250:, namely the invasion of Julius Caesar's army. Given the cultural, economic and political advantages that came with being a Latin speaker, the Gauls eventually abandoned their language in favor of the language brought to them by the Romans, which evolved in this region, until eventually it took the form of the French language that is known today. The Gaulish speech disappeared in the late Roman era, but remnants of its vocabulary survive in some French words, approximately 200, as well as place-names of Gaulish origin.
43:
627:
134:. Whether the superstratum case (the local language persists and the intrusive language disappears) or the substratum one (the local language disappears and the intrusive language persists) applies will normally only be evident after several generations, during which the intrusive language exists within a
212:
In a typical case of substrate interference, a
Language A occupies a given territory and another Language B arrives in the same territory, brought, for example, with migrations of population. Language B then begins to supplant language A: the speakers of Language A abandon their own language in favor
495:
Although the influence of the prior language when a community speaks, and adopts, a new one may have been informally acknowledged beforehand, the concept was formalized and popularized initially in the late 19th century. As historical phonology emerged as a discipline, the initial dominant viewpoint
373:
suggest that many languages have formerly existed that have since then been replaced under expansive language families, such as Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, Uralic or Bantu. However, it is not a given that such expansive languages would have acquired substratum influence from the languages they have
537:
was used to counter
Mueller's view. In modern historical linguistics, debate persists on the details of how language contact may induce structural changes. The respective extremes of "all change is contact" and "there are no structural changes ever" have largely been abandoned in favor of a set of
478:
So can their meaning: words referring to the natural landscape, in particular indigenous fauna and flora, have often been found especially likely to derive from substrate languages. None of these conditions, is sufficient by itself to claim any one word as originating from an unknown substratum.
738:
The term adstratum is also used to identify systematic influences or a layer of borrowings in a given language from another language, independently of whether the two languages continue coexisting as separate entities. Many modern languages have an appreciable adstratum from
English, due to the
196:
A substratum (plural: substrata) or substrate is a language that an intrusive language influences, which may or may not ultimately change it to become a new language. The term is also used of substrate interference, i.e. the influence the substratum language exerts on the replacing language.
538:
conventions on how to demonstrate contact induced structural changes. These include adequate knowledge of the two languages in question, a historical explanation, and evidence that the contact-induced phenomenon did not exist in the recipient language before contact, among other guidelines.
213:
of the other language, generally because they believe that it will help them achieve certain goals within government, the workplace, and in social settings. During the language shift, the receding language A still influences language B, for example, through the transfer of
546:
A superstratum (plural: superstrata) or superstrate offers the counterpart to a substratum. When a different language influences a base language to result in a new language, linguists label the influencing language a superstratum and the influenced language a substratum.
467:, which lack a clear etymology. Such words can in principle still be native inheritance, lost everywhere else in the language family, but they might in principle also originate from a substrate. The sound structure of words of unknown origin — their
356:
In the absence of all three lines of evidence mentioned above, linguistic substrata may be difficult to detect. Substantial indirect evidence is needed to infer the former existence of a substrate. The nonexistence of a substrate is
436:, which hypothesize large families of substrate languages across western Europe. Some smaller-scale unattested substrates that remain under debate involve alleged extinct branches of the Indo-European family, such as "
479:
Occasionally words that have been proposed to be of substrate origin will be found out to have cognates in more distantly related languages after all, and therefore likely native: an example is Proto-Indo-European
702:
The phenomenon is less common today in standardized linguistic varieties and more common in colloquial forms of speech since modern nations tend to favour one single linguistic variety, often corresponding to the
2531:
2038:
562:
coinages from Greek and Latin roots adopted by
European languages (and subsequently by other languages) to describe scientific topics (sociology, zoology, philosophy, botany, medicine, all "
747:. The Greek and Latin coinages adopted by European languages, including English and now languages worldwide, to describe scientific topics, sociology, medicine, anatomy, biology, all the '-
687:
An adstratum (plural: adstrata) or adstrate is a language that influences another language by virtue of geographic proximity, not by virtue of its relative prestige. For example, early in
275:
with the same semantic construction as modern French) with other Celtic calques possibly including "oui", the word for yes, while syntactic and morphological effects are also posited.
188:
in France, who eventually abandoned their
Germanic dialects in favor of other Indo-European languages of the Romance branch, profoundly influencing the local speech in the process.
224:
In most cases, the ability to identify substrate influence in a language requires knowledge of the structure of the substrate language. This can be acquired in numerous ways:
735:
languages have roughly the same status, and could justifiably be called adstrates to each other having each one provided a large set of lexical specifications to the other.
209:, which refers to the influence a socially dominating language has on another, receding language that might eventually be relegated to the status of a substratum language.
