometimes alluded to in discussions of topics other than thermodynamics.
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of a system will result in predictable and opposing changes in the system in order to achieve a new
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In economics, a similar concept also named after Le Chatelier was introduced by American economist
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When a settled system is disturbed, it will adjust to diminish the change that has been made to it
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2947:"Is the Le Chatelier-Braun Principle Valid in General in Linear Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics?"
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to be made at a reasonable rate with an equilibrium concentration that is not too unfavorable.
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that may be described as 'changed driver, moderation permitted'. Along with the driver change
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is negative and energy is released), heat is included as a product, and when the reaction is
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The equilibrium concentrations of the products and reactants do not directly depend on the
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For this, a state of thermodynamic equilibrium is most conveniently described through a
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in some part of the experimental protocol; this can be either by imposition of a change
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in 1947. There the generalized Le Chatelier principle is for a maximum condition of
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3047:... Le Chatelier's principle is an example of this equilibrium seeking principle.
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favored, the end-product can be obtained if it is continuously removed from the
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Principle to predict effects of a change in conditions on a chemical equilibrium
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caused by an instantaneous shock is eventually followed by a new equilibrium.
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The effect of a change in concentration is often exploited synthetically for
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Considering the reaction of nitrogen gas with hydrogen gas to form ammonia:
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The other way posits a 'fixed driver, imposed moderation' protocol (denoted
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amongst the state variables of the system in response to an imposed change.
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The two ways of statement share an 'index' experimental protocol (denoted
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who enunciated the principle in 1884 by extending the reasoning from the
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For example, consider the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia (NH
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temperature also lowers the rate of the process, so, in practice (the
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It is common to treat the principle as a more general observation of
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2732:. In chemistry, the principle is used to manipulate the outcomes of
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the 'response of prime interest', in its conjugate state variable
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Again, in other words, change in the 'moderating' state variable
331:, who discovered it independently in 1887. It can be defined as:
3312:, translated by D.H. Everett, Longmans, Green & Co, London.
2785:: Where all unknowns of a function are independently variable,
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3297:, translated by E.S. Halberstadt, Wiley–Interscience, London,
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3032:. Environmental & Ecological (Math) Modeling. CRC Press.
2683:, the other uses the near- or local- equilibrium approach of
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Since the change of the value of an objective function in a
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3161:(3rd ed.). Walker, Minn.: General Systemantics Press.
2298:. The theoretical basis of this dependence is given by the
2256:) the temperature is set at a compromise value that allows
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will be altered corresponding to the impact on the system.
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and allows the uncontrolled 'moderating' variable response
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The duration of adjustment depends on the strength of the
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In other words, change in the 'moderating' state variable
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Braun–Le Chatelier principle, Le Chatelier–Braun principle
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3186:"The Biophysical Basis for the Graphical Representations"
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3282:, (1st edition 1960) 2nd edition 1985, Wiley, New York,
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Because this reaction is exothermic, it produces heat:
1348:{\displaystyle |\delta _{\mathrm {i} }M|<|\Delta M|}
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YouTube video of Le Chatelier's principle and pressure
3280:
Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics
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prompts an opposing reaction in the responding system.
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Provided that the 'moderated' response is indeed that
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For this to be of interest, the 'moderating' variable
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held fixed; the protocol also, through an adjustment
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Le Chatelier's principle, Merriam-Webster Dictionary
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1591:is executed first; the response of prime interest,
1253:Provided that the observed response is indeed that
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57:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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3123:Prigogine, I., Defay, R. (1950/1954), pp. 268–269.
3114:Bailyn, M. (1994), Chapter 8, Part A, pp. 312–319.
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1116:to compare the effects of the imposed the change
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707:For the principle to hold with full generality,
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2882:"Shifting Equilibria: Le Chatelier's Principle"
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2159:: again, according to Le Chatelier's principle.
