1632:. It may also represent an older state of affairs. As a matter of facts, there is a current trend to diverge from this unity, the language of the cities taking on some of the features of their neighboring villages (e.g. Jerusalem used to say as Damascus ('we') and ('they') at the beginning of the 20th century, and this has moved to the more rural and nowadays.). The table below shows the main historical variants which have
2734:
2830:
25:
1617:
The urban language spoken in the major cities is remarkably homogeneous, with a few shibboleths (markers) only to distinguish the various cities (see below). Levantine Arabic is commonly understood to be this urban sub-variety. Teaching manuals for foreigners provide a systematic introduction to this
2441:
In Israel, apart from
Galilee and the Negev, rural dialects are almost extinct, and this description gives is the pre-1948 state of affairs. Palestinian refugees in Jordan have brought with them their typical features, although they tend to adopt the emerging Jordanian urban speech.
2449:
Outer South
Levantine, spoken in the Gaza–Beersheva area in Israel and the Palestinian territories, as well as in cities east of the Dead Sea in Jordan (Karak, Tafilah), which display different Bedouin influences as compared to south Levantine. For instance, there,
1587:(Najdi). Note that although claiming a Bedouin ancestry sounds prestigiousin the Levant, the Bedouin influence on this old sedentary area should not be overestimated. These dialects are not covered in detail here, as they are not specific to the area.
1627:
As mentioned above, the urban varieties are remarkably homogeneous throughout the whole area, compared to the changes the language undergo in rural populations. This homogeneity is probably inherited from the trading network among cities in the
748:
The table below shows the correspondence between Modern
Standard Arabic (MSA) phonemes, and their counterpart realization in Levantine Arabic. The Urban speech is taken as reference, the variations are given relative to it.
1590:
The rural language is the one that changes most, and as in every old sedentary area, the changes are gradual, with more marked forms in extremal or isolated areas (e.g. general shift of
2465:
Bedouin dialects proper, which on top of the above-mentioned features that influence the sedentary dialects, present typical stress patterns (e.g. gahawa syndrome) or lexical items.
2278:, especially along the Mediterranean coast. This feature may be used to distinguish northwest (coastal, Nusayriyyah) from northeast (e.g. Aleppo, Idlib) Levantine Arabic where
1618:
sub-variety, as it would sound very strange for a foreigner to speak a marked rural dialect, immediately raising questions on unexpected family links, for instance.
2868:
2505:
See e.g. Yohanan Elihai, The olive tree dictionary: a transliterated dictionary of conversational
Eastern Arabic (Palestinian). Washington, DC: Kidron Pub. 2004 (
42:
2671:
3519:
3130:
2182:
subdialects. Again, these dialect considerations have to be understood to apply mainly to rural populations, as the urban forms change much less.
703:
1332:
The table below shows the correspondence between Modern
Standard Arabic (MSA) phonemes and their counterpart realization in Levantine Arabic.
3135:
3098:
1324:> . These evolutions plead for a Hijazi origin of Levantine Arabic. Word initially, hamza is often realized as in Southern Levantine.
1278:
724:
89:
1206:
689:
480:
61:
2861:
1194:
in rural
Palestinian (except southern and central Palestinian areas and only in presence of front vowels in south Palestinian areas)
2580:
2510:
108:
1515:
Levantine Arabic vowels can be represented in the Arabic script in many ways because of etymological and grammatical reasons, e.g.
68:
2970:
2457:
2430:
2382:
2247:) in a back phonemic context. This tendency is stronger as one goes northward. For instance, Damascus and Beirut only have final
1601:
1189:
993:
572:
511:
2634:
Encyclopedia of Arabic
Language and Linguistics. Managing Editors Online Edition: Lutz Edzard, Rudolf de Jong. Brill Online 2012
2608:
Encyclopedia of Arabic
Language and Linguistics. Managing Editors Online Edition: Lutz Edzard, Rudolf de Jong. Brill Online 2012
3356:
3343:
2897:
2254:
2226:
1120:
467:
147:
129:
2335:, respectively, everywhere else, which may be used to further distinguish Central from Northern and Southern Levantine Arabic.
3554:
2922:
869:
537:
46:
75:
3514:
3479:
3120:
2912:
2854:
2406:
2285:
2273:
2141:
2086:
2039:
1984:
1937:
1890:
1843:
1796:
1749:
1702:
852:
843:
603:
1575:
As in most Arabic-speaking areas, the spoken language differs significantly between urban, rural and nomad populations.
