230:
607:. This inflammation hypersensitizes the exposed cell and nearby cells to subsequent exposure. As a result, while a cell can be repeatedly transfected with short RNA with few non-specific effects, repeatedly transfecting cells with even a small amount of long RNA can cause cell death unless measures are taken to suppress or evade the innate immune system (see "Long-RNA transfection" below).
2880:
170:, magnetofection); others rely on chemical materials or biological particles (viruses) that are used as carriers. There are many different methods of gene delivery developed for various types of cells and tissues, from bacterial to mammalian. Generally, the methods can be divided into three categories: physical, chemical, and biological.
720:), and others. All of these proteins can specifically bind to exogenous RNA molecules and trigger an immune response. The specific chemical, structural or other characteristics of long RNA molecules that are required for recognition by PRRs remain largely unknown despite intense study. At any given time, a typical
149:
into cells, resulting in an infection. For work with bacterial and archaeal cells transfection retains its original meaning as a special case of transformation. Because the term transformation had another sense in animal cell biology (a genetic change allowing long-term propagation in culture, or
437:
Protoplast fusion is a technique in which transformed bacterial cells are treated with lysozyme in order to remove the cell wall. Following this, fusogenic agents (e.g., Sendai virus, PEG, electroporation) are used in order to fuse the protoplast carrying the gene of interest with the target
318:
solution containing the DNA to be transfected. When the two are combined, a fine precipitate of the positively charged calcium and the negatively charged phosphate will form, binding the DNA to be transfected on its surface. The suspension of the precipitate is then added to the cells to be
1168:
Menuel S, Fontanay S, Clarot I, Duval RE, Diez L, Marsura A (December 2008). "Synthesis and complexation ability of a novel bis- (guanidinium)-tetrakis-(beta-cyclodextrin) dendrimeric tetrapod as a potential gene delivery (DNA and siRNA) system. Study of cellular siRNA transfection".
798:
from the cell death caused by frequent transfection with long, protein-encoding RNA. Inhibiting interferon signaling disrupts the positive-feedback loop that normally hypersensitizes cells exposed to exogenous long RNA. Researchers have recently used this technique to express
453:
For some applications of transfection, it is sufficient if the transfected genetic material is only transiently expressed. Since the DNA introduced in the transfection process is usually not integrated into the nuclear genome, the foreign DNA will be diluted through
473:. Some (very few) of the transfected cells will, by chance, have integrated the foreign genetic material into their genome. If the toxin is then added to the cell culture, only those few cells with the marker gene integrated into their genomes will be able to
433:
vectors can be useful for viral transfection methods because they can transfer genes into a wide variety of human cells and have high transfer rates. Lentiviral vectors are also helpful due to their ability to transduce cells not currently undergoing mitosis.
534:" of proteins of interests (e.g. Endothelin-1) with potential applications in gene therapy. Limitation of the silencing approach are the toxicity of the transfection for cells and potential "off-target" effects on the expression of other genes/proteins.
740:, and specifically that 5'-triphosphate RNA, which can be produced during viral infection, is more immunogenic than 5'-diphosphate RNA, 5'-monophosphate RNA or RNA containing no 5' phosphate. However, in vitro-transcribed (ivT) long RNA containing a
1204:
Fischer D, von Harpe A, Kunath K, Petersen H, Li Y, Kissel T (2002). "Copolymers of ethylene imine and N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-ethylene imine as tools to study effects of polymer structure on physicochemical and biological properties of DNA complexes".
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transfected (usually a cell culture grown in a monolayer). By a process not entirely understood, the cells take up some of the precipitate, and with it, the DNA. This process has been a preferred method of identifying many oncogenes.
640:
Long-RNA transfection is the process of deliberately introducing RNA molecules longer than about 25nt into living cells. A distinction is made between short- and long-RNA transfection because exogenous long RNA molecules elicit an
278:
is a method used in mice and rats, in which nucleic acids can be delivered to the liver by injecting a relatively large volume in the blood in less than 10 seconds; nearly all of the DNA is expressed in the liver by this procedure.