1428:This way also uses two experimental protocols,
996:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{\mathrm {n} }).}
795:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{\mathrm {i} }),}
333:
2045:This can be illustrated by the equilibrium of
1378:moderates the effect of the driving change in
1287:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {i} }X\neq 0,}
1109:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{\mathrm {n} },}
1032:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{\mathrm {f} }.}
727:must be extensive or intensive accordingly as
3030:Handbook of Ecosystem Theories and Management
2886:Introductory Chemistry – 1st Canadian edition
2880:Ball, David W.; Key, Jessie A. (2014-09-16).
2613:Le Chatelier's principle refers to states of
2294:on temperature is determined by the sign of Δ
1675:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{\mathrm {f} }}
1584:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{\mathrm {i} }}
1487:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{\mathrm {f} }}
1454:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{\mathrm {i} }}
1227:and it observes the 'no-moderation' response
1165:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{\mathrm {n} }}
1073:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{\mathrm {i} }}
8:
2800:of the maximum position is described by the
2396:expression, causing a shift in equilibrium.
1946:opposes the effect of the driving change in
1859:then the principle states that the signs of
1558:of 'moderation' alone. The 'index' protocol
927:along with the 'index' response of interest
315:The principle is named after French chemist
2675:This situation is clarified by considering
2267:, an increase in temperature decreases the
3132:Fishtik, I.; Nagypál, I.; Gutman, (1995).
2677:two basic methods of analysis of a process
1139:with and without moderation. The protocol
885:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {i} }Y=0,}
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3256:(3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
1820:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {f} }M.}
1762:{\displaystyle \Delta _{\mathrm {f} }Y,}
1619:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {i} }M,}
1172:prevents 'moderation' by enforcing that
955:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {i} }M.}
920:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {i} }X,}
434:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {i} }M,}
2945:Kheilová, M.; Štrunc, M. (1995-01-01).
2839:
2474:
2279:, an increase in temperature increases
2103:from carboxylic acid and alcohol or an
1916:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {f} }M}
1884:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {i} }M}
1551:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {f} }M}
1519:{\displaystyle \delta _{\mathrm {i} }M}
406:the 'driving change', causing a change
3308:Prigogine, I., Defay, R. (1950/1954).
3081:
2983:
2972:
2659:principle does not necessarily apply.
2383: ΔH = −92kJ mol
2314:of the system. They may depend on the
2852:"Le Chatelier's Principle Definition"
1966:on the responding conjugate variable
1398:on the responding conjugate variable
7:
3105:(1960/1985), Chapter 8, pp. 203–214.
2845:
2843:
534:, with its conjugate state variable
55:adding citations to reliable sources
2888:. Victoria, B.C: BCcampus: OpenEd.
2679:. One is the classical approach of
2609:Thermodynamic equilibrium processes
2406:§ Effect of change in pressure
3254:The Elements of Physical Chemistry
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1123:
1097:
1064:
1020:
981:
940:
905:
864:
809:
780:
642:
584:
419:
387:
25:
2037:Effect of change in concentration
327:, and sometimes also credited to
3320:Foundations of Economic Analysis
3093:Münster, A. (1970), pp. 173–174.
3000:Münster, A. (1970), pp. 173–176.
2850:Helmenstine, Anne Marie (2020).
266:
217:
136:
31:
3192:from the original on 2009-01-23
3134:I. J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans.
3009:Bailyn, M. (1994), pp. 312–318.
2862:from the original on 2021-04-20
2689:local thermodynamic equilibrium
2119:Effect of change in temperature
1852:{\displaystyle \Delta X\neq 0,}
1294:then the principle states that
42:needs additional citations for
2627:It states that changes in the
2501:
2476:
1626:is observed, and the response
1494:, to compare the index effect
1341:
1330:
1322:
1302:
987:
786:
628:{\displaystyle \delta X\neq 0}
599:{\displaystyle \Delta X\neq 0}
1:
3246:Bibliography of cited sources
3173:The System always kicks back.
2400:Effect of adding an inert gas
2323:Effect of adding an inert gas
18:Le Châtelier's principle
3324:. Harvard University Press.
3235:10.1016/0022-0531(71)90012-3
2909:Mander, Peter (2016-09-01).
2306:Effect of change in pressure
2216:(g) Δ
2006:second law of thermodynamics
2330:§Effect of change in volume
1707:{\displaystyle \Delta L=0,}
700:{\displaystyle \delta Y=0.}
3382:
3316:Samuelson, Paul A (1983).