3663:
3110:
3063:
2907:
2238:
1308:
NB. Hamza has a special treatment: at the end of a closed syllable, it vanishes and lengthens the preceding vowel, e.g.
975:
818:
57:
2706:
1260:
1084:
629:
550:
2664:
3492:
3038:
2927:
2902:
1296:
826:
809:
791:
711:
2189:, spoken in Lebanon, Syria (except the Hauran area south of Damascus) and Northern Israel. It is characterized by:
35:
3658:
3653:
3211:
3140:
2998:
2983:
2834:
2657:
957:
914:
524:
2462:. This reflects Hijazi or Sinai Bedouin Arabic pronunciation rather than that of North Arabian Bedouin dialects.
3524:
3216:
3150:
3115:
2810:
2723:
2711:
2211:
1313:
1147:
340:
247:
2411:. In southern Palestinian (Ashdod, Asqelon, Hebron countryside) as well as western Jordan and Syrian Hauran,
3368:
3261:
3231:
3196:
2988:
2932:
2917:
2394:
2346:
1593:
1180:
1155:
922:
905:
887:
773:
408:
368:
3622:
3409:
3226:
3125:
2782:
2748:
2451:
2424:
2412:
2400:
2388:
2376:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2342:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2313:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2279:
2267:
2260:
2248:
2220:
2197:
2179:
1611:
1607:
1516:
1499:
1484:
1465:
1446:
1427:
1408:
1390:
1373:
1355:
1321:
1317:
1309:
1289:
1271:
1253:
1235:
1217:
1199:
1173:
1131:
1113:
1102:
1095:
1077:
1058:
1040:
1022:
1004:
986:
968:
950:
932:
898:
880:
862:
836:
802:
784:
766:
616:
143:
139:
125:
3243:
3236:
3145:
3058:
3053:
1242:
1224:
939:
657:
421:
303:
290:
82:
3612:
3474:
3384:
3363:
3273:
3010:
2573:
The olive tree dictionary: a transliterated dictionary of conversational
Eastern Arabic (Palestinian)
2455:
2428:
2418:
2416:
2404:
2392:
2380:
2283:
2271:
2252:
2236:
2224:
2209:
2201:
2139:
2132:
2130:
2122:
2084:
2077:
2075:
2037:
2030:
2028:
2020:
1982:
1975:
1973:
1935:
1926:
1888:
1879:
1841:
1832:
1794:
1785:
1747:
1738:
1700:
1691:
1599:
1591:
1294:
1276:
1258:
1240:
1222:
1204:
1187:
1178:
1163:
1161:
1153:
1145:
1136:
1118:
1100:
1082:
1063:
1045:
1027:
1009:
991:
973:
955:
937:
920:
912:
903:
885:
867:
850:
841:
824:
816:
807:
789:
771:
262:
3602:
3509:
3487:
3444:
3429:
3394:
3338:
3283:
3278:
3157:
3043:
3020:
2965:
1160:
in rural
Palestinian (only in presence of front vowels in southern and central Palestinian areas),
461:
332:
2263:('rain') is pronounced . This feature may be used to distinguish Central from Northern Levantine.
3499:
3308:
3253:
3248:
3203:
3162:
2955:
2881:
2792:
277:
3399:
2846:
2775:
3627:
3592:
3577:
3561:
3549:
3534:
3504:
3464:
3434:
3414:
3404:
3348:
3328:
3318:
3303:
3288:
3183:
3178:
3105:
3075:
3070:
3048:
3030:
3025:
3015:
3005:
2576:
2506:
1584:
1580:
1065:
1047:
1029:
1011:
590:
498:
434:
353:
267:
252:
3607:
3539:
3529:
3469:
3459:
3454:
3439:
3424:
3419:
3333:
3323:
3191:
3085:
2978:
2960:
2950:
2787:
2680:
2488:
564:
402:
242:
219:
159:
3617:
3597:
3582:
3544:
3449:
3389:
3313:
3298:
3293:
3266:
3093:
3080:
2770:
2763:
2349:
between Nazareth and Bethlehem, in the Syrian Hauran mountains, and in western Jordan and
645:
257:
2619:
Sedentary and Bedouin Dialects in Contact: Remarks On Karaki and Salti Dialects in Jordan
2492:
2560:
Die arabischen Stadtdialekte von Haifa in der ersten Hälfte des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts
3632:
3587:
2815:
1629:
2733:
2435:
before front vowels. This latter feature resembles the North Arabian Bedouin dialects.