1649:
Arnold AS, Laporte V, Dumont S, Appert-Collin A, Erbacher P, Coupin G, Levy R, Poindron P, Gies JP (February 2006). "Comparing reagents for efficient transfection of human primary myoblasts: FuGENE 6, Effectene and ExGen 500".
603:, which is triggered by longer RNA molecules. Most cells of the body express proteins of the innate immune system, and upon exposure to exogenous long RNA molecules, these proteins initiate signaling cascades that result in
462:(EBV) nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) or the SV40 large-T antigen allow episomal amplification of plasmids containing the viral EBV (293E) or SV40 (293T) origins of replication, greatly reducing the rate of dilution.
1490:
630:) that encode a short RNA molecule can also be used, short-RNA transfection does not risk modification of the cell's DNA, a characteristic that has led to the development of short RNA as a new class of
766:
nucleotides. Although only a very small number of these modified nucleotides are present in a typical mRNA molecule, they may help prevent mRNA from activating the innate immune system by disrupting
233:
Electroporator with square wave and exponential decay waveforms for in vitro, in vivo, adherent cell and 96 well electroporation applications. Manufactured by BTX Harvard
Apparatus, Holliston MA USA.
197:, which is a lipid-mediated DNA-transfection process utilizing liposome vectors. It can also include the use of polymeric gene carriers (polyplexes). Biological transfection is typically mediated by
937:
241:, where short electrical pulses disrupt the cell membrane, allowing the transfected nucleic acids to enter the cell. Other physical methods use different means to poke holes in the cell membrane:
201:, utilizing the ability of a virus to inject its DNA inside a host cell. A gene that is intended for delivery is packaged into a replication-deficient viral particle. Viruses used to date include
770:
that would resemble double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), a type of RNA thought to be present in cells only during viral infection. The immunogenicity of long RNA has been used to study both innate and
2219:
Yoneyama M, Kikuchi M, Natsukawa T, Shinobu N, Imaizumi T, et al. (2004). "The RNA helicase RIG-I has an essential function in double-stranded RNA-induced innate antiviral responses".
892:
150:
acquisition of properties typical of cancer cells), the term transfection acquired, for animal cells, its present meaning of a change in cell properties caused by introduction of DNA.
477:, while other cells will die. After applying this selective stress (selection pressure) for some time, only the cells with a stable transfection remain and can be cultivated further.
1011:
Saul JM, Linnes MP, Ratner BD, Giachelli CM, Pun SH (November 2007). "Delivery of non-viral gene carriers from sphere-templated fibrin scaffolds for sustained transgene expression".
1693:
Sapra, Rachit; Verma, Ram P.; Maurya, Govind P.; Dhawan, Sameer; Babu, Jisha; Haridas, V. (13 November 2019). "Designer
Peptide and Protein Dendrimers: A Cross-Sectional Analysis".
748:
mRNA) is also highly immunogenic despite having no 5' phosphate, suggesting that characteristics other than 5'-phosphorylation can influence the immunogenicity of an RNA molecule.
237:
Physical methods are the conceptually simplest, using some physical means to force the transfected material into the target cell's nucleus. The most widely used physical method is
1905:
402:
is a series of widely used proprietary non-liposomal transfection reagents capable of directly transfecting a wide variety of cells with high efficiency and low toxicity.
141:
The meaning of the term has evolved. The original meaning of transfection was "infection by transformation", i.e., introduction of genetic material, DNA or RNA, from a
2264:"Protein synthesis in rabbit reticulocytes. Purification and characterization of a double-stranded RNA-dependent protein synthesis inhibitor from reticulocyte lysates"
465:
If it is desired that the transfected gene actually remain in the genome of the cell and its daughter cells, a stable transfection must occur. To accomplish this, a
446:
Stable and transient transfection differ in their long term effects on a cell; a stably transfected cell will continuously express transfected DNA and pass it on to
3166:
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530:
can also be transfected to achieve RNA silencing (i.e. loss of RNA and protein from the targeted gene). This has become a major application in research to achieve "
3104:
60:
cells, including plant cells. In animal cells, transfection is the preferred term as transformation is also used to refer to progression to a cancerous state (
3739:
1744:
Heitz, Marc; Javor, Sacha; Darbre, Tamis; Reymond, Jean-Louis (21 August 2019). "Stereoselective pH Responsive
Peptide Dendrimers for siRNA Transfection".