3262:A Survey of Thermodynamics
3222:Journal of Economic Theory
3209:Samuelson, Paul A. (1983).
3018:Bailyn, M. (1994), p. 313.
2911:"Le Châtelier's principle"
2898:– via opentextbc.ca.
2736:, often to increase their
2403:
2336:Effect of change in volume
1714:with the driving variable
1194:{\displaystyle \Delta X=0}
207:, Le Chatelier's principle
66:"Le Chatelier's principle"
2959:10.1515/jnet.1995.20.1.19
2663:Non-equilibrium processes
2615:thermodynamic equilibrium
1246:{\displaystyle \Delta M.}
1220:{\displaystyle \Delta Y,}
821:{\displaystyle \Delta L,}
658:, or with the holding of
399:{\displaystyle \Delta L,}
3295:Classical Thermodynamics
1785:{\displaystyle \Delta X}
1642:{\displaystyle \Delta X}
1132:{\displaystyle \Delta L}
651:{\displaystyle \Delta Y}
317:Henry Louis Le Chatelier
145:This article includes a
3310:Chemical Thermodynamics
2700:Related system concepts
2184:Take, for example, the
353:Thermodynamic statement
174:more precise citations.
3052:For full details, see:
2982:Cite journal requires
2726:
2716:or, "roughly stated":
2714:
2555:
2160:
2097:condensation reactions
2053:gas, reacting to form
1983:
1960:
1940:
1917:
1885:
1853:
1821:
1786:
1763:
1728:
1708:
1676:
1643:
1620:
1585:
1552:
1520:
1488:
1455:
1415:
1392:
1372:
1349:
1288:
1247:
1221:
1201:through an adjustment
1195:
1166:
1133:
1110:
1074:
1033:
997:
956:
921:
886:
845:
828:it imposes a constant
822:
796:
741:
721:
701:
672:
652:
629:
600:
577:must undergo a change
571:
551:
528:
500:
481:
458:
435:
400:
374:
344:
3361:Equilibrium chemistry
3252:Atkins, P.W. (1993).
2787:auxiliary constraints
2556:
2277:endothermic reactions
2126:
1984:
1961:
1941:
1918:
1886:
1854:
1822:
1787:
1764:
1729:
1709:
1677:
1644:
1621:
1586:
1553:
1521:
1489:
1456:
1416:
1393:
1373:
1350:
1289:
1248:
1222:
1196:
1167:
1134:
1111:
1075:
1034:
998:
957:
922:
887:
846:
823:
797:
742:
722:
702:
673:
653:
630:
601:
572:
552:
529:
501:
482:
459:
436:
401:
380:changes by an amount
375:
298:Chatelier's principle
3293:Münster, A. (1970),
2783:economic equilibrium
2767:some dynamic systems
2734:reversible reactions
2652:fundamental relation
2565:Effect of a catalyst
2426:
2394:equilibrium constant
2300:Van 't Hoff equation
2269:equilibrium constant
2265:exothermic reactions
2113:Dean-Stark apparatus
1970:
1950:
1930:
1895:
1863:
1831:
1796:
1773:
1738:
1718:
1686:
1653:
1630:
1595:
1562:
1530:
1498:
1465:
1432:
1402:
1382:
1362:
1298:
1257:
1231:
1205:
1176:
1143:
1120:
1084:
1051:
1007:
968:
931:
896:
855:
832:
806:
767:
731:
711:
682:
662:
639:
610:
581:
561:
538:
518:
490:
468:
445:
410:
384:
361:
329:Karl Ferdinand Braun
321:Van 't Hoff relation
310:chemical equilibrium
51:improve this article
3260:Bailyn, M. (1994).