3647:
2758:
2753:
2186:
649:
181:
165:
2445:
To these typical, widespread subdialects, one could add marginal varieties such as:
2716:
2203:
2124:
2022:
1928:
1881:
1834:
1787:
1740:
1693:
1138:
383:
235:
Consonant phonemes of Urban Levantine Arabic (Beirut, Damascus, Jerusalem, Amman)
1551:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1528:
681:
24:
1633:
284:
2643:
Handbuch der arabische Dialekte - Jastrow & Fischer - Harrassowitz verlag
2877:
2483:
Lentin, Jérôme. "Damascus Arabic". In Edzard, Lutz; de Jong, Rudolf (eds.).
2375:
In central Palestinian (Jaffa, West Bank, Nazareth, Tiberias) rural speech,
1968:
1874:
456:
327:
2699:
2360:
Tafkhim is nonexistent there, and imala affects only the feminine ending
2070:
1733:
135:
2350:
1921:
1780:
1686:
2364:> after front consonants (and not even in Gaza where it remains
2649:
2117:
2015:
1827:
2850:
2653:
2293:
The second and third person plural pronominal suffixes end in
1562:
1556:
18:
1168:
in rural Hebron and Gaza Strip and outer Southern Levantine
1636:
role, most of the rest of the language remaining the same.
2595:, Mediterranean Language Review Heft 10 (1998), S. 89-145
2178:
Rural Levantine Arabic can be divided into two groups of
1606:
in rural Palestinian, or conservation of the diphthongs
1152:
in the Druze, rural Lebanese, coastal Syria and Idlib,
175:
1579:
In the Levant, nomads trace to various tribes of the
2621:, Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies vol 9 (2008)
2312:
The characteristic vowel of the imperative is long:
134:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
3570:
3377:
3171:
2943:
2803:
2741:
2687:
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2319:The first and third person singular imperfect are
857:in Northeastern Levantine and rural Palestinian
148:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
2485:Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics
2327:('he says') in Lebanon and Damascus instead of
1422:after back consonants, after front consonants
2550:, Jean Kassab, Paul Geuthner ed., Paris (2006)
1419:after back consonants, after front consonants
1416:after back consonants, after front consonants
1413:after back consonants, after front consonants
180:appearing as two different characters. If so,
2862:
2665:
2538:- Jastrow & Fischer - Harrassowitz verlag
1583:, and their dialect is consequently close to
182:apply this custom style in your user settings
8:
1519:
1072:in some words, in rural Southern Levantine
729:
716:
694:
662:
634:
621:
608:
595:
582:
577:
555:
542:
529:
516:
503:
490:
485:
472:
439:
426:
413:
393:
388:
373:
358:
345:
308:
295:
169:
2593:Der arabische Dialekt von il-Xalil (Hebron)
2869:
2855:
2847:
2672:
2658:
2650:
2522:U. Seeger, Mediterranean Language Review
1441:(back context), (front context), final
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1638:
1438:(back context), (front context), final
1435:(front context), (back context), final
1334:
751:
233:
2562:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2004.
2548:Manuel Du Parler Arabe Moderne Au Moyen
2475:
2208:(the Druze, however, retain the uvular
218:This article is about the phonology of
831:in rural and outer Southern Levantine
160:Levantine written in Arabic characters
239:
7:
2575:. Washington, DC: Kidron Pub. 2004 (
2493:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0077
2219:A strong tendency to pronounce long
176:
138:. For the distinction between ,
47:adding citations to reliable sources
1520:
730:
717:
695:
663:
635:
622:
609:
596:
583:
578:
556:
543:
530:
517:
504:
491:
486:
473:
440:
427:
414:
394:
389:
374:
359:
346:
309:
296:
170:
2399:, interdentals are conserved, and
14:
2235:) in a front phonemic context or
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
723:
710:
702:
688:
656:
628:
615:
602:
589:
571:
549:
536:
523:
510:
497:
479:
466:
433:
420:
407:
382:
367:
352:
339:
302:
289:
2829:
2828:
2732:
23:
2536:Handbuch der arabische Dialekte
130:International Phonetic Alphabet
34:needs additional citations for
2196:a widespread pronunciation of
226:Arabic, and its sub-dialects.