500:
on phonology and grammar should be assumed to be marginal, and an internal explanation should always be favored if possible. As articulated by Max
Mueller in 1870,
2772:
2385:
2528:
861:
2449:
869:
648:
253:
It is posited that some structural changes in French were shaped at least in part by
Gaulish influence including diachronic sound changes and
2789:
2239:
2216:
2422:
421:): while unattested, their existence has been noted in medieval chronicles, and one or more of them have left substantial influence in the
2352:
Etymology and the
European Lexicon: Proceedings of the 14th Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 17–22 September 2012, Copenhagen
234:
The substrate language itself may be unknown entirely, but it may have surviving close relatives that can be used as a base of comparison.
130:
Both concepts apply to a situation where an intrusive language establishes itself in the territory of another, typically as the result of
64:
559:
2603:
2556:
2459:
2432:
1056:
674:
86:
180:
case refers to elite invading populations that eventually adopt the language of the native lower classes. An example would be the
1994:
1955:
2818:
739:
cultural influence and economic preponderance of the United States on international markets and previously colonization by the
2123:
2002:
1552:
1331:
652:
483:'sea', found widely in the northern and western Indo-European languages, but in more eastern Indo-European languages only in
455:
When a substrate language or its close relatives cannot be directly studied, their investigation is rooted in the study of
382:
2370:
Schrijver, Peter (1997). "Animal, vegetable and mineral: some
Western European substratum words". In Lubotsky, A. (ed.).
385:, purportedly the source of about one quarter of the most ancient Germanic vocabulary. There are similar arguments for a
1874:
865:
452:
is an abbreviation of "tenuis, media, media aspirata, tenuis", referencing a sound shift presumed common to the group.
362:
2046:
1882:
606:
386:
370:
2257:. Bonn: Papers from the Workshop within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies. Page 106.
637:
510:"). In the 1880s, dissent began to crystallize against this viewpoint. Within Romance language linguistics, the 1881
57:
51:
2808:
2580:
429:
238:
One of the first-identified cases of substrate influence is an example of a substrate language of the second type:
656:
641:
2813:
1686:
1250:
935:
887:
715:, where dozens of languages are widespread, many languages could be said to share an adstratal relationship, but
422:
2749:
Vovin, Alexander (1994). "Long-distance relationships, reconstruction methodology and the origins of
Japanese".
68:
2075:
1951:
1946:
1825:
472:
279:
127:(1829–1907), and became known in the English-speaking world through the work of two different authors in 1932.
31:
782:, which were linked geographically to Yiddish-speaking villages in Eastern Europe for centuries up until the
205:, which involves no language replacement but rather mutual borrowing between languages of equal "value", and
1255:
1222:
1210:
983:
523:
170:
2724:
609:. In this case, however, the superstratum refers to influence, not language succession. Other views detect
377:
Several examples of this type of substratum have still been claimed. For example, the earliest form of the
2127:
2085:
1998:
1834:
1113:
901:
526:
was shaped by the retention by Celts of their "oral dispositions" even after they had switched to Latin.
515:
433:
149:
or immigrate in significant numbers relative to the local population, i.e., the intrusion qualifies as an
124:
1964:
1279:
598:
398:
570:" might be a better designation (despite the prestige of science and of its language). In the case of
1850:
1447:
1206:
1178:
1141:
1078:
892:
602:
330:
228:
The substrate language, or some later descendant of it, still survives in a part of its former range;
2227:
2204:
2080:
2028:
1968:
1929:
1695:
1656:
1632:
1627:
1461:
1411:
1386:
930:
759:
708:
460:
390:
358:
2474:
Benedict (1990), Lewin (1976), Matsumoto (1975), Miller (1967), Murayama (1976), Shibatani (1990).
2766:
2574:
2379:
2023:
1988:
1972:
1636:
1480:
1398:
1381:
1301:
1051:
692:
418:
378:
338:
2400:
2302:
2785:
2644:
2609:
2599:
2562:
2552:
2455:
2428:
2253:
Matasović, Ranko. 2007. “Insular Celtic as a Language Area”. In Tristam, Hildegard L.C. 2007,
2235:
2212:
2119:
2070:
1925:
1916:
1908:
1870:
1762:
1369:
1306:
1201:
1166:
1159:
1016:
1008:
590:
586:
414:
366:
334:
198:
162:
558:
after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when use of the English language carried low prestige. The
1984:
1980:
1960:
1912:
1898:
1864:
1701:
1691:
1680:
1661:
1641:
1530:
1517:
1415:
1407:
1403:
1365:
1336:
1310:
1296:
1291:
1227:
1126:
1073:
1042:
1021:
978:
953:
882:
850:
779:
775:
763:
755:
594:
579:
551:
534:
497:
484:
365:
must lie on the side of the scholar claiming the influence of a substrate. The principle of
310:
290:
239:
120:
2140:
Substrata Uralica: Studies on Finno-Ugrian substrate influence in Northern Russian dialects
601:
substratum. Some scholars also argue for the existence of Altaic superstrate influences on
2535:
2090:
1976:
1803:
1666:
1608:
1541:
1537:
1513:
1468:
1456:
1427:
1322:
1274:
1188:
1154:
1135:
1099:
1068:
948:
918:
913:
771:
728:
571:
555:
550:
A superstrate may also represent an imposed linguistic element akin to what occurred with
530:
519:
507:
348:
have multiple substrata, with the actual influence of such languages being indeterminate.