3059:, 2000, p. 5,
2693:extents of reaction
2487:
2387:Note the number of
2186:reversible reaction
2129:reversible reaction
2025:sacrificial devices
2828:Response reactions
2604:General statements
2551:
2506:
2161:
1982:{\displaystyle M.}
1979:
1956:
1936:
1913:
1881:
1849:
1817:
1782:
1759:
1724:
1704:
1672:
1639:
1616:
1581:
1548:
1516:
1484:
1451:
1414:{\displaystyle M.}
1411:
1388:
1368:
1345:
1284:
1243:
1217:
1191:
1162:
1129:
1106:
1070:
1047:This way compares
1029:
993:
952:
917:
882:
844:{\displaystyle Y,}
841:
818:
792:
751:Explicit statement
737:
717:
697:
678:constant, written
668:
648:
625:
596:
567:
550:{\displaystyle Y.}
547:
524:
496:
480:{\displaystyle L,}
477:
457:{\displaystyle M,}
454:
431:
396:
373:{\displaystyle L,}
370:
325:chemical potential
147:list of references
3159:The Systems Bible
3039:978-1-56670-253-9
2895:978-1-77420-003-2
2823:Common-ion effect
2763:price equilibrium
2752:, the concept of
2744:, the binding of
2645:equilibrium state
2617:. The latter are
2549:
2544:
2534:
2529:
2519:
2514:
2508:
2469:
2464:
2454:
2449:
2439:
2434:
2086:thermodynamically
2008:ensures that the
1998:negative feedback
1959:{\displaystyle L}
1939:{\displaystyle X}
1769:imposes a change
1727:{\displaystyle L}
1391:{\displaystyle L}
1371:{\displaystyle X}
740:{\displaystyle M}
720:{\displaystyle X}
671:{\displaystyle Y}
570:{\displaystyle X}
527:{\displaystyle X}
499:{\displaystyle M}
200:
199:
192:
127:
126:
119:
101:
16:(Redirected from
3373:
3335:
3323:
3257:
3239:
3238:
3216:
3210:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3197:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3151:
3142:
3130:
3124:
3121:
3115:
3112:
3106:
3100:
3094:
3091:
3085:
3079:
3070:
3069:
3068:
3049:
3025:
3019:
3016:
3010:
3007:
3001:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2985:
2980:
2978:
2970:
2942:
2936:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2921:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2867:
2847:
2802:envelope theorem
2730:natural sciences
2560:
2558:
2557:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2536:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2521:
2517:
2516:
2515:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2504:
2497:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2479:
2471:
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2456:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2441:
2437:
2436:
2435:
2382:
2381:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2363:
2359:
2316:partial pressure
2109:molecular sieves
2082:collision theory
1992:Other statements
1988:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1965:
1963:
1962:
1957:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1922:
1920:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1908:
1907:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1877:
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1875:
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1808:
1791:
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1783:
1768:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1733:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1713:
1711:
1710:
1705:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1663:
1662:
1648:
1646:
1645:
1640:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1590:
1588:
1587:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1557:
1555:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1526:with the effect
1525:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1493:
1491:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1482:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1460:
1458:
1457:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1397:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1354:
1352:
1351:
1346:
1344:
1333:
1325:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1305:
1293:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1271:
1270:
1269:
1252:
1250:
1249:
1244:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1200:
1198:
1197:
1192:
1171:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1138:
1136:
1135:
1130:
1115:
1113:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1101:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1079:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1038:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1017:
1016:
1002:
1000:
999:
994:
986:
985:
984:
978:
977:
961:
959:
958:
953:
945:
944:
943:
926:
924:
923:
918:
910:
909:
908:
891:
889:
888:
883:
869:
868:
867:
850:
848:
847:
842:
827:
825:
824:
819:
801:
799:
798:
793:
785:
784:
783:
777:
776:
758:spread of energy
746:
744:
743:
738:
726:
724:
723:
718:
706:
704:
703:
698:
677:
675:
674:
669:
657:
655:
654:
649:
634:
632:
631:
626:
605:
603:
602:
597:
576:
574:
573:
568:
556:
554:
553:
548:
533:
531:
530:
525:
505:
503:
502:
497:
486:
484:
483:
478:
463:
461:
460:
455:
440:
438:
437:
432:
424:
423:
422:
405:
403:
402:
397:
379:
377:
376:
371:
342:
295:
294:
291:
290:
287:
284:
281:
278:
275:
272:
265:
257:
256:
253:
252:
249:
246:
243:
240:
237:
234:
231:
227:
226:
223:
216:
195:
188:
184:
181:
175:
170:this article by
161:inline citations
140:
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59:
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2158:
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2148:
2144:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2121:
2074:
2070:
2047:carbon monoxide