1:
16:Phonology of Levantine Arabic
2266:A widespread realization of
1563:
1557:
927:in rural Southern Levantine
58:"Levantine Arabic phonology"
3099:Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect
2251:consistently pronounced as
1614:in the Lebanese mountains).
3680:
2888:
2824:
2730:
2187:Northern Levantine Arabic
1401:(stressed), (unstressed)
1398:(stressed), (unstressed)
1383:(stressed), (unstressed)
1380:(stressed), (unstressed)
680:
644:
455:
326:
283:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
2811:Northwest Arabian Arabic
2632:Jordanian Arabic (Irbid)
2606:Jordanian Arabic (Amman)
1314:compensatory lengthening
185:
3131:Regional North American
126:phonetic transcriptions
3555:Dialects and varieties
3126:Received Pronunciation
2971:American Sign Language
2343:South Levantine Arabic
1623:Urban Levantine Arabic
1527:In French borrowings,
1320:, it is realized as ,
158:This article contains
123:This article contains
2180:mutually intelligible
1328:Vowels and diphthongs
43:improve this article
3664:Language comparison
3480:Proto-Indo-European
3136:White South African
2526:(1998), pp. 89-145.
236:
1316:). If followed by
758:Common realisation
274: plain
234:
197:'Segoe UI'
3641:
3640:
3141:Standard Canadian
2882:world's languages
2844:
2843:
2804:Related varieties
2454:never changes to
2174:Rural subdialects
2171:
2170:
1585:Peninsular Arabic
1581:Arabian Peninsula
1513:
1512:
1306:
1305:
741:
740:
166:rendering support
119:
118:
111:
93:
3671:
3659:Arabic phonology
3654:Levantine Arabic
3493:Kerkrade dialect
3116:General American
2871:
2864:
2857:
2848:
2832:
2831:
2736:
2681:Levantine Arabic
2674:
2667:
2660:
2651:
2644:
2641:
2635:
2628:
2622:
2615:
2609:
2602:
2596:
2590:
2584:
2571:Yohanan Elihai,
2569:
2563:
2557:
2551:
2545:
2539:
2533:
2527:
2520:
2514:
2503:
2497:
2496:
2480:
2461:
2453:
2434:
2426:
2422:
2414:
2410:
2402:
2398:
2390:
2386:
2378:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2315:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2289:
2281:
2277:
2269:
2262:
2258:
2250:
2242:
2230:
2222:
2215:
2207:
2199:
2145:
2136:
2128:
2090:
2081:
2043:
2034:
2026:
1988:
1979:
1941:
1932:
1894:
1885:
1847:
1838:
1800:
1791:
1753:
1744:
1706:
1697:
1654:you (pl, compl.)
1639:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1597:
1567:"mobile phone".
1566:
1560:
1554:
1548:
1542:
1536:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1501:
1486:
1467:
1448:
1429:
1410:
1392:
1375:
1357:
1335:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1300:
1291:
1282:
1273:
1264:
1255:
1246:
1237:
1228:
1219:
1210:
1201:
1193:
1184:
1175:
1167:
1159:
1151:
1142:
1133:
1124:
1115:
1106:
1097:
1088:
1079:
1069:
1060:
1051:
1042:
1033:
1024:
1015:
1006:
997:
988:
979:
970:
961:
952:
943:
934:
926:
918:
909:
900:
891:
882:
873:
864:
856:
847:
838:
830:
822:
813:
804:
795:
786:
777:
768:
752:
733:
732:
727:
720:
719:
714:
706:
698:
697:
692:
666:
665:
660:
638:
637:
632:
625:
624:
619:
612:
611:
606:
599:
598:
593:
586:
585:
581:
580:
575:
559:
558:
553:
546:
545:
540:
533:
532:
527:
520:
519:
514:
507:
506:
501:
494:
493:
489:
488:
483:
476:
475:
470:
443:
442:
437:
430:
429:
424:
417:
416:
411:
397:
396:
392:
391:
386:
377:
376:
371:
362:
361:
356:
349:
348:
343:
312:
311:
306:
299:
298:
293:
237:
220:Levantine Arabic
210:
207:
204:
201:
198:
195:
192:
189:
179:
178:
173:
172:
145:
141:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
3679:
3678:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3644:
3643:
3642:
3637:
3566:
3520:Scottish Gaelic
3373:
3227:Standard Modern
3167:
2979:Modern Standard
2939:
2884:
2875:
2845:
2840:
2820:
2799:
2783:South Levantine
2749:North Levantine
2737:
2728:
2683:
2678:
2648:
2647:
2642:
2638:
2629:
2625:
2616:
2612:
2603:
2599:
2591:
2587:
2570:
2566:
2558:
2554:
2546:
2542:
2534:
2530:
2521:
2517:
2504:
2500:
2482:
2481:
2477:
2472:
2282:is realized as
2176:
1625:
1573:
1330:
919:in some roots,
823:in some roots,
746:
232:
216:
215:
214:
212:
211:
208:
205:
202:
199:
196:
193:
190:
187:
164:Without proper
153:
152:
151:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3677:
3675:
3667:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3646:
3645:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3574:
3572:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3559:
3558:
3557:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3525:Serbo-Croatian
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3496:
3495:
3490:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3381:
3379:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3360:
3359:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3270:
3269:
3264:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3221:
3220:
3219:
3214:
3206:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3194:
3186:
3181:
3175:
3173:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3067:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2900:
2895:
2889:
2886:
2885:
2876:
2874:
2873:
2866:
2859:
2851:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2816:Cypriot Arabic
2813:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2745:
2743:
2739:
2738:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2720:
2719:
2709:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2691:
2689:
2685:
2684:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2669:
2662:
2654:
2646:
2645:
2636:
2623:
2617:Heikki Palva,
2610:
2597:
2585:
2564:
2552:
2540:
2528:
2515:
2498:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2463:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2403:is pronounced
2373:
2355:
2354:
2339:
2338:
2337:
2336:
2323:('I say') and
2317:
2310:
2291:
2264:
2217:
2191:
2190:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2148:
2146:
2137:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2082:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2035:
2018:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1980:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1933:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1886:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1839:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1792:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1745:
1736:
1730:
1729:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1698:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1630:Ottoman Empire
1624:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1615:
1588:
1572:
1569:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1370:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1329:
1326:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1292:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1265:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1229:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1211:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1185:
1176:
1170:
1169:
1143:
1134:
1128:
1127:
1125:
1116:
1110:
1109:
1107:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1089:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1070:
1061:
1055:
1054:
1052:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1034:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1016:
1007:
1001:
1000:
998:
989:
983:
982:
980:
971:
965:
964:
962:
953:
947:
946:
944:
935:
929:
928:
910:
901:
895:
894:
892:
883:
877:
876:
874:
865:
859:
858:
848:
839:
833:
832:
814:
805:
799:
798:
796:
787:
781:
780:
778:
769:
763:
762:
759:
756:
745:
742:
739:
738:
736:
734:
721:
708:
699:
686:
684:
678:
677:
675:
673:
671:
669:
667:
654:
652:
642:
641:
639:
626:
613:
600:
587:
569:
567:
561:
560:
547:
534:
521:
508:
495:
477:
464:
459:
453:
452:
450:
448:
446:
444:
431:
418:
405:
399:
398:
380:
378:
365:
363:
350:
337:
335:
330:
324:
323:
321:
319:
317:
315:
313:
300:
287:
281:
280:
275:
271:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
248:Denti-alveolar
245:
240:
231:
228:
222:also known as
186:
168:, you may see
156:
155:
154:
146:⟩, see
122:
121:
120:
117:
116:
99:September 2015
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3676:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3563:
3560:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3485:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3376:
3370:
3369:Luxembourgish
3367:
3365:
3362:
3358:
3357:Maastrichtian
3355:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2946:
2942:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2898:Orthographies
2896:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2872:
2867:
2865:
2860:
2858:
2853:
2852:
2849:
2837:
2836:
2827:
2826:
2823:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2735:
2725:
2722:
2718:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2693:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2670:
2668:
2663:
2661:
2656:
2655:
2652:
2640:
2637:
2633:
2627:
2624:
2620:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2601:
2598:
2594:
2589:
2586:
2582:
2581:0-9759726-0-X
2578:
2574:
2568:
2565:
2561:
2556:
2553:
2549:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2532:
2529:
2525:
2519:
2516:
2512:
2511:0-9759726-0-X
2508:
2502:
2499:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2479:
2476:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2448:
2447:
2446:
2443:
2432:
2420:
2408:
2396:
2384:
2374:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2318:
2311:
2292:
2287:
2275:
2265:
2256:
2246:
2240:
2234:
2228:
2218:
2213:
2205:
2195:
2194:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2173:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2134:
2126:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2024:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1660:they (compl.)
