620:
449:. He produced a comprehensive and systematic analysis of Greek optical theories. Ibn al-Haytham's key achievement was twofold: first, to insist, against the opinion of Ptolemy, that vision occurred because of rays entering the eye; the second was to define the physical nature of the rays discussed by earlier geometrical optical writers, considering them as the forms of light and color. He then analyzed these physical rays according to the principles of geometrical optics. He wrote many books on optics, most significantly the
365:
3738:
963:, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"
336:
282:(c. AD 10â70) extended the principles of geometrical optics to consider problems of reflection (catoptrics). Unlike Euclid, Hero occasionally commented on the physical nature of visual rays, indicating that they proceeded at great speed from the eye to the object seen and were reflected from smooth surfaces but could become trapped in the porosities of unpolished surfaces. This has come to be known as
972:
30:
1278:
following from these developments not only formed the basis of quantum optics but also were crucial for the development of quantum mechanics as a whole. However, the subfields of quantum mechanics dealing with matter-light interaction were principally regarded as research into matter rather than into
291:
Hero demonstrated the equality of the angle of incidence and reflection on the grounds that this is the shortest path from the object to the observer. On this basis, he was able to define the fixed relation between an object and its image in a plane mirror. Specifically, the image appears to be as
126:
made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night just as well as during the day, so
Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from the eyes and rays from
145:
observed that "things seen under a greater angle appear greater, and those under a lesser angle less, while those under equal angles appear equal". In the 36 propositions that follow, Euclid relates the apparent size of an object to its distance from the eye and investigates the apparent shapes of
1117:, during the 1260s or 1270s, wrote works on optics, partly based on the works of Arab writers, that described the function of corrective lenses for vision and burning glasses. These volumes were outlines for a larger publication that was never produced, so his ideas never saw mass dissemination.
889:
and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or
839:(1596â1650) showed, by using geometric construction and the law of refraction (also known as Descartes' law), that the angular radius of a rainbow is 42° (i.e. the angle subtended at the eye by the edge of the rainbow and the rainbow's centre is 42°). He also independently discovered the
527:
and at the end of the evening twilight, and an attempt to calculate on the basis of this and other data the height of the atmospheric moisture responsible for the refraction of the sun's rays." Through his experiments, he obtained the value of 18°, which comes close to the modern value.
1876:. But let us now mention something to prove this convincingly: the fact that light travels in straight lines is clearly observed in the lights which enter into dark rooms through holes.... he entering light will be clearly observable in the dust which fills the air." â Alhazen,
1223:(also sometimes cited as a compound microscope inventor) seems to have found after 1609 that he could close focus his telescope to view small objects and, after seeing a compound microscope built by Drebbel exhibited in Rome in 1624, built his own improved version. The name
763:, although passages in his work demonstrate that he was influenced by Bacon's ideas. Judging from the number of surviving manuscripts, his work was not as influential as those of Pecham and Bacon, yet his importance, and that of Pecham, grew with the invention of printing.
700:. Although he was not a slavish imitator, he drew his mathematical analysis of light and vision from the writings of the Arabic writer, Alhacen. But he added to this the Neoplatonic concept, perhaps drawn from Grosseteste, that every object radiates a power (
225:
which defined the atoms which make up the world as momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy, though they also viewed all matter as being composed of these light/energy particles.
2421:"Remarkable lenses and eye units in statues from the Egyptian Old Kingdom (ca. 4500 years ago): properties, timeline, questions requiring resolution. Proceedings Volume 3749, 18th Congress of the International Commission for Optics; (1999)"
1302:âresearch into principles, design and application of these devicesâbecame an important field, and the quantum mechanics underlying the laser's principles was studied now with more emphasis on the properties of light, and the name
603:
Setting aside the issues of epistemology and theology, Grosseteste's cosmogony of light describes the origin of the universe in what may loosely be described as a medieval "big bang" theory. Both his biblical commentary, the
746:. His book centered on the question of vision, on how we see, rather than on the nature of light and color. Pecham followed the model set forth by Alhacen, but interpreted Alhacen's ideas in the manner of Roger Bacon.
424:
192:
For from whatsoever distances fires can throw us their light and breathe their warm heat upon our limbs, they lose nothing of the body of their flames because of the interspaces, their fire is no whit shrunken to the
1345:
et al. demonstrated the first source of light which required a quantum description: a single atom that emitted one photon at a time. Another quantum state of light with certain advantages over any classical state,
205:
showed by a geometrical method that the actual path taken by a ray of light reflected from a plane mirror is shorter than any other reflected path that might be drawn between the source and point of observation.
1261:
by assuming that the exchange of energy between light and matter only occurred in discrete amounts he called quanta. It was unknown whether the source of this discreteness was the matter or the light. In 1905,
792:
applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on
January 1, 1604, was published as
906:), which showed that using a mirror to form an image bypassed the problem. In 1671 the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope. Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes
244:
The early writers discussed here treated vision more as a geometrical than as a physical, physiological, or psychological problem. The first known author of a treatise on geometrical optics was the geometer
890:
transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as
2420:
616:
1:3, "God said, let there be light", and described the subsequent process of creation as a natural physical process arising from the generative power of an expanding (and contracting) sphere of light.
1618:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), p. 16; A. M. Smith, Ptolemy's search for a law of refraction: a case-study in the classical methodology of 'saving the appearances' and its limitations,
753:(born circa 1230, died between 1280 and 1314) drew on the extensive body of optical works recently translated from Greek and Arabic to produce a massive presentation of the subject entitled the
130:
In the 4th century BC Chinese text, credited to the philosopher Mozi, it is described how light passing through a pinhole creates an inverted image in a "collecting-point" or "treasure house".
788:
presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of
1886:
1202:, appeared in Europe around 1620. The design is very similar to the telescope and, like that device, its inventor is unknown. Again claims revolve around the spectacle making centers in the
275:
Euclid did not define the physical nature of these visual rays but, using the principles of geometry, he discussed the effects of perspective and the rounding of things seen at a distance.