345:
314:
306:
131:
257:
phenomena due to the retention of Gaulish phonetic patterns after the adoption of Latin,
2095:
2065:
2006:
1838:
1820:
1784:
1579:
1435:
1431:
1360:
1346:
1286:
1109:
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1025:
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991:
957:
877:
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732:
410:
394:
318:
294:
286:
17:
2682:
Matsumoto, Katsumi (1975). "Kodai nihongoboin soshikikõ: naiteki saiken no kokoromi".
321:
dialects, often exhibit significant substrata from other regional Semitic (especially
2802:
2654:
2193:
Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania
1903:
1830:
1815:
1757:
1706:
1603:
1574:
1569:
1508:
1452:
1423:
1083:
1046:
744:
437:
326:
282:
145:
case, the immigrant population will either need to take the position of a political
2692:
Language Interrupted: Signs of Non-Native Acquisition in Standard Language Grammars
2486:
Language Interrupted: Signs of Non-Native Acquisition in Standard Language Grammars
2326:
1767:
1526:
1237:
1232:
1131:
961:
445:
441:
302:
247:
206:
158:
154:
2690:
2515:
in the lexical slot of a transitive verb for "to take", though archaic forms of
2484:
McWhorter, John (2007). "Mandarin Chinese: "Altaicization" or Simplification?".
2042:
1886:
1855:
1789:
1714:
1393:
1037:
925:
855:
840:
836:
832:
767:
720:
696:
626:
566:" words, etc.) can also be termed a superstratum, although for this last case, "
406:
298:
181:
100:
2641:, ed. by R. E. Asher et al. Vol. 1, pp. 4396–4398. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
2321:
2033:
1878:
1794:
1752:
988:
844:
218:
2613:
2566:
1618:
1342:
1196:
1192:
1173:
783:
567:
468:
456:
202:
2350:
Leschber, Corinna (2016). "On the stratification of substratum languages".
2180:
Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii
1598:
278:
Other examples of substrate languages are the influence of the now extinct
2673:"Japanese and Korean: The Problems and History of a Linguistic Comparison"
2017:
1585:
1560:
1489:
1419:
1376:
1245:
1121:
1063:
1003:
968:
214:
150:
135:
116:
246:
lived in the modern French-speaking territory before the arrival of the
2114:"Why Don't the English Speak Welsh?" Hildegard Tristram, chapter 15 in
2050:
1941:
1937:
1921:
1799:
1779:
1651:
1622:
1521:
1493:
1485:
1327:
1269:
1184:
1149:
1094:
1032:
999:
973:
942:
827:
724:
704:
688:
322:
231:
Written records of the substrate language may exist to various degrees;
166:
2739:
2706:
2672:
440:" substrate in the Germanic languages, and a "Temematic" substrate in
197:
According to some classifications, this is one of three main types of
2740:
The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis
2451:
The Study of Language and the Politics of Community in Global Context
2169:, ed. Rebecca Posner et al. (The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, 1980), 65.
2156:, ed. Rebecca Posner et al. (The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, 1980), 65.
2013:
1860:
1810:
1747:
1676:
1593:
1564:
1548:
1503:
1475:
1442:
1317:
1217:
823:
258:
254:
185:
123:. The notion of "strata" was first developed by the Italian linguist
27:
Language that influences, or is influenced by another through contact
2759:
Réponses au Questionnaire du Ve Congrès international des Linguistes
1240:
who annexed it to the Roman Empire (1st century BC-7th century AD),
2666:
La teorĂa del substrato y los dialectos Hispano-romances y gascones
463:. The study of unattested substrata often begins from the study of
30:
This article is about the term in linguistics. For other uses, see
1893:
1845:
1355:
1262:
908:
897:
819:
716:
712:
575:
563:
402:
243:
146:
108:
762:, which contain a heavy Semitic, particularly Arabic, adstratum.
1771:
1710:
748:
723:. A different example would be the sociolinguistic situation in
695:
served as an adstrate, contributing to the lexical structure of
872:), between the first millennium BC and the first millennium AD
790:
Notable examples of possible substrate or superstrate influence
2529:
The Genesis and Development of Brazilian Vernacular Portuguese
2283:. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Pages 77-82
620:
36:
2421:
Thomason, Sarah Grey; Kaufmann, Terrence (12 February 1992).
2182:, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.
119:
that influences or is influenced by another language through
2279:
Filppula, Markku, Klemola, Juhani and Paulasto, Heli. 2008.
2178:
Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in
1671:
Assimilation of East Balts by East Slavs in the Middle Ages
2725:"The influence of African languages on pidgins and creoles"
2651:, eds John McCoy & Timothy Light, 76–97. Leiden: Brill.