2039:
2034:
2023:and other such
2000:to the initial
1994:
1968:
1967:
1948:
1947:
1928:
1927:
1898:
1893:
1892:
1866:
1861:
1860:
1829:
1828:
1799:
1794:
1793:
1771:
1770:
1741:
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1716:
1715:
1684:
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1628:
1627:
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1565:
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1501:
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1462:
1435:
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1399:
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1379:
1360:
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1306:
1296:
1295:
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1254:
1229:
1228:
1203:
1202:
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1173:
1146:
1141:
1140:
1118:
1117:
1087:
1082:
1081:
1054:
1049:
1048:
1045:
1010:
1005:
1004:
971:
966:
965:
934:
929:
928:
899:
894:
893:
858:
853:
852:
830:
829:
804:
803:
770:
765:
764:
753:
729:
728:
709:
708:
680:
679:
660:
659:
637:
636:
608:
607:
579:
578:
559:
558:
536:
535:
516:
515:
488:
487:
466:
465:
443:
442:
413:
408:
407:
382:
381:
359:
358:
355:
343:
340:
306:equilibrium law
296:), also called
269:
260:
259:
228:
220:
211:
210:
196:
185:
179:
176:
165:
151:related reading
141:
137:
130:
123:
112:
106:
103:
60:
58:
48:
36:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3379:
3377:
3369:
3368:
3363:
3353:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3341:
3340:External links
3338:
3337:
3336:
3330:
3313:
3306:
3291:
3273:
3258:
3247:
3244:
3241:
3240:
3229:(2): 146–155.
3211:
3202:
3177:
3167:
3143:
3125:
3116:
3107:
3095:
3086:
3084:, p. 114.
3071:
3038:
3020:
3011:
3002:
2993:
2984:|journal=
2937:
2926:
2901:
2894:
2872:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2813:
2810:
2779:Paul Samuelson
2774:
2771:
2720:Any change in
2701:
2698:
2664:
2661:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2578:
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2485:
2478:
2459:
2444:
2401:
2398:
2385:
2384:
2372:
2356:
2352:
2337:
2334:
2312:total pressure
2307:
2304:
2249:
2248:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2225:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2120:
2117:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2010:disequilibrium
1993:
1990:
1978:
1975:
1955:
1935:
1923:are opposite.
1912:
1906:
1901:
1880:
1874:
1869:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1816:
1813:
1807:
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1781:
1778:
1758:
1755:
1749:
1744:
1723:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1682:enforces that
1668:
1661:
1638:
1635:
1615:
1612:
1606:
1601:
1577:
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1547:
1541:
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155:external links
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24:
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10:
9:
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3333:
3331:0-674-31301-1
3327:
3322:
3321:
3314:
3311:
3307:
3304:
3303:0-471-62430-6
3300:
3296:
3292:
3289:
3288:0-471-86256-8
3285:
3281:
3278:(1960/1985).
3277:
3274:
3271:
3270:0-88318-797-3
3267:
3263:
3259:
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3249:
3245:
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3066:10.1.1.11.856
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2798:neighbourhood
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2671:
2670:Haber process
2662:
2660:
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2653:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2641:concentration
2638:
2634:
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2622:
2620:
2616:
2608:
2603:
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2254:Haber process
2247:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2223:
2219:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2179:
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2171:
2167:
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2116:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
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2091:
2087:
2083:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2043:
2036:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1991:
1989:
1976:
1973:
1953:
1933:
1924:
1910:
1899:
1878:
1867:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1814:
1811:
1800:
1779:
1756:
1753:
1721:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1636:
1613:
1610:
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1534:
1513:
1502:
1421:
1408:
1405:
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1365:
1356:
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1326:
1318:
1307:
1281:
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1275:
1272:
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364:
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350:
347:
337:
332:
330:
326:
322:
318:
313:
311:
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303:
299:
293:
263:
255:
214:
208:
205:
194:
191:
183:
180:December 2022
173:
169:
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143:
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133:
121:
118:
110:
99:
96:
92:
89:
85:
82:
78:
75:
71:
68: –
67:
63:
62:Find sources:
56:
52:
46:
45:
40:This article
38:
34:
29:
28:
19:
3319:
3309:
3294:
3279:
3276:Callen, H.B.