98:
began. These earlier studies on optics are now known as "classical optics". The term "modern optics" refers to areas of optical research that largely developed in the 20th century, such as
2058:
319:. He measured the angles of refraction between air, water, and glass, but his published results indicate that he adjusted his measurements to fit his (incorrect) assumption that the
1253:
and hence inherently is quantized. Quantum optics is the study of the nature and effects of light as quantized photons. The first indication that light might be quantized came from
1047:
Although disputed, archeological evidence has been suggested of the use of lenses in ancient times over a period of several millennia. It has been proposed that glass eye covers in
576:, hence he tended to apply mathematics and the Platonic metaphor of light in many of his writings. He has been credited with discussing light from four different perspectives: an
740:(died 1292) built on the work of Bacon, Grosseteste, and a diverse range of earlier writers to produce what became the most widely used textbook on optics of the Middle Ages, the
305:
considered the visual rays as proceeding from the eye to the object seen, but, unlike Hero, considered that the visual rays were not discrete lines, but formed a continuous cone.
3484:
1078:, wrote: "Letters, however small and indistinct, are seen enlarged and more clearly through a globe or glass filled with water." Emperor Nero is also said to have watched the
1029:
did more definitive studies and calculations of diffraction, published in 1815 and 1818, and thereby gave great support to the wave theory of light that had been advanced by
1309:
As laser science needed good theoretical foundations, and also because research into these soon proved very fruitful, interest in quantum optics rose. Following the work of
3548:
3221:
2665:
1370:) were found, and mechanical forces of light on matter were studied. The latter led to levitating and positioning clouds of atoms or even small biological samples in an
3583:
3265:
1670:
495:
is finite, as he "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite."
3515:
1870:"How does light travel through transparent bodies? Light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only.... We have explained this exhaustively in our
3066:
2471:
1001:, 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into different directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posthumously in 1665.
891:
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and the recovery of the works of
Aristotle. Grosseteste reflected a period of transition between the Platonism of early medieval learning and the new
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1997:
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1025:. Explaining his results by interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he deduced that light must propagate as waves.
1022:
803:). In it, Kepler described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of
1341:
as a quantum description of laser light and the realization that some states of light could not be described with classical waves. In 1977,
1148:
more effectively. Around 1286, possibly in Pisa, Italy, the first pair of eyeglasses was made, although it is unclear who the inventor was.
3626:
3371:
3338:
1329:
applied quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a more detailed understanding of photodetection and the
3683:
2584:
Kriss, Timothy C.; Kriss, Vesna
Martich (April 1998), "History of the Operating Microscope: From Magnifying Glass to Microneurosurgery",
1144:, initially made by cutting a glass sphere in half. As the stones were experimented with, it was slowly understood that shallower lenses
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Bk. II, Props. XII-L). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for diffraction. Today's
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and/or his father, Hans
Martens, claims it was invented by rival spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey, and claims it was invented by
1042:
3522:
3460:
3294:
3260:
2984:
Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to
Helmholtz's perspective",
2879:
William
Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391 - 392
2782:
1383:
773:
phenomenon, as well as Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236â1311) and his student KamÄl al-DÄ«n al-FÄrisÄ« (1260â1320) mentioned above.
639:
where he notes that "every natural action is varied in strength and weakness through variation of lines, angles and figures."
3391:
3289:
404:"On the burning instruments" was reconstructed from fragmentary manuscripts by Rashed (1993). The work is concerned with how
361:, al-Kindi developed a theory "that everything in the world ... emits rays in every direction, which fill the whole world."
2897:
J. William
Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391
2109:
D. C. Lindberg, "Roger Bacon on Light, Vision, and the
Universal Emanation of Force", pp. 243-275 in Jeremiah Hackett, ed.,
1674:
420:. He used his law of refraction to compute the shapes of lenses and mirrors that focus light at a single point on the axis.
650:(c. 1214â1294) was strongly influenced by Grosseteste's writings on the importance of light. In his optical writings (the
249:(c. 325 BCâ265 BC). Euclid began his study of optics as he began his study of geometry, with a set of self-evident axioms.
3698:
3479:
3445:
3398:
1417:
445:
in
Western Europe), writing in the 1010s, received both Ibn Sahl's treatise and a partial Arabic translation of Ptolemy's
1425:
539:(1260â1320) continued the work of Ibn al-Haytham, and they were among the first to give the correct explanations for the
393:, a mathematician active in Baghdad during the 980s, is the first Islamic scholar known to have compiled a commentary on
3467:
3440:
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523:. This was a "short work containing an estimation of the angle of depression of the sun at the beginning of the morning
3767:
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showed that atoms could only emit discrete amounts of energy. The understanding of the interaction between light and
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2018:(Spring 1967), "The Authorship of the Liber de crepusculis, an Eleventh-Century Work on Atmospheric Refraction",
878:
499:(973-1048) also agreed that light has a finite speed, and stated that the speed of light is much faster than the
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Lucretius, 1910. On the nature of things, Bok V ll 561-591, translated by Cyril Bailey, Oxford University press.
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2002:
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Optical diagram showing light being refracted by a spherical glass container full of water. (from Roger Bacon,
390:
340:
283:
59:
1013:(1638–1675) observed the diffraction patterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the first
481:, which disseminated his ideas to Western Europe and had great influence on the later developments of optics.
1270:. It appeared that the only possible explanation for the effect was the quantization of light itself. Later,
3609:
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784:(1571â1630) picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and
1137:
789:
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Howard, Ian P.; Wade, Nicholas J. (1996), "Ptolemy's contributions to the geometry of binocular vision",
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769:(ca. 1250âca. 1310) was among the first in Europe to provide the correct scientific explanation for the
766:
1881:
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two weeks later (neither was granted since examples of the device seemed to be numerous at the time).
3204:
3138:
2199:
2059:
The discovery of the theory should presumably be ascribed to al-Shirazi, its elaboration to al-Farisi
1914:'A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen's Optics', Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 15 (2005), 189â218.