2707:"The Malayo-Polynesian Component in the Japanese Language"
2551:. Borg, Karl. Valletta, Malta: Klabb Kotba Maltin. 1998.
270:
1309:
during the incorporation of the Canary Islands into the
2424:
Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics
751:' words, etc., are also justifiably called adstrata.
2498:
Hashimoto (1986), Janhunen (1996), McWhorter (2007).
141:
In order for the intrusive language to persist, the
2401:"Early Sources for South Asian Substrate Languages"
2729:Current Approaches to African Linguistics (vol. 2)
1498:the Portuguese during the colonial rule in Africa
518:argued that the early phonological development of
2647:(1986). "The Altaicization of Northern Chinese".
2427:. University of California Press. pp. 1–3.
2142:(Ph.D.). University of Helsinki. pp. 12–14.
1971:, and later individual Slavic languages such as
475:— can often suggest hints in either direction.
242:, from the ancient Celtic people the Gauls. The
2322:"The Linguistic Diversity of Aboriginal Europe"
383:been influenced by a non-Indo-European language
2365:
2363:
2361:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2167:Romance Comparative and Historical Linguistics
2165:Giovanni Battista Pellegrini, "Substrata", in
2154:Romance Comparative and Historical Linguistics
2152:Giovanni Battista Pellegrini, "Substrata", in
1551:in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who
2345:
2343:
2118:, N. J. Higham (ed.), The Boydell Press 2007
1646:Italian immigration to Uruguay and Argentina
778:, mostly in the sphere of religion, and with
711:and other important regions, over others. In
265:("blind", literally without eyes, from Latin
8:
2639:The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
2305:(2014). "Substratum words in Balto-Slavic".
501:
428:By contrast, more contentious cases are the
361:, and to avoid digressing into speculation,
201:: substratum interference differs from both
2782:Languages in contact: findings and problems
2249:
2247:
1877:, and the Arabic and Mozarabic speakers in
655:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2771:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2684:Bulletin of the Faculty of Law and Letters
2598:. Malta: Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza.
2384:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2637:Cravens, Thomas D. (1994). "Substratum".
1341:
1335:
1077:
987:
982:
896:
891:
675:Learn how and when to remove this message
269:, which was a calque on the Gaulish word
87:Learn how and when to remove this message
2270:. Paris: La Différence. Pages 26, 294-5.
1885:and other Christian kingdoms during the
1726:
798:
50:This article includes a list of general
2702:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2448:Hoyt, David L.; Ostlund, Karen (2006).
2107:
221:, or grammatical patterns from A to B.
2764:
2572:
2377:
2374:. Amsterdam/Atlanta. pp. 293–316.
870:Southward expansion of the Han dynasty
2649:Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies
862:Qin's campaign against the Yue tribes
7:
1613:Union with Danish crown, 1380–1814.
719:is certainly a dominant adstrate in
653:adding citations to reliable sources
397:. Relatively clear examples are the
1932:on the islands in the 16th century
560:international scientific vocabulary
533:'s related but distinct concept of
2195:(Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.
2116:The Britons in Anglo-Saxon England
1723:Superstrate influence on substrate
795:Substrate influence on superstrate
325:), Iranian, and Berber languages.
56:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
2661:. Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian Society.
1162:of transported enslaved Africans
1057:Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
393:, and a substrate underlying the
2686:(Kanazawa University) 22.83–152.
2454:. Lexington Books. p. 103.
1995:Slavic migrations to the Balkans
1167:British colonial rule in Jamaica
625:
41:
2784:. New York: Mouton Publishers.
2695:. USA: Oxford University Press.
2664:Jungemann, Frédéric H. (1955).
2255:The Celtic Languages in Contact
2039:German immigration to Pomerania
597:superstratum projected onto an
2738:Singler, John Victor (1988). "
2211:(Paris: Errance, 1994), 46-7.
1928:control, establishment of the
1332:indigenous languages of Mexico
369:and results from the study of
1:
2757:Wartburg, Walter von (1939).
2723:Singler, John Victor (1983).
2716:Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990).
2596:Il-Malti, elf sena ta' storja
2354:. Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag.
2281:English and Celtic in Contact
2268:Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois
2234:(Paris: Errance, 1994), 158.
2659:Manchuria: An Ethnic History
1533:and languages spoken by Jews
1183:Southern Chinese varieties:
866:Han campaigns against Minyue
754:Another example is found in
743:which made English a global
585:Some linguists contend that
2711:Journal of Japanese Studies
2705:Murayama, Shichiro (1976).
2698:Miller, Roy Andrew (1967).
2677:Journal of Japanese Studies
2594:Brincat, Joseph M. (2000).
2266:Savignac, Jean-Paul. 2004.
1553:modernized and reintroduced
766:is a linguistic variety of
593:in general) consists of an
2835:
2780:Weinreich, Uriel (1979) .
2720:. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
2630:Benedict, Paul K. (1990).
2488:. Oxford University Press.