3822:
2918:
3612:
2026:
Alexopoulou L, Holt AC, Medzhitov R, Flavell RA (2001). "Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptor 3".
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recipient cell. A major disadvantage of this method is that bacterial components are non-specifically introduced into the target cell as well.
2601:"Recognition of 5'-triphosphate by RIG-I helicase requires short blunt double-stranded RNA as contained in panhandle of negative strand virus"
900:
1633:
1373:
670:
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is a class of highly branched molecules based on various building blocks and synthesized through a convergent or a divergent method. These
942:
2943:
2769:
3769:
1797:"High-level and high-throughput recombinant protein production by transient transfection of suspension-growing human 293-EBNA1 cells"
450:, while a transiently transfected cell will express transfected DNA for a short amount of time and not pass it on to daughter cells.
3779:
3097:
1144:
728:
molecules. How cells distinguish exogenous long RNA from the large amount of endogenous long RNA is an important open question in
2123:"Suppression of RNA recognition by Toll-like receptors: the impact of nucleoside modification and the evolutionary origin of RNA"
1092:
Mehier-Humbert S, Guy RH (April 2005). "Physical methods for gene transfer: improving the kinetics of gene delivery into cells".
767:
3787:
3330:
3833:
3502:
2936:
610:
Short-RNA transfection is routinely used in biological research to knock down the expression of a protein of interest (using
380:) genetic material. This transfection technology performs the same tasks as other biochemical procedures utilizing polymers,
1046:
Tsukakoshi M, Kurata S, Nomiya Y, et al. (1984). "A Novel Method of DNA Transfection by Laser
Microbeam Cell Surgery".
264:, in which nucleic acid is attached to heavy metal particles (usually gold) and propelled into the cells at high speed; and
1957:
3808:
3803:
3549:
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3121:
1307:"Transfer of the gene for thymidine kinase to thymidine kinase-deficient human cells by purified herpes simplex viral DNA"
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1985:
846:
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3446:
3429:
3340:
3194:
3038:
2994:
1270:
Graham FL, van der Eb AJ (April 1973). "A new technique for the assay of infectivity of human adenovirus 5 DNA".
831:
589:
45:
1567:"Highly efficient cell-mediated gene transfer using non-viral vectors and FuGene6: in vitro and in vivo studies"
3033:
2963:
2928:
2907:
1448:
Felgner JH, Kumar R, Sridhar CN, Wheeler CJ, Tsai YJ, Border R, Ramsey P, Martin M, Felgner PL (January 1994).
925:
874:
550:
2012:
1389:
Felgner PL, Gadek TR, Holm M, Roman R, Chan HW, Wenz M, Northrop JP, Ringold GM, Danielsen M (November 1987).
2989:
2967:
1845:
1530:
Jacobsen LB, Calvin SA, Colvin KE, Wright M (June 2004). "FuGENE 6 Transfection
Reagent: the gentle power".
836:
426:
65:
459:
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3918:
771:
574:
430:
294:, polymers, liposomes, or nanoparticles (with or without chemical or viral functionalization. See below).