1314:
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1180:
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1052:
1048:
312:
147:
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Raymond J. Seeger, Men of Physics: Galileo Galilei, His Life and His Works, Elsevier - 2016, page 24
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568:(c. 1175â1253) wrote on a wide range of scientific topics at the time of the origin of the medieval
3657:
1992:
1988:
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668:) he cited a wide range of recently translated optical and philosophical works, including those of
320:
91:
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during the second half of the 11th century, wrote a work on optics later translated into Latin as
90:, such as the beginnings of physical and physiological optics, and then significantly advanced in
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where he asserts that "a natural agent propagates its power from itself to the recipient" and in
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279:
235:
202:
87:
63:
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His more general consideration of light as a primary agent of physical causation appears in his
135:
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1063:, might have been used as a magnifying glass, although it could have simply been a decoration.
918:
and were refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium, but he had to associate them with
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by Henry C. King, Harold Spencer Jones Publisher Courier Dover Publications, 2003, pp. 25â27
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1925:"International Year of Light: Ibn al Haytham, pioneer of modern optics celebrated at UNESCO"
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meaning 'appearance, look'. Optics was significantly reformed by the developments in the
2203:
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3350:
2716:
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2020:
1911:
1872:
1767:
1765:
Rashed, R. (1990). "A Pioneer in Anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on Burning Mirrors and Lenses".
1710:
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Seeing and Being Seen in the Later Medieval World: Optics, Theology and Religious Life
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did his famous experiment observing interference from two closely spaced slits in his
364:
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1970:
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1708:
Lindberg, David C. (Winter 1971), "Alkindi's Critique of Euclid's Theory of Vision",
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of light into colours. He went on to invent a reflecting telescope (today known as a
886:
785:
409:
405:
47:
43:
3056:
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1857:
1828:
Lindberg, D. C. (1967). "Alhazen's Theory of Vision and its Reception in the West".
1739:
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759:. His theory of vision follows Alhacen and he does not consider Bacon's concept of
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This theory of the active power of rays had an influence on later scholars such as
354:
335:
239:
182:
2946:
Great Physicists: The Life and Times of Leading Physicists from Galileo to Hawking
2684:
1622:. 26 (1982), 221-240; Ptolemy's procedure is reported in the fifth chapter of his
1580:
Guarnieri, M. (2015). "Two Millennia of Light: The Long Path to Maxwell's Waves".
17:
2974:
2944:
2918:
Gould, Stephen Jay (2000). "Chapter 2: The Sharp-Eyed Lynx, Outfoxed by Nature".
2447:
2061:"âC Boyer, The rainbow : from myth to mathematics (New York, 1959), 127-129.
858:
Christiani Hugenii Zuilichemii, dum viveret Zelhemii toparchae, opuscula posthuma
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2015:
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51:
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Event: ICO XVIII 18th Congress of the International Commission for Optics, 1999
1055:(c. 2686â2181 BCE) were functional simple glass meniscus lenses. The so-called
733:(1240â1306), helped popularize and spread the ideas found in Bacon's writings.
1405:, a subject which partly emerged from quantum optics, partly from theoretical
1310:
1271:
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1199:
874:
828:
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214:
115:
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2498:"On an account of a rock-crystal lens and decomposed glass found in Niniveh"
2365:, London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green and John Taylor, p. 95
2263:
1363:
1079:
895:
673:
585:
178:
123:
3005:
1815:
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applied for the first patent that year followed by a patent application by
343:'s manuscript showing his discovery of the law of refraction, now known as
3048:
2605:
2304:
Dobbs, J.T. (December 1982), "Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter",
2159:
Perspectiva communis, (Madison, Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1970), pp. 12-32;
1880:(۱۳ۧÙŰ© ÙÙ Ű§Ù۶ÙŰĄ), translated into English from German by M. Schwarz, from
1849:
1753:
Géométrie et dioptrique au Xe siÚcle: Ibn Sahl, al-Quhi et Ibn al-Haytham.
1731:
1428:, their application, and how to manipulate them (a sub-field often called
849:(1629â1695) wrote several works in the area of optics. These included the
150:
believed these results to be important in astronomy and included Euclid's
3133:
by Simon Schaffer, Professor in History and Philosophy of Science at the
1949:
1195:
975:
Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction, which he presented to the
808:
689:
681:
677:
597:
589:
524:
488:
350:
210:
3137:, Jim Bennett, Director of the Museum of the History of Science at the
2907:
uoregon.edu, Galileo Galilei (Excerpt from the Encyclopedia Britannica)
2559:
1250:
1168:
1083:
959:
935:
843:, and his essay on optics was the first published mention of this law.
817:
is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the
770:
713:
693:
593:
540:
520:
427:
222:
185:
171:
2432:
2397:
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Sines, George; Sakellarakis, Yannis A. (1987). "Lenses in antiquity".
1190:
The earliest known examples of compound microscopes, which combine an
950:
353:(c. 801â873) was one of the earliest important optical writers in the
292:
far behind the mirror as the object really is in front of the mirror.
1523:
Ling-An Wu; Gui Lu Long; Qihuang Gong; Guang-Can Guo (October 2015).
1275:
750:
685:
369:
253:
Lines (or visual rays) can be drawn in a straight line to the object.
246:
142:
72:
38:
3040:
2085:
Robert Grosseteste: The Growth of an English Mind in Medieval Europe
1420:, even shorter (attosecond) light pulses, use of quantum optics for
1412:
Today's fields of interest among quantum optics researchers include
2666:"The invention of spectacles, How and where glasses may have begun"
2389:
2317:
2033:
1841:
1780:
1723:
127:
a source such as the sun. He stated that light has a finite speed.
29:
2997:
1884:, J. Baarmann (editor and translator from Arabic to German, 1882)
1295:
1291:
970:
942:
bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.
618:
466:
422:
363:
334:
28:
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Physical thought from the Pre-socratics to the quantum physicists
1350:, was soon proposed. At the same time, development of short and
1133:
1075:
957:
to transmit forces between particles. In 1704, Newton published
919:
423:
3156:
1066:
The earliest written record of magnification dates back to the
704:) by which it acts upon nearby objects suited to receive those
278:
Where Euclid had limited his analysis to simple direct vision,
3146:
2538:
Bardell, David (May 2004). "The Invention of the Microscope".
2504:(in German). Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. p. 355.
1362:
techniquesâopened the way to the study of unimaginably fast ("
1033:
and reinvigorated by Young, against Newton's particle theory.