1837:and during the subsequent
1742:Superstrate introduced by
1467:the Portuguese during the
979:Central Cushitic languages
814:Superstrate introduced by
503:Es gibt keine Mischsprache
430:Vasconic substratum theory
309:dialects, most especially
165:outside Italy, displacing
157:. An example would be the
29:
2320:Ringe, Don (2009-01-06).
2138:Saarikivi, Janne (2006).
1460:
1254:
1249:
1236:
1231:
1055:
496:was that influences from
423:Northern Russian dialects
115:is a historical layer of
2689:McWhorter, John (2007).
2399:Witzel, Michael (1999).
2076:Trans-cultural diffusion
1536:Hebrew constructed from
1026:North Cushitic languages
32:Stratum (disambiguation)
1881:who were absorbed into
1555:Hebrew as a vernacular
1256:Paleohispanic languages
1211:Speak Mandarin Campaign
984:South Semitic languages
578:is the superstrate and
524:Gallo-Romance languages
271:
199:linguistic interference
171:Indo-European languages
71:more precise citations.
18:Linguistic superstratum
2819:Historical linguistics
2718:The languages of Japan
2579:: CS1 maint: others (
2086:Graziadio Isaia Ascoli
1835:Fall of Constantinople
1114:Plantations of Ireland
516:Graziadio Isaia Ascoli
502:
434:Old European hydronymy
125:Graziadio Isaia Ascoli
2700:The Japanese language
2671:Lewin, Bruno (1976).
2645:Hashimoto, Mantaro J.
2372:Sound Law and Analogy
512:Lettere glottologiche
399:Finno-Ugric languages
297:islands. In the Arab
2634:. Ann Arbor: Karoma.
2549:Lıngwa u lıngwıstıka
2519:survived in England.
1875:conquest of Hispania
1851:Early Modern Spanish
1839:occupation of Greece
1588:in the 15th century
1529:dialects, and other
1448:Brazilian Portuguese
1350:of the 15th century
1339:of the 15th century
1207:Singapore Government
1179:Singaporean Mandarin
1144:in the 16th century
1142:Scottish Reformation
1116:in the 16th century
1079:Early Modern English
1052:Ingvaeonic languages
893:Pre-classical Arabic
649:improve this section
603:varieties of Chinese
352:Unattested substrata
331:Modern South Arabian
2735:, 65–77. Dordrecht.
2632:Japanese/Austro-Tai
2228:Pierre-Yves Lambert
2205:Pierre-Yves Lambert
2081:Pre-Greek substrate
1969:Old Church Slavonic
1930:Knights of St. John
1733:Resultant language
1628:Rioplatense Spanish
1464:of the 15th century
1165:the English during
1140:the English during
931:Mesopotamian Arabic
805:Resultant language
770:with adstrata from
461:linguistic typology
2534:2017-10-10 at the
2232:La Langue gauloise
2209:La Langue gauloise
1481:Angolan Portuguese
1382:Paraguayan Spanish
1302:Andalusian Spanish
387:Sanskrit substrate
379:Germanic languages
2809:Linguistic strata
2791:978-90-279-2689-0
2731:, ed. by J. Kaye
2511:replaced earlier
2240:978-2-87772-224-7
2217:978-2-87772-224-7
2191:Eugeen Roegiest,
2071:Language transfer
2057:
2056:
2045:, and periods of
2003:Polish-Lithuanian
1917:Romance languages
1720:
1719:
1637:Italian Languages
1549:Jewish immigrants
1370:Aymaran languages
1202:Standard Mandarin
1160:African languages
851:Old Yue languages
685:
684:
677:
591:Japonic languages
367:uniformitarianism
359:difficult to show
335:Old South Arabian
163:Romance languages
97:
96:
89:
16:(Redirected from
2826:
2814:Language contact
2795:
2776:
2770:
2762:
2618:
2617:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2578:
2570:
2545:
2539:
2526:
2520:
2505:
2499:
2496:
2490:
2489:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2405:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2383:
2375:
2367:
2356:
2355:
2347:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2303:Matasović, Ranko
2299:
2284:
2277:
2271:
2264:
2258:
2251:
2242:
2225:
2219:
2202:
2196:
2189:
2183:
2176:
2170:
2163:
2157:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2135:
2129:
2112:
1961:Slavic languages
1727:
1662:Baltic languages
1531:Jewish languages
1347:Spanish Conquest
1311:Crown of Castile
1292:Canarian Spanish
1127:Scottish English
1043:Common Brittonic
1022:Central Cushitic
954:Berber languages
902:Muslim conquests
883:Levantine Arabic
799:
780:Slavic languages
680:
673:
669:
666:
660:
629:
621:
613:strate effects.