3261:
3253:
3226:
3220:
3214:
3205:
3194:. Retrieved
3180:
3172:
3158:
3136:
3133:
3128:
3119:
3110:
3103:Callen, H.B.
3098:
3089:
3056:
3051:
3050:
3044:
3043:
3029:
3023:
3014:
3005:
2996:
2975:cite journal
2953:(1): 19–38.
2950:
2940:
2929:
2918:. Retrieved
2914:
2904:
2885:
2875:
2864:. Retrieved
2855:
2795:
2791:elasticities
2776:
2742:pharmacology
2727:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2703:
2674:
2666:
2657:
2649:
2626:
2623:
2612:
2599:
2576:
2568:
2409:
2386:
2343:
2339:
2327:
2320:
2309:
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2291:
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2285:
2280:
2272:
2262:
2250:
2245:
2227:
2217:
2196:gas to form
2183:
2177:
2169:
2162:
2094:
2078:
2044:
2040:
2014:
1995:
1925:
1427:
1357:
1046:
963:
762:
754:
510:, the other
356:
348:
345:
334:
314:
305:
301:
297:
209:(pronounced
206:
201:
186:
177:
166:Please help
158:
113:
104:
94:
87:
80:
73:
61:
49:Please help
44:verification
41:
3366:Homeostasis
3082:Atkins 1993
2915:carnotcycle
2818:Homeostasis
2754:homeostasis
2629:temperature
2418:), such as
2174:endothermic
172:introducing
3355:Categories
3196:2009-05-04
3155:Gall, John
3139::259–267.
2920:2024-09-29
2866:2022-03-09
2834:References
2722:status quo
2708:, such as
2404:See also:
2240:(g) ⇌ 2 NH
2212:(g) ⇌ 2 NH
2166:exothermic
2021:Shear pins
506:has to be
77:newspapers
3061:CiteSeerX
2967:1437-4358
2856:ThoughtCo
2808:thereof.
2806:corollary
2773:Economics
2759:economics
2685:De Donder
2502:⇀
2495:−
2484:−
2477:↽
2416:noble gas
2412:inert gas
2236:(g) + 3 H
2208:(g) + 3 H
2192:gas with
2139:(g) ⇌ 2NO
2032:Chemistry
1900:δ
1868:δ
1841:≠
1835:Δ
1801:δ
1777:Δ
1743:Δ
1690:Δ
1634:Δ
1600:δ
1535:δ
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1308:δ
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901:δ
860:δ
810:Δ
686:δ
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620:≠
614:δ
591:≠
585:Δ
512:extensive
508:intensive
415:δ
388:Δ
204:chemistry
107:July 2022
3190:Archived
3157:(2002).
2860:Archived
2812:See also
2633:pressure
2571:catalyst
2332:below).
2325:below).
2194:hydrogen
2190:nitrogen
2090:solution
2055:methanol
2051:hydrogen
339:—
2750:biology
2746:ligands
2706:systems
2378:2 moles
2362:4 moles
2258:ammonia
2198:ammonia
304:or the
168:improve
91:scholar
3328:
3301:
3286:
3268:
3165:
3063:
3036:
2965:
2892:
2637:volume
2619:stable
2593:⇌ 2 NH
2420:helium
2244:(g) +
2220:= −92
2017:stress
336:change
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2738:yield
2681:Gibbs
2639:, or
2589:+ 3 H
2389:moles
2355:+ 3 H
2105:imine
2101:ester
2067:+ 2 H
2002:shock
1080:with
851:with
153:, or
98:JSTOR
84:books
3326:ISBN
3299:ISBN
3284:ISBN
3266:ISBN
3163:ISBN
3034:ISBN
2988:help
2963:ISSN
2890:ISBN
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