2856:
Reading the Book of Nature in the Dutch Golden Age, 1575-1715
807:, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as
81:
1382:
was the crucial technology needed to achieve the celebrated
2098:
Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science
1366:") processes. Applications for solid state research (e.g.
162:, a compendium of smaller works to be studied before the
1175:
greatly improved upon these designs the following year.
2749:
Fundamentals of light microscopy and electronic imaging
2552:
10.1893/0005-3155(2004)75<78:tiotm>2.0.co;2
2345:
Memoires pour l'histoire des sciences et des beaux arts
1887:
Zeitschrift der Deutschen MorgenlÀndischen Gesellschaft
1802:
Verma, RL (1969), "Al-Hazen: father of modern optics",
914:. Newton argued that light is composed of particles or
412:
bend and focus light. Ibn Sahl also describes a law of
146:
cylinders and cones when viewed from different angles.
2348:, Paris: Impr. de S. A. S; Chez E. Ganeau, p. 149
987:
of light were carefully observed and characterized by
2670:
The College of Optometrists, college-optometrists.org
2117:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 107-18;
262:
Those things seen under a larger angle appear larger.
2798:
Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010).
2176:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 118-20.
2163:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 116-18.
2087:, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 136-9, 205-6.
1910:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 58-86;
543:
phenomenon. Al-FÄrisÄ« published his findings in his
3671:
3635:
3592:
3541:
3505:
3349:
3195:
2074:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 94-99.
1565:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 14-15.
1217:who was noted to have a version in London in 1619.
1179:is credited with constructing the first functional
3141:and Emily Winterburn, Curator of Astronomy at the
2804:. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 32â36, 43.
2715:
2111:Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays
1468:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology
894:. From this work he concluded that any refracting
2747:Murphy, Douglas B.; Davidson, Michael W. (2011).
271:Things seen within several angles appear clearer.
265:Those things seen by a higher ray, appear higher.
2686:Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes
2057:: Kamal al-Din Abu'l Hasan Muhammad Al-Farisi, "
1531:. Association of Asia Pacific Physical Societies
1495:Ancient science through the golden age of Greece
259:Those things upon which the lines fall are seen.
2121:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1992, p. 313.
1698:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), p. 19.
1575:
1573:
1571:
1151:The earliest known working telescopes were the
719:Several later works, including the influential
256:Those lines falling upon an object form a cone.
190:
122:; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that
2135:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 75â80.
3168:
3067:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
2771:claim made by Zacharias Janssen's son in 1655
1005:studied these effects and attributed them to
716:categories found in Aristotelian philosophy.
708:. Note that Bacon's optical use of the term
8:
1206:including claims it was invented in 1590 by
811:and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies.
544:
456:
2689:. American Philosophical Society. pp.
996:
856:
850:
812:
794:
754:
741:
724:
663:
657:
651:
531:In the late 13th and early 14th centuries,
514:
476:
470:
118:postulated that everything was composed of
3175:
3161:
3153:
2639:
2174:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler
2161:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler
2115:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler
2072:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler
1908:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler
1696:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler
1616:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler
1563:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler
827:(1580â1626) found the mathematical law of
485:was called "the father of modern optics".
268:Right and left rays appear right and left.
2751:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
2100:, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 110
612:(1235 x 40), took their inspiration from
2579:
2577:
491:(980â1037) agreed with Alhazen that the
430:(Ibn al-Haytham), "the father of Optics"
221:in the 7th century, developed a type of
3064:Morelon, RĂ©gis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996),
2652:
1998:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
1894:, as cited by Samuel Sambursky (1974),
1457:
1337:). This led to the introduction of the
1290:This changed with the invention of the
1059:, a rock crystal artifact dated to the
2722:. Cambridge University Press. p.
2157:John Pecham and the Science of Optics:
2113:, (Leiden: Brill, 1997), pp. 245-250;
1975:Introduction to the History of Science
1447:List of astronomical instrument makers
1401:. The latter are of much interest in
1391:demonstration of quantum entanglement
1279:light and hence, one rather spoke of
1249:Light is made up of particles called
1092:(Alhacen) wrote about the effects of
519:, which was mistakenly attributed to
33:Modern ophthalmic lens making machine
7:
3627:Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era
2427:. San Francisco, CA, United States.
2246:Physics for Scientists and Engineers
1582:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
1159:in 1608. Their inventor is unknown:
54:, followed by theories on light and
2718:Isaac Newton: Adventurer in Thought
2244:Tipler, P. A. and G. Mosca (2004),
1424:, manipulation of single atoms and
1257:in 1899 when he correctly modelled
910:, which he later expanded into his
881:could decompose white light into a
2212:10.1038/scientificamerican0477-116
1140:manuscripts, these were primitive
507:Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ma'udh
357:. In a work known in the west as
25:
2973:Elliott, Robert Stratman (1966).
2472:"The Nimrud lens/The Layard lens"
2283:, Microsoft, 2008, archived from
2119:The Beginnings of Western Science
1645:. New York: W.W.Norton. pp.
1389:Other remarkable results are the
3737:
3736:
2598:10.1097/00006123-199804000-00116
2446:Whitehouse, David (1999-07-01).
2053:J J O'Connor and E F Robertson,
1378:by laser beam. This, along with
1235:'s compound microscope in 1625.
1043:Timeline of telescope technology
608:(1230 x 35), and his scientific
2853:Eric Jorink (25 October 2010).
2378:American Journal of Archaeology
2248:, W. H. Freeman, p. 1068,
2186:Nussenzveig, H. Moysés (1977).
1755:Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1993
1132:" were invented. Often used by
877:of light, demonstrating that a
712:differs significantly from the
311:documents Ptolemy's studies of
2826:"Who Invented the Microscope?"
2683:Ilardi, Vincent (2007-01-01).
42:began with the development of
1:
3131:History of Optics (audio mp3)
2920:The Lying Stones of Marrakech
1642:Greek Science After Aristotle
1113:(1021 CE). The English friar
873:(1643â1727) investigated the
801:The Optical Part of Astronomy
633:On Lines, Angles, and Figures
416:mathematically equivalent to
3097:, Cambridge, Massachusetts:
2801:The Origins of the Telescope
2515:The history of the telescope
2419:Enoch, Jay M. (1999-07-19).