535:creole languages
505:
498:language contact
346:Creole languages
289:dialects of the
274:
111:for "layer") or
92:
85:
81:
78:
72:
67:this article by
58:inline citations
45:
44:
37:
21:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2799:
2798:
2792:
2779:
2763:
2756:
2627:
2625:Further reading
2622:
2621:
2606:
2593:
2592:
2588:
2571:
2559:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2536:Wayback Machine
2527:
2523:
2506:
2502:
2497:
2493:
2483:
2482:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2462:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2435:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2376:
2369:
2368:
2359:
2349:
2348:
2341:
2332:
2330:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2301:
2300:
2287:
2278:
2274:
2265:
2261:
2252:
2245:
2226:
2222:
2203:
2199:
2190:
2186:
2177:
2173:
2164:
2160:
2151:
2147:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2126:, pp. 192–214.
2113:
2109:
2104:
2091:Creole language
2062:
2007:Russian Empires
1952:Common Romanian
1947:Modern Romanian
1826:Ottoman Turkish
1804:Norman conquest
1770:' dominance of
1725:
1667:Old East Slavic
1584:Acquisition by
1525:
1469:colonial period
1457:Bantu languages
1349:
1323:Mexican Spanish
1275:Common Romanian
1155:Jamaican Patois
1136:Scottish Gaelic
1069:Cornish English
949:Maghrebi Arabic
936:Eastern Aramaic
914:Egyptian Arabic
888:Western Aramaic
797:
792:
681:
670:
664:
661:
646:
630:
619:
582:the substrate.
574:, for example,
544:
531:Hugo Schuchardt
508:mixed languages
506:("there are no
493:
491:Concept history
465:substrate words
363:burden of proof
354:
194:
169:and many other
161:giving rise to
93:
82:
76:
73:
63:Please help to
62:
46:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2832:
2830:
2822:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2801:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2790:
2777:
2754:
2747:
2736:
2721:
2714:
2703:
2696:
2687:
2680:
2669:
2662:
2655:Janhunen, Juha
2652:
2642:
2635:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2604:
2586:
2557:
2540:
2521:
2500:
2491:
2476:
2467:
2460:
2440:
2433:
2413:
2391:
2357:
2339:
2312:
2285:
2272:
2259:
2243:
2220:
2197:
2184:
2171:
2158:
2145:
2130:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2096:Relexification
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2066:Language shift
2061:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2010:
2009:
1997:, rule by the
1992:
1958:
1949:
1944:
1934:
1933:
1919:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1868:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1833:following the
1828:
1823:
1821:Medieval Greek
1818:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1785:Middle English
1782:
1776:
1775:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1724:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1704:
1699:
1689:
1684:
1673:
1672:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1644:
1639:
1630:
1625:
1615:
1614:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1557:
1556:
1545:
1534:
1511:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1483:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1450:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1401:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1363:
1361:Andean Spanish
1358:
1352:
1351:
1340:
1334:
1325:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1287:Canary Islands
1283:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1266:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1204:
1199:
1181:
1176:
1170:
1169:
1163:
1157:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1138:
1129:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1088:Cornish people
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1040:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1019:
1006:
996:
995:
986:
981:
976:
971:
965:
964:
951:
946:
945:(North Africa)
939:
938:
933:
928:
922:
921:
916:
911:
905:
904:
895:
890:
885:
880:
874:
873:
860:Sinicisation (
858:
853:
847:
830:
816:
815:
812:
809:
806:
803:
796:
793:
791:
788:
741:British Empire
683:
682:
633:
631:
624:
618:
615:
607:Northern China
543:
540:
492:
489:
444:, proposed by
395:Sami languages
371:human genetics
353:
350:
280:North Germanic
236:
235:
232:
229:
193:
190:
95:
94:
49:
47:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2831:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2793:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2768:
2760:
2755:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2719:
2715:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2701:
2697:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2685:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2656:
2653:
2650:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2624:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2605:99909-41-68-8
2601:
2597:
2590:
2587:
2582:
2576:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2558:99909-75-42-6
2554:
2550:
2544:
2541:
2538:Page 246, etc
2537:
2533:
2530:
2525:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2507:For example,
2504:
2501:
2495:
2492:
2487:
2480:
2477:
2471:
2468:
2463:
2461:9780739109557
2457:
2453:
2452:
2444:
2441:
2436:
2434:9780520912793
2430:
2426:
2425:
2417:
2414:
2409:
2408:Mother Tongue
2402:
2395:
2392:
2387:
2381:
2373:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2358:
2353:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2329:
2328:
2323:
2316:
2313:
2309:(60): 75–102.