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1622:
1616:
1603:
1595:
1589:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1577:
1576:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1498:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1483:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1445:
1444:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1407:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1394:
1389:
1388:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1333:
1327:
1325:
1315:
1302:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1197:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1171:
1165:
1157:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1129:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1111:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1003:
1002:
999:
995:
990:
985:
984:
981:
977:
972:
967:
966:
963:
959:
954:
949:
948:
945:
941:
936:
931:
930:
924:
916:
911:
907:
902:
897:
896:
893:
889:
884:
879:
878:
875:
871:
866:
861:
860:
854:
849:
845:
840:
835:
834:
828:
820:
815:
811:
806:
801:
800:
797:
793:
788:
783:
782:
779:
775:
770:
765:
764:
760:
757:
754:
753:
750:
743:
737:
735:
726:
722:
713:
709:
705:
700:
691:
687:
685:
683:
679:
676:
674:
672:
670:
668:
659:
655:
653:
651:
647:
643:
640:
631:
627:
618:
614:
605:
601:
592:
588:
574:
570:
568:
566:
563:
562:
552:
548:
539:
535:
526:
522:
513:
509:
500:
496:
482:
478:
469:
465:
463:
460:
458:
454:
451:
449:
447:
445:
436:
432:
423:
419:
410:
406:
404:
401:
400:
385:
381:
379:
370:
366:
364:
355:
351:
342:
338:
336:
334:
331:
329:
325:
322:
320:
318:
316:
314:
305:
301:
292:
288:
286:
282:
279:
276:
273:
272:
269:
264:
259:
254:
249:
244:
238:
229:
227:
225:
221:
183:
167:
163:
161:
149:
137:
133:
131:
127:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3623:West Frisian
3410:Massachusett
2993:
2923:Prepositions
2892:
2833:
2717:Semitic root
2694:
2639:
2631:
2630:Enam Al-Wer
2626:
2618:
2613:
2605:
2604:Enam Al-Wer
2600:
2592:
2588:
2572:
2567:
2559:
2555:
2547:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2523:
2518:
2501:
2484:
2478:
2444:
2440:
2345:, spoken in
2309:in Galilee).
2244:
2232:
2177:
1681:it is not …
1626:
1574:
1529:nasal vowels
1526:
1514:
1331:
1307:
747:
223:
217:
157:
142:and ⟨
124:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
3353:Limburgish
3244:Greenlandic
3121:New Zealand
3054:Northern Wu
2913:Determiners
2893:Phonologies
2878:Phonologies
2793:Palestinian
2427:changes to
2415:changes to
2391:changes to
2379:changes to
1657:they (subj)
1524:('today').
1312:> (see
755:MSA phoneme
682:Approximant
191:font-family
3648:Categories
3613:Vietnamese
3484:Ripuarian
3475:Portuguese
3385:Macedonian
3364:Lithuanian
3274:Hindustani
3111:Australian
3064:Historical
3011:Belarusian
2908:Adjectives
2707:Vocabulary
2470:References
1651:we (subj.)
1634:shibboleth
1561:("lift"),
744:Consonants
263:Pharyngeal
69:newspapers
3603:Ukrainian
3510:Sardinian
3488:Colognian
3445:Old Saxon
3430:Norwegian
3395:Maldivian
3339:Latgalian
3284:Icelandic
3279:Hungarian
3158:Esperanto
3044:Cantonese
3021:Bulgarian
2994:Levantine
2966:Afrikaans
2788:Jordanian
2764:Damascene
2695:Phonology
2487:. Brill.