2131:Dallas G. Denery II (2005).
1950:"The 'first true scientist'"
1266:published the theory of the
777:Renaissance and Early Modern
736:Another English Franciscan,
659:De multiplicatione specierum
625:De multiplicatione specierum
535:(1236â1311) and his student
3549:Cosmic microwave background
3095:A Natural History of Vision
2949:. Oxford University Press.
2943:William H. Cropper (2004).
2781:Sir Norman Lockyer (1876).
2502:Die Fortschritte der Physik
2448:"World's oldest telescope?"
2359:Sir David Brewster (1831),
2188:"The Theory of the Rainbow"
1882:"Abhandlung ĂŒber das Licht"
1671:"A brief history of Optics"
991:, who also coined the term
721:A Moral Treatise on the Eye
545:
457:
3794:
3093:Wade, Nicholas J. (1998),
3070:, vol. 2, Routledge,
2342:Jean Louis Aubert (1760),
1414:parametric down-conversion
1403:quantum information theory
1397:, and (recently, in 1995)
1384:BoseâEinstein condensation
1242:
1194:near the specimen with an
1040:
1023:double slit interferometer
821:is conspicuously absent).
726:Tractatus Moralis de Oculo
339:Reproduction of a page of
233:
114:In the fifth century BCE,
82:
60:ancient Greek philosophers
3732:
2922:. London: Jonathan Cape.
1694:Cited in D. C. Lindberg,
1525:"Optics in Ancient China"
1426:BoseâEinstein condensates
892:Newton's theory of colour
835:, in 1621. Subsequently,
665:De speculis comburentibus
62:, and the development of
3143:National Maritime Museum
2003:University of St Andrews
1594:10.1109/MIE.2015.2421754
1442:Giambattista della Porta
1354:laser pulsesâcreated by
1231:, who gave that name to
989:Francesco Maria Grimaldi
3684:ChandrasekharâEddington
3610:Golden age of cosmology
3542:On specific discoveries
3490:Lorentz transformations
3135:University of Cambridge
2714:A. Rupert Hall (1996).
885:of colours, and that a
814:Astronomiae Pars Optica
796:Astronomiae Pars Optica
749:Like his predecessors,
698:Constantine the African
637:On the Nature of Places
546:Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir
323:is proportional to the
217:in the 5th century and
3615:Medieval Islamic world
3358:Computational physics
3300:Variational principles
3227:Electrical engineering
2640:Wade & Finger 2001
1418:parametric oscillation
1086:as a corrective lens.
997:
980:
898:would suffer from the
857:
851:
813:
795:
790:atmospheric refraction
755:
742:
725:
664:
658:
652:
628:
537:KamÄl al-DÄ«n al-FÄrisÄ«
533:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
515:
477:
471:
431:
372:
370:theorem of Ibn Haytham
347:
299:in his second-century
195:
88:medieval Islamic world
34:
3605:Golden age of physics
3600:Copernican Revolution
2055:MacTutor Math History
1620:Arch. Hist. Exact Sci
1395:quantum teleportation
1155:that appeared in the
1153:refracting telescopes
1074:, a tutor of Emperor
1037:Lenses and lensmaking
1027:Augustin-Jean Fresnel
974:
953:the existence of the
940:wave-particle duality
767:Theodoric of Freiberg
622:
426:
402:FÄ« al-'Äla al-muáž„riqa
367:
338:
32:
3708:Relativity priority
3563:Subatomic particles
3523:Loop quantum gravity
3512:Quantum information
3461:Quantum field theory
3261:Gravitational theory
3139:University of Oxford
2496:D. Brewster (1852).
2478:. The British Museum
2362:A Treatise on Optics
1989:Robertson, Edmund F.
1315:quantum field theory
1268:photoelectric effect
1181:reflecting telescope
1053:Old Kingdom of Egypt
864:Traité de la lumiÚre
743:Perspectiva communis
516:Liber de crepisculis
497:AbĆ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rĆ«nÄ«
331:In the Islamic world
76:is derived from the
3672:Scientific disputes
3658:Via Panisperna boys
3559:Gravitational waves
3506:Recent developments
3237:Maxwell's equations
2834:. 14 September 2013
2476:Collection database
2204:1977SciAm.236d.116N
2192:Scientific American
1987:O'Connor, John J.;
1465:T. F. Hoad (1996).
1422:quantum information
1399:quantum logic gates
1335:degree of coherence
1285:quantum electronics
1259:blackbody radiation
1185:Newtonian reflector
1142:plano-convex lenses
1015:diffraction grating
947:Hypothesis of Light
904:Newtonian telescope
825:Willebrord Snellius
564:The English bishop
465:), translated into
359:De radiis stellarum
321:angle of refraction
140:Greek mathematician
92:early modern Europe
3768:History of physics
3717:General relativity
3712:Special relativity
3653:Oxford Calculators
3480:Special relativity
3399:General relativity
3184:History of physics
1492:Sarton, G (1993).
1368:Raman spectroscopy
1306:became customary.
1102:magnifying glasses
1080:gladiatorial games
1072:Seneca the Younger
1031:Christiaan Huygens
981:
967:Diffractive optics
847:Christiaan Huygens
629:
566:Robert Grosseteste
560:In medieval Europe
432:
381:Robert Grosseteste
373:
348:
325:angle of incidence
280:Hero of Alexandria
236:Geometrical optics
230:Geometrical optics
203:Hero of Alexandria
96:diffractive optics
64:geometrical optics
35:
18:Lens manufacturing
3763:History of optics
3750:
3749:
3724:Transfermium Wars
3643:Harvard Computers
3468:Subatomic physics
3441:Quantum mechanics
3377:Superconductivity
3368:Condensed matter
3197:Classical physics
3145:(recorded by the
2956:978-0-19-517324-6
2811:978-90-6984-615-6
2733:978-0-521-56669-8
2620:"Natural History"
2618:Pliny the Elder.
2527:978-0-486-43265-6
2433:10.1117/12.354722
1977:, Vol. 1, p. 710.