2308:
2304:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2248:
2244:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2185:
2181:
2175:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2146:
2141:
2134:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2108:
2101:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1904:Siculo-Arabic
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1831:Ottoman Turks
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1816:Demotic Greek
1814:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1758:Gallo-Romance
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1707:Russification
1705:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1687:North Russian
1685:
1682:
1681:Russian North
1678:
1675:
1674:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1604:Old Norwegian
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1570:Insular Scots
1568:
1566:
1562:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1509:Modern Hebrew
1507:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1470:
1466:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1356:Central Andes
1354:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1281:
1280:Daco-Thracian
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1251:Ibero-Romance
1247:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1223:Gallo-Romance
1221:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1100:Irish English
1098:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1084:Anglicisation
1082:
1080:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1058:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1047:British Latin
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1027:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1001:
998:
997:
993:
990:
985:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
966:
963:
959:
955:
952:
950:
947:
944:
941:
940:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
923:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
906:
903:
899:
894:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
857:
854:
852:
848:
846:
842:
838:
834:
831:
829:
825:
821:
818:
817:
813:
810:
807:
804:
801:
800:
794:
789:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
752:
750:
746:
745:lingua franca
742:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
700:
698:
694:
690:
679:
676:
668:
658:
654:
650:
644:
643:
639:
634:This section
632:
628:
623:
622:
616:
614:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
548:
541:
539:
536:
532:
527:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
504:
499:
490:
488:
486:
482:
476:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
453:
451:
447:
443:
439:
438:Nordwestblock
435:
431:
426:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
375:
372:
368:
364:
360:
351:
349:
347:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
327:Yemeni Arabic
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
305:, colloquial
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
283:Norn language
281:
276:
273:
268:
264:
260:
256:
251:
249:
245:
241:
233:
230:
227:
226:
225:
222:
220:
216:
210:
208:
204:
200:
191:
189:
187:
183:
179:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
139:
137:
133:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
91:
88:
80:
70:
66:
60:
59:
53:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
2781:
2758:
2753:11:1.95–114.
2750:
2743:
2732:
2728:
2717:
2710:
2699:
2691:
2683:
2676:
2665:
2658:
2648:
2638:
2631:
2595:
2589:
2548:
2543:
2524:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2503:
2494:
2485:
2479:
2470:
2450:
2443:
2423:
2416:
2407:
2394:
2371:
2351:
2331:. Retrieved
2327:Language Log
2325:
2315:
2306:
2280:
2275:
2267:
2262:
2254:
2231:
2223:
2208:
2200:
2192:
2187:
2179:
2174:
2166:
2161:
2153:
2148:
2139:
2133:
2115:
2110:
1965:Proto-Slavic
1956:Old Romanian
1768:Merovingians
1739:Superstrate
1527:Judeo-Arabic
1233:Vulgar Latin
1132:Middle Scots
962:Vulgar Latin
826:), Northern
811:Superstrate
753:
737:
727:, where the
701:
691:'s history,
686:
671:
662:
647:Please help
635:
610:
599:Austronesian
584:
549:
545:
542:Superstratum
528:
511:
494:
480:
477:
464:
454:
449:
448:. The name
446:Georg Holzer
442:Balto-Slavic
427:
376:
355:
343:
303:North Africa
277:
266:
262:
252:
237:
223:
211:
207:superstratum
195:
178:superstratum
177:
175:
159:Roman Empire
155:colonisation
142:
140:
129:
112:
104:
98:
83:
74:
55:
2751:Diachronica
2713:2:2.413–436
2679:2:2.389–412
2043:Ostsiedlung
2041:during the
1887:Reconquista
1873:during the
1863:(by way of
1856:Old Spanish
1802:during the
1790:Old English
1774:around 500
1715:Volga Finns
1394:Philippines
1345:during the
1307:Andalusians
1209:during the
1112:during the
1110:the English
1038:Old English
926:Mesopotamia
900:during the
856:Old Chinese
768:High German
721:North India
697:Old English
407:Volga Finns
344:Typically,
341:substrata.
299:Middle East
219:place names
192:Substratum
182:Burgundians
101:linguistics
77:August 2009
69:introducing
2803:Categories
2333:2017-09-30
2307:Filologija
2124:1843833123
2102:References
2034:Low German
2029:Pomeranian
1915:and other
1879:al-Andalus
1795:Old Norman
1753:Old French
1736:Substrate
1698:languages
1657:Belarusian
1635:, various
1633:Neapolitan
1462:Portuguese
1412:Hiligaynon
1330:and other
994:expansion
989:Bronze Age
808:Substrate
760:Portuguese
605:spoken in
522:and other
473:morphology
419:Meshcheran
374:replaced.
339:Himyaritic
143:substratum
52:references
2767:cite book
2761:. Bruges.
2746:64.27–51.
2668:. Madrid.
2614:223378429
2575:cite book
2380:cite book
2024:Kashubian
1999:Bulgarian
1989:Bulgarian
1973:Ukrainian
1926:Aragonese
1865:Mozarabic
1619:Argentina
1547:European
1399:Chavacano
1343:Spaniards
1197:Hainanese
1193:Cantonese
1174:Singapore
784:Holocaust
693:Old Norse
665:July 2019
636:does not
617:Adstratum
568:adstratum
529:In 1884,
469:phonology
457:etymology
450:Temematic
405:and the "
391:Greek one
381:may have
311:Levantine
267:ab oculis
215:loanwords
203:adstratum
138:culture.
132:migration
2744:Language
2657:(1996).