2368:), while
2347:Palestine
1875:Jerusalem
1672:he writes
1571:Varieties
1555:/ occur:
1479:, final
1460:, final
1350:Northern
761:Variants
462:voiceless
457:Fricative
333:voiceless
328:Occlusive
230:Phonology
3500:Romanian
3309:Japanese
3267:Biblical
3254:Hawaiian
3249:Gujarati
3212:Standard
3204:Galician
3192:Parisian
3163:Estonian
3094:Standard
3039:Mandarin
3035:Chinese
2999:Tunisian
2984:Egyptian
2956:Acehnese
2928:Pronouns
2903:Grammars
2835:Category
2776:Cilician
2771:Lebanese
2759:Aleppine
2742:Dialects
2688:Overview
2333:/biquːl/
2329:/baquːl/
2325:/bəquːl/
2314:/ˈuktub/
2297: :
2071:al-Karak
1734:Damascus
1517:/əljoːm/
1476:, final
1473:, final
1470:, final
1457:, final
1454:, final
1451:, final
1432:, final
1344:Lebanese
1341:Southern
1322:/naːʔim/
278:emphatic
140:/ /
136:Help:IPA
3628:Yiddish
3593:Turkish
3578:Tagalog
3562:Swedish
3550:Spanish
3535:Slovene
3505:Russian
3465:Persian
3435:Occitan
3415:Medumba
3405:Marathi
3349:Latvian
3329:Kurdish
3319:Konkani
3304:Italian
3289:Ingrian
3258:Hebrew
3232:Ancient
3217:Bernese
3208:German
3188:French
3184:Finnish
3179:Faroese
3106:English
3076:Cornish
3071:Chukchi
3049:Hokkien
3031:Catalan
3026:Burmese
3016:Bengali
3006:Avestan
2975:Arabic
2880:of the
2712:Grammar
2370:/ʃitaː/
2321:/bquːl/
2261:/ʃitaː/
2259:, e.g.
2245:tafkhim
1669:I write
1666:he says
1564:selülēr
1558:ʾasãsēr
1549:/ and /
1347:Central
1338:Phoneme
268:Glottal
253:Palatal
128:in the
83:scholar
3608:Uyghur
3540:Somali
3530:Slovak
3470:Polish
3460:Pashto
3455:Ottawa
3440:Ojibwe
3425:Nepali
3420:Navajo
3334:Kyrgyz
3324:Korean
3262:Modern
3223:Greek
3197:Quebec
3151:Middle
3090:Dutch
3086:Danish
2989:Hejazi
2961:Adyghe
2951:Abkhaz
2754:Syrian
2579:
2509:
2351:Israel
2316:> .
2307:/-hen/
2303:/-hun/
2299:/-kun/
1922:Hebron
1781:Beirut
1687:Aleppo
1675:write!
1521:اليَوم
1310:/raʔs/
565:voiced
403:voiced
243:Labial
203:Tahoma
144:
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
3618:Welsh
3598:Ubykh
3583:Tamil
3545:Sotho
3515:Scots
3450:Oromo
3400:Māori
3390:Malay
3344:Latin
3314:Kiowa
3299:Irish
3294:Inuit
3237:Koine
3081:Czech
2933:Verbs
2918:Nouns
2700:Imāla
2460:]
2456:[
2433:]
2429:[
2421:]
2417:[
2409:]
2405:[
2397:]
2393:[
2385:]
2381:[
2362:/-ah/
2288:]
2284:[
2276:]
2272:[
2257:]
2253:[
2241:]
2237:[
2233:imala
2229:]
2225:[
2214:]
2210:[
2206:]
2202:[
2144:]
2140:[
2135:]
2131:[
2127:]
2123:[
2118:Irbid
2089:]
2085:[
2080:]
2076:[
2042:]
2038:[
2033:]
2029:[
2025:]
2021:[
2016:Amman
1987:]
1983:[
1978:]
1974:[
1940:]
1936:[
1931:]
1927:[
1893:]
1889:[
1884:]
1880:[
1846:]
1842:[
1837:]
1833:[
1828:Haifa
1799:]
1795:[
1790:]
1786:[
1752:]
1748:[
1743:]
1739:[
1705:]
1701:[
1696:]
1692:[
1663:I say
1604:]
1600:[
1299:]
1295:[
1281:]
1277:[
1263:]
1259:[
1245:]
1241:[
1227:]
1223:[
1209:]
1205:[
1192:]
1188:[
1183:]
1179:[
1166:]
1162:[
1158:]
1154:[
1150:]
1146:[
1141:]
1137:[
1123:]
1119:[
1105:]
1101:[
1087:]
1083:[
1068:]
1064:[
1050:]
1046:[
1032:]
1028:[
1014:]
1010:[
996:]
992:[
978:]
974:[
960:]
956:[
942:]
938:[
925:]
921:[
917:]
913:[
908:]
904:[
890:]
886:[
872:]
868:[
855:]
851:[
846:]
842:[
837:/d͡ʒ/
829:]
825:[
821:]
817:[
812:]
808:[
794:]
790:[
776:]
772:[
646:Trill
285:Nasal
258:Velar
224:Shāmi
177:احنا
171:احنا
132:(IPA)
90:JSTOR
76:books
3633:Zuni
3588:Taos
2577:ISBN
2507:ISBN
2423:and
2401:/dʒ/
2372:is .