1878:Treatise on Light
1509:978-0-486-27495-9
1208:Zacharias Janssen
995:, from the Latin
932:quantum mechanics
841:law of reflection
819:law of refraction
154:, along with his
68:Greco-Roman world
48:ancient Egyptians
16:(Redirected from
3785:
3778:History of glass
3740:
3739:
3663:Women in physics
3415:Nuclear physics
3339:Perpetual motion
3273:Material science
3217:Electromagnetism
3177:
3170:
3163:
3154:
3119:
3088:
3059:
3035:(10): 1189â201,
3016:
2980:
2976:Electromagnetics
2961:
2960:
2940:
2934:
2933:
2915:
2909:
2904:
2898:
2895:
2889:
2886:
2880:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2839:
2822:
2816:
2815:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2784:Nature Volume 14
2778:
2772:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2721:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2662:
2656:
2649:
2643:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2626:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2581:
2572:
2571:
2535:
2529:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2483:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2339:
2333:
2328:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2293:
2292:
2277:"René Descartes"
2273:
2267:
2266:
2241:
2235:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2183:
2177:
2172:D. C. Lindberg,
2170:
2164:
2155:D. C. Lindberg,
2153:
2147:
2146:
2128:
2122:
2107:
2101:
2094:
2088:
2083:R. W. Southern,
2081:
2075:
2070:D. C. Lindberg,
2068:
2062:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1984:
1978:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1921:
1915:
1906:D. C. Lindberg,
1904:
1898:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1762:
1756:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1705:
1699:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1682:
1673:. Archived from
1667:
1661:
1660:
1633:
1627:
1614:D. C. Lindberg,
1612:
1606:
1605:
1577:
1566:
1556:
1550:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1462:
1407:computer science
1376:optical tweezers
1319:George Sudarshan
1294:in 1953 and the
1215:Cornelis Drebbel
1000:
949:of 1675, Newton
938:and the idea of
860:
854:
816:
798:
758:
745:
731:Peter of Limoges
728:
667:
661:
655:
596:of light, and a
548:
518:
480:
474:
460:
458:Kitab al Manazir
297:Claudius Ptolemy
160:Little Astronomy
85:
84:
21:
3793:
3792:
3788:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3753:
3752:
3751:
3746:
3728:
3699:Jouleâvon Mayer
3667:
3631:
3588:
3537:
3501:
3392:Big Bang theory
3345:
3244:Fluid mechanics
3191:
3181:
3127:
3109:
3092:
3078:
3063:
3041:10.1068/p251189
3026:
3023:
3021:Further reading
2992:(10): 1157â77,
2983:
2972:
2969:
2964:
2957:
2942:
2941:
2937:
2930:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2905:
2901:
2896:
2892:
2887:
2883:
2878:
2874:
2867:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2837:
2835:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2770:
2766:
2759:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2734:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2701:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2664:
2663:
2659:
2650:
2646:
2637:
2633:
2624:
2622:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2583:
2582:
2575:
2537:
2536:
2532:
2513:
2509:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2481:
2479:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2456:
2454:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2418:
2417:
2413:
2375:
2374:
2370:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2341:
2340:
2336:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2290:
2288:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2256:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2229:
2225:
2216:
2214:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2171:
2167:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2130:
2129:
2125:
2108:
2104:
2096:A. C. Crombie,
2095:
2091:
2082:
2078:
2069:
2065:
2052:
2048:
2014:
2013:
2009:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1969:
1965:
1955:
1953:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1933:
1931:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1905:
1901:
1869:
1865:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1750:
1746:
1718:(4): 469â489 ,
1707:
1706:
1702:
1693:
1689:
1680:
1678:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1657:
1635:
1634:
1630:
1613:
1609:
1588:(2): 54â56+60.
1579:
1578:
1569:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1534:
1532:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1502:. p. 248.
1491:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1438:
1380:Doppler cooling
1264:Albert Einstein
1247:
1241:
1233:Galileo Galilei
1221:Galileo Galilei
1161:Hans Lippershey
1061:7th century BCE
1045:
1039:
1009:of light rays.
983:The effects of
969:
922:to explain the
855:(also known as
831:, now known as
805:pinhole cameras
782:Johannes Kepler
779:
574:Aristotelianism
562:
551:The Revision of
509:, who lived in
400:. His treatise
333:
285:emission theory
242:
232:
112:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3791:
3789:
3781:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3755:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3745:
3744:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3726:
3721:
3720:
3719:
3714:
3706:
3704:ShapleyâCurtis
3701:
3696:
3694:LeibnizâNewton
3691:
3689:Galileo affair
3686:
3681:
3675:
3673:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3639:
3637:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3623:
3622:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3596:
3594:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3586:
3584:Speed of light
3581:
3580:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3528:Nanotechnology
3525:
3520:
3519:
3518:
3509:
3507:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3497:
3492:
3487:
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3476:
3475:
3465:
3464:
3463:
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3453:
3448:
3438:
3437:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3413:
3408:
3407:
3406:
3396:
3395:
3394:
3389:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3374:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3355:
3353:
3351:Modern physics
3347:
3346:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3319:Thermodynamics
3316:
3315:
3314:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3297:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3270:
3269:
3268:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3201:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3182:
3180:
3179:
3172:
3165:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3126:
3125:External links
3123:
3122:
3121:
3107:
3090:
3076:
3061:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3017:
2981:
2979:. McGraw-Hill.
2968:
2965:
2963:
2962:
2955:
2935:
2928:
2910:
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2866:978-9004186712
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2758:978-0471692140
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2592:(4): 899â907,
2573:
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2411:
2390:10.2307/505216
2384:(2): 191â196.
2368:
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2318:10.1086/353114
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2198:(4): 116â127.