2567:82586980
2532:Archived
2060:See also
2051:Prussian
2047:Teutonic
2018:Kashubia
1911:, later
1909:Sicilian
1883:Castille
1871:Umayyads
1763:Frankish
1586:Scotland
1561:Shetland
1542:mishnaic
1538:Biblical
1490:Kimbundu
1420:Bangingi
1377:Paraguay
1246:Portugal
1122:Scotland
1064:Cornwall
1009:Tigrinya
1004:Ethiopia
969:Ethiopia
849:Various
835:(Viet),
587:Japanese
415:Muromian
315:Egyptian
291:Shetland
261:such as
151:invasion
136:diaspora
117:language
1985:Serbian
1981:Russian
1967:, then
1963:(first
1942:Moldova
1938:Romania
1913:Italian
1899:Maltese
1800:Normans
1780:England
1709:of the
1702:Russian
1696:Volgaic
1652:Belarus
1642:Spanish
1623:Uruguay
1522:Yiddish
1518:Russian
1494:Kikongo
1486:Umbundu
1416:Cebuano
1408:Ilokano
1404:Tagalog
1387:GuaranĂ
1366:Quechua
1337:Spanish
1328:Nahuatl
1297:Guanche
1270:Romania
1228:Gaulish
1189:Teochew
1185:Min Nan
1150:Jamaica
1095:Ireland
1074:Cornish
1033:England
1000:Eritrea
992:Semitic
974:Amharic
943:Maghreb
828:Vietnam
776:Aramaic
764:Yiddish
756:Spanish
725:Belgium
709:capital
707:of the
705:dialect
689:England
657:removed
642:sources
580:Gaulish
552:English
485:Ossetic
401:of the
323:Aramaic
319:Maghreb
285:on the
263:aveugle
259:calques
240:Gaulish
167:Gaulish
121:contact
105:stratum
65:improve
2788:
2733:et al.
2612:
2602:
2565:
2555:
2517:to nim
2458:
2431:
2238:
2215:
2122:
2014:Poland
2005:, and
1987:, and
1977:Polish
1922:Norman
1861:Arabic
1811:Greece
1748:France
1711:Chudes
1692:Finnic
1677:Russia
1609:Danish
1599:BokmĂĄl
1594:Norway
1565:Orkney
1544:Hebrew
1514:German
1504:Israel
1492:, and
1476:Angola
1443:Brazil
1434:, and
1428:Tausug
1318:Mexico
1238:Romans
1218:France
960:, and
919:Coptic
878:Levant
868:, and
824:Baiyue
772:Hebrew
729:French
595:Altaic
572:French
556:Norman
520:French
417:, and
317:, and
307:Arabic
295:Orkney
272:exsops
255:sandhi
248:Romans
186:Franks
113:strate
54:, but
2513:niman
2404:(PDF)
2053:rule
1894:Malta
1846:Spain
1730:Area
1580:Scots
1436:Malay
1432:Yakan
1263:Spain
1105:Irish
1017:Ge'ez
1013:Tigré
958:Punic
909:Egypt
898:Arabs
820:China
802:Area
733:Dutch
717:Hindi
713:India
589:(and
576:Latin
564:-logy
481:*mori
411:Merya
403:Chude
287:Scots
244:Gauls
147:elite
109:Latin
2786:ISBN
2773:link
2610:OCLC
2600:ISBN
2581:link
2563:OCLC
2553:ISBN
2509:take
2456:ISBN
2429:ISBN
2386:link
2236:ISBN
2213:ISBN
2120:ISBN
2049:and
1924:and
1772:Gaul
1713:and
1694:and
1575:Norn
1563:and
1540:and
1453:Tupi
1424:Sama
1134:and
1045:and
1024:and
1015:and
774:and
758:and
749:logy
731:and
640:any
638:cite
554:and
471:and
459:and
432:and
389:, a
337:and
329:has
301:and
293:and
184:and
176:The
103:, a
2742:".
1086:of
837:Min
833:Yue
651:by
611:sub
514:of
425:.
409:" (
173:.
153:or
99:In
2805::
2769:}}
2765:{{
2727:.
2709:.
2675:.
2608:.
2577:}}
2573:{{
2561:.
2406:.
2382:}}
2378:{{
2360:^
2342:^
2324:.
2288:^
2246:^
2230:,
2207:,
2020:)
2001:,
1991:)
1983:,
1979:,
1975:,
1954:,
1940:,
1683:)
1520:,
1516:,
1488:,
1455:,
1430:,
1426:,
1422:,
1418:,
1414:,
1410:,
1406:,
1368:,
1195:,
1191:,
1187:,
1011:,
956:,
864:,
845:Wu
843:,
841:Au
839:,
786:.
699:.
487:.
413:,
333:,
313:,
217:,
2794:.
2775:)
2616:.
2583:)
2569:.
2464:.
2437:.
2410:.
2388:)
2336:.
2016:(
1867:)
1679:(
1621:/
1524:,
1002:/
822:(
678:)
672:(
667:)
663:(
659:.
645:.
107:(
90:)
84:(
79:)
75:(
61:.
34:.
20:)
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