2331:and
2305:(or
2295:/-n/
2280:/dʒ/
2268:/dʒ/
2249:/aː/
2221:/aː/
1969:Gaza
1642:City
1612:/aw/
1610:and
1608:/aj/
1543:/, /
1537:/, /
1500:/aw/
1485:/aj/
1466:/uː/
1447:/iː/
1428:/aː/
1368:or
1059:/ðˤ/
1041:/tˤ/
1023:/dˤ/
1005:/sˤ/
174:and
62:news
3571:T–Z
3378:M–S
3172:F–L
3146:Old
3059:Old
2944:A–E
2724:IPA
2489:doi
2452:/k/
2425:/k/
2413:/q/
2389:/q/
2377:/k/
2366:/a/
2270:as
2223:as
2200:as
2198:/q/
1678:now
1648:ج j
1645:ق q
1598:to
1409:-aʰ
1395:or
1391:/u/
1374:/i/
1365:or
1360:or
1356:/a/
1318:/i/
1290:/j/
1272:/w/
1254:/h/
1236:/n/
1218:/m/
1200:/l/
1174:/k/
1132:/q/
1114:/f/
1096:/ɣ/
1078:/ʕ/
987:/ʃ/
969:/s/
951:/z/
933:/r/
899:/ð/
881:/d/
863:/ħ/
853:d͡ʒ
803:/θ/
785:/t/
767:/b/
650:Tap
45:by
3650::
2524:10
2458:tʃ
2431:tʃ
2407:dʒ
2387:,
2383:tʃ
2301:,
2286:dʒ
2239:oː
2227:eː
2216:).
2142:dʒ
2129:,
2087:dʒ
2040:dʒ
2027:,
1938:dʒ
1703:dʒ
1602:tʃ
1546:ɛ̃
1190:tʃ
1066:zˤ
1048:tˤ
1030:dˤ
1012:sˤ
728:–
715:–
707:)
693:–
661:–
648:/
633:–
620:–
607:–
594:–
591:zˤ
576:–
554:–
541:–
528:–
515:–
502:–
499:sˤ
484:–
471:–
438:–
435:dˤ
425:–
412:–
387:–
372:–
357:–
354:tˤ
344:–
307:–
294:–
184::
2870:e
2863:t
2856:v
2673:e
2666:t
2659:v
2583:)
2513:)
2495:.
2491::
2419:ɡ
2395:k
2353:.
2290:.
2274:ʒ
2255:e
2243:(
2231:(
2212:q
2204:ʔ
2133:ɡ
2125:ʔ
2078:ɡ
2031:ɡ
2023:ʔ
1985:ʒ
1976:g
1929:ʔ
1891:ʒ
1882:ʔ
1844:ʒ
1835:ʔ
1797:ʒ
1788:ʔ
1750:ʒ
1741:ʔ
1694:ʔ
1596:/
1594:k
1592:/
1552:ũ
1540:õ
1534:ã
1531:/
1297:j
1279:w
1261:h
1243:n
1225:m
1207:l
1181:k
1164:ɡ
1156:k
1148:q
1139:ʔ
1121:f
1103:ɣ
1085:ʕ
994:ʃ
976:s
958:z
940:r
923:ð
915:z
906:d
888:d
870:ħ
844:ʒ
827:θ
819:s
810:t
792:t
774:b
731:و
725:w
718:ي
712:j
704:ɫ
701:(
696:ل
690:l
664:ر
658:r
636:ع
630:ʕ
623:غ
617:ɣ
610:ج
604:ʒ
597:ظ
584:ذ
579:ز
573:z
557:ه
551:h
544:ح
538:ħ
531:خ
525:x
518:ش
512:ʃ
505:ص
492:ث
487:س
481:s
474:ف
468:f
441:ض
428:د
422:d
415:ب
409:b
395:ق
390:ء
384:ʔ
375:ك
369:k
360:ط
347:ت
341:t
310:ن
304:n
297:م
291:m
213:.
209:}
206:;
200:,
194::
188:{
162:.
150:.
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
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