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2046:
2034:10.1086/350185
2007:
1979:
1963:
1941:
1916:
1912:Nader El-Bizri
1899:
1873:Book of Optics
1863:
1842:10.1086/350266
1820:
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1781:10.1086/355456
1757:
1744:
1724:10.1086/350790
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1559:D. C. Lindberg
1551:
1542:
1529:AAPPS Bulletin
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1456:
1454:
1451:
1450:
1449:
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1437:
1434:
1348:squeezed light
1339:coherent state
1333:of light (see
1327:Leonard Mandel
1323:Roy J. Glauber
1304:quantum optics
1245:Quantum optics
1243:Main article:
1240:
1239:Quantum optics
1237:
1229:Giovanni Faber
1227:was coined by
1192:objective lens
1183:in 1668, his
1130:reading stones
1126:13th centuries
1110:Book of Optics
1098:concave lenses
1090:Ibn al-Haytham
1068:1st century CE
1038:
1035:
968:
965:
837:René Descartes
786:solar eclipses
778:
775:
696:, Tideus, and
561:
558:
501:speed of sound
493:speed of light
483:Ibn al-Haytham
452:Book of Optics
435:Ibn al-Haytham
406:curved mirrors
377:Ibn al-Haytham
332:
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3283:Metamaterials
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3110:
3108:0-262-23194-8
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3077:0-415-12410-7
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2998:10.1068/p3210
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2523:0-486-43265-3
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2300:
2297:
2287:on 2009-10-29
2286:
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2255:0-7167-4389-2
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2142:9781139443814
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2028:(1): 77â85 ,
2027:
2023:
2022:
2017:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1971:George Sarton
1967:
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1775:(3): 464â91.
1774:
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1697:
1691:
1688:
1677:on 2013-11-11
1676:
1672:
1666:
1663:
1658:
1656:0-393-04371-1
1652:
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1644:
1643:
1638:
1637:Lloyd, G.E.R.
1632:
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1500:Courier Dover
1497:
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1480:
1478:0-19-283098-8
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1320:
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1307:
1305:
1301:
1300:Laser science
1297:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1273:
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1234:
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1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
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1147:
1143:
1139:
1136:to assist in
1135:
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1128:, so-called "
1127:
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1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
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1073:
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1024:
1020:
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1012:
1011:James Gregory
1008:
1004:
999:
994:
990:
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978:
977:Royal Society
973:
966:
964:
962:
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952:
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901:
897:
893:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
866:
865:
859:
853:
852:Opera reliqua
848:
844:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
820:
815:
810:
806:
802:
797:
791:
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776:
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772:
768:
764:
762:
757:
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747:
744:
739:
734:
732:
727:
722:
717:
715:
714:genus/species
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
666:
660:
654:
649:
645:
640:
638:
634:
626:
621:
617:
615:
611:
607:
601:
599:
595:
591:
588:of light, an
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
559:
557:
555:
552:
547:
542:
538:
534:
529:
526:
522:
517:
512:
508:
504:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
484:
479:
473:
472:De aspectibus
468:
464:
459:
454:
453:
448:
444:
440:
437:(known in as
436:
429:
425:
421:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
398:
392:
388:
386:
382:
378:
371:
366:
362:
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355:Islamic world
352:
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318:
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306:
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173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
144:
141:
138:
137:
131:
128:
125:
121:
120:four elements
117:
110:Early history
109:
107:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
79:
75:
74:
69:
65:
61:
58:developed by
57:
53:
52:Mesopotamians
49:
45:
41:
40:
31:
27:
19:
3648:The Martians
3312:Spectroscopy
3306:
3254:Aerodynamics
3232:Field theory
3094:
3065:
3032:
3028:
2989:
2985:
2975:
2945:
2938:
2919:
2913:
2902:
2893:
2884:
2875:
2855:
2848:
2836:. Retrieved
2831:Live Science
2829:
2820:
2800:
2793:
2783:
2776:
2767:
2748:
2742:
2717:
2709:
2685:
2678:
2669:
2660:
2653:Elliott 1966
2647:
2634:
2623:. Retrieved
2613:
2589:
2586:Neurosurgery
2585:
2546:(2): 78â84.
2543:
2539:
2533:
2514:
2510:
2501:
2491:
2480:. Retrieved
2475:
2466:
2455:. Retrieved
2451:
2441:
2424:
2414:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2361:
2354:
2344:
2337:
2330:
2309:
2305:
2299:
2289:, retrieved
2285:the original
2280:
2271:
2245:
2239:
2234:, pp 142â146
2231:
2226:
2215:. Retrieved
2195:
2191:
2181:
2173:
2168:
2160:
2156:
2151:
2132:
2126:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2105:
2097:
2092:
2084:
2079:
2071:
2066:
2054:
2049:
2025:
2019:
2016:Sabra, A. I.
2010:
1996:
1982:
1974:
1966:
1954:. Retrieved
1944:
1932:. Retrieved
1928:
1919:
1907:
1902:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1877:
1871:
1866:
1833:
1829:
1823:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1772:
1766:
1760:
1752:
1751:Rashed, R.,
1747:
1715:
1709:
1703:
1695:
1690:
1679:. Retrieved
1675:the original
1665:
1641:
1631:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1585:
1581:
1562:
1554:
1545:
1533:. Retrieved
1528:
1518:
1494:
1487:
1467:
1460:
1411:
1388:
1372:optical trap
1360:mode-locking
1308:
1303:
1289:
1281:atom physics
1248:
1224:
1219:
1189:
1177:Isaac Newton
1165:Jacob Metius
1150:
1138:illuminating
1120:Between the
1119:
1108:
1106:11th century
1088:
1065:
1046:
1019:Thomas Young
1006:
1003:Isaac Newton
992:
982:
958:
946:
944:
927:
915:
911:
907:
871:Isaac Newton
869:
862:
845:
823:
800:
780:
765:
760:
748:
735:
720:
718:
709:
705:
701:
642:The English
641:
636:
632:
630:
624:
609:
605:
602:
580:of light, a
578:epistemology
563:
553:
550:
530:
505:
487:
450:
446:
442:
438:
433:
401:
396:
389:
374:
358:
349:
308:
307:
300:
294:
290:
284:
277:
274:
243:
240:Ray (optics)
208:
198:
196:
191:
176:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
134:
132:
129:
113:
71:
37:
36:
26:
3572:Higgs boson
2967:Works cited
1993:"Al-Biruni"
1430:atom optics
1356:Q-switching
1204:Netherlands
1157:Netherlands
1115:Roger Bacon
1057:Nimrud lens
1049:hieroglyphs
998:diffringere
993:diffraction
985:diffraction
924:diffraction
833:Snell's law
756:Perspectiva
738:John Pecham
653:Perspectiva
648:Roger Bacon
582:metaphysics
478:Perspectiva
418:Snell's law
385:Roger Bacon
345:Snell's law
295:Like Hero,
219:Dharmakirti
209:The Indian
100:wave optics
70:. The word
3757:Categories
3593:By periods
3411:Geophysics
3383:Cosmology
3029:Perception
2986:Perception
2625:2008-04-27
2482:2012-11-25
2457:2008-05-10
2312:(4): 523,
2291:2007-08-15
2217:2022-02-16
1836:(3): 322.
1681:2008-11-03
1535:2 February
1352:ultrashort
1331:statistics
1272:Niels Bohr
1255:Max Planck
1225:microscope
1212:expatriate
1200:real image
1198:to view a
1041:See also:
1017:. In 1803
926:of light (
916:corpuscles
900:dispersion
875:refraction
861:) and the
829:refraction
662:, and the
644:Franciscan
606:Hexaemeron
600:of light.
570:university
511:Al-Andalus
414:refraction
395:Ptolemy's
317:refraction
313:reflection
234:See also:
213:, such as
199:Catoptrica
177:In 55 BC,
156:Phaenomena
116:Empedocles
3636:By groups
3620:Astronomy
3456:Molecules
3290:Mechanics
3205:Astronomy
3099:MIT Press
2406:191384703
2326:170669199
2042:144855447
1804:Al-'Arabi
1789:144361526
1364:ultrafast
1298:in 1960.
1146:magnified
1082:using an
1051:from the
1007:inflexion
908:On Colour
896:telescope
674:Aristotle
586:cosmogony
211:Buddhists
188:, wrote:
179:Lucretius
158:, in the
124:Aphrodite
83:Ïα áœÏÏÎčÎșÎŹ
3742:Category
3567:timeline
3554:Graphene
3516:timeline
3485:timeline
3473:timeline
3446:timeline
3387:timeline
3372:timeline
3362:timeline
3324:timeline
3295:timeline
3278:timeline
3266:timeline
3249:timeline
3222:timeline
3210:timeline
3188:timeline
3117:37246567
3086:34731151
3057:34431898
3006:11721819
2838:31 March
2568:96668398
2452:BBC News
2329:quoting
2264:51095685
2230:Caspar,
1858:10792576
1816:11634474
1810:: 12â3,
1740:40895875
1639:(1973).
1602:20759821
1436:See also
1196:eyepiece
883:spectrum
809:parallax
723:(Latin:
690:al-Kindi
682:Averroes
678:Avicenna
610:On Light
598:theology
590:etiology
525:twilight
489:Avicenna
391:Ibn Sahl
351:Al-Kindi
341:Ibn Sahl
168:Almagest
164:Syntaxis
94:, where
3577:Neutron
3434:Weapons
3419:Fission
3334:Entropy
3049:9027922
3014:8185797
2606:9574655
2560:4608700
2331:Opticks
2281:Encarta
2200:Bibcode
1850:4867472
1732:4948770
1647:131â135
1251:photons
1173:Galileo
1169:Alkmaar
1104:in his
1094:pinhole
1084:emerald
1070:, when
979:in 1803
960:Opticks
951:posited
945:In his
936:photons
928:Opticks
912:Opticks
771:rainbow
761:species
710:species
706:species
702:species
694:Ptolemy
670:Alhacen
614:Genesis
594:physics
541:rainbow
521:Alhazen
469:as the
443:Alhazen
439:Alhacen
428:Alhazen
223:atomism
215:DignÄga
197:In his
186:atomist
172:Ptolemy
133:In his
66:in the
46:by the
3773:Optics
3424:Fusion
3329:Energy
3307:Optics
3115:
3105:
3084:
3074:
3055:
3047:
3012:
3004:
2953:
2926:
2863:
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2697:
2604:
2566:
2558:
2521:
2404:
2398:505216
2396:
2324:
2262:
2252:
2232:Kepler
2139:
2040:
1956:2 June
1952:. 2009
1934:2 June
1929:UNESCO
1856:
1848:
1814:
1787:
1738:
1730:
1653:
1624:Optics
1600:
1506:
1475:
1343:Kimble
1325:, and
1276:matter
1100:, and
751:Witelo
686:Euclid
656:, the
554:Optics
463:Arabic
447:Optics
410:lenses
397:Optics
309:Optics
302:Optics
247:Euclid
193:sight.
152:Optics
148:Pappus
143:Euclid
136:Optics
73:optics
56:vision
44:lenses
39:Optics
3495:tests
3451:Atoms
3429:Power
3404:tests
3053:S2CID
3010:S2CID
2564:S2CID
2556:JSTOR
2402:S2CID
2394:JSTOR
2322:S2CID
2038:S2CID
1854:S2CID
1785:S2CID
1736:S2CID
1598:S2CID
1453:Notes
1311:Dirac
1296:laser
1292:maser
1134:monks
955:ether
920:waves
879:prism
729:) by
467:Latin
183:Roman
170:) of
80:term
78:Greek
3113:OCLC
3103:ISBN
3082:OCLC
3072:ISBN
3045:PMID
3002:PMID
2951:ISBN
2924:ISBN
2861:ISBN
2840:2017
2806:ISBN
2753:ISBN
2728:ISBN
2695:ISBN
2693:â6.
2602:PMID
2540:BIOS
2519:ISBN
2306:Isis
2260:OCLC
2250:ISBN
2137:ISBN
2021:Isis
1958:2018
1936:2018
1890:Vol
1846:PMID
1830:Isis
1812:PMID
1768:Isis
1728:PMID
1711:Isis
1651:ISBN
1537:2021
1504:ISBN
1473:ISBN
1358:and
1283:and
1124:and
1122:11th
1076:Nero
887:lens
408:and
383:and
368:The
315:and
238:and
181:, a
102:and
50:and
3147:BBC
3037:doi
2994:doi
2594:doi
2548:doi
2429:doi
2386:doi
2314:doi
2208:doi
2196:236
2030:doi
1838:doi
1777:doi
1720:doi
1590:doi
1432:).
1374:or
1313:in
1167:of
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556:).
475:or
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