214:
2305:"Characterization of purified double-stranded RNA-activated eIF-2 alpha kinase from rabbit reticulocytes"
3220:
3018:
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611:
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is co-transfected, which gives the cell some selectable advantage, such as resistance towards a certain
275:
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921:
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2653:"Innate Immune Suppression Enables Frequent Transfection with RNA Encoding Reprogramming Proteins"
3627:
3478:
2858:
2823:
2383:
2244:
2201:
2059:
1868:"RNA transfection is a versatile tool to investigate endothelin-1 posttranscriptional regulation"
1777:
1726:
1675:
1604:
1450:"Enhanced gene delivery and mechanism studies with a novel series of cationic lipid formulations"
1071:
752:
725:
682:
596:, solving a number of key technical barriers in delivering the RNA molecule into the human cell.
474:
2889:
44:. It may also refer to other methods and cell types, although other terms are often preferred: "
2542:"5'-triphosphate RNA requires base-paired structures to activate antiviral signaling via RIG-I"
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3744:
2815:
2729:
2692:
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2460:"Nonself RNA-sensing mechanism of RIG-I helicase and activation of antiviral immune responses"
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108:
2403:"Innate immunity induced by composition-dependent RIG-I recognition of Hepatitis C virus RNA"
1623:
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RNA can also be transfected into cells to transiently express its coded protein, or to study
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Hellgren I, Drvota V, Pieper R, Enoksson S, Blomberg P, Islam KB, Sylvén C (August 2000).
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562:
392:. The efficiency of lipofection can be improved by treating transfected cells with a mild
389:
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238:
174:
116:
104:
2164:"Innate antiviral responses by means of TLR7-mediated recognition of single-stranded RNA"
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template. As with DNA, RNA can be delivered to cells by a variety of means including
133:
Transfection can result in unexpected morphologies and abnormalities in target cells.
3907:
3887:
3764:
3702:
3519:
3408:
3295:
2712:"Highly Efficient Transfection of Primary Macrophages with In Vitro Transcribed mRNA"
1921:"Highly Efficient Transfection of Primary Macrophages with In Vitro Transcribed mRNA"
1821:
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transfection) is a technique used to inject genetic material into a cell by means of
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34:
2387:
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1757:
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1608:
708:(PKR, a.k.a. EIF2AK2), members of the oligoadenylate synthetase family of proteins (
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3403:
3225:
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2862:
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2790:
2063:
1491:"Brief heat shock increases stable integration of lipid-mediated DNA transfections"
851:
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RNA molecules shorter than about 25nt (nucleotides) largely evade detection by the
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machinery, and therefore is not referred to as siRNA). While DNA-based vectors (
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339:
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100:
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1105:
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979:
821:
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kinetics. RNA transfection is often used in primary cells that do not divide.
409:
393:
335:
314:-buffered saline solution (HeBS) containing phosphate ions is combined with a
269:
246:
210:
206:
202:
142:
68:
is often used to describe virus-mediated gene transfer into eukaryotic cells.
1765:
1714:
577:
the RNA into the encoded protein. If the RNA is a regulatory RNA (such as a
256:
Several methods use tools that force the nucleic acid into the cell, namely:
3892:
3859:
3734:
3393:
3386:
3325:
3320:
3279:
3261:
3005:
2566:
2458:
Takahasi K, Yoneyama M, Nishihori T, Hirai R, Kumeta H, et al. (2008).
2370:
2345:
2262:
Das HK, Das A, Ghosh-Dastidar P, Ralston RO, Yaghmai B, et al. (1981).
2188:
2163:
1489:
Pipes BL, Vasanwala FH, Tsang TC, Zhang T, Luo P, Harris DT (January 2005).
1415:
1391:"Lipofection: a highly efficient, lipid-mediated DNA-transfection procedure"
1129:
Nonviral
Vectors for Gene Therapy - Physical Methods and Medical Translation
841:
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127:
57:
38:
2819:
2733:
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2634:
2599:
Schlee M, Roth A, Hornung V, Hagmann CA, Wimmenauer V, et al. (2009).
2585:
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1032:
997:
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17:
2853:
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2330:
2289:
1812:
1475:
1434:
1291:
673:(PAMPs), and triggering a complex set of responses collectively known as "
412:
bind the nucleic acids to form dendriplexes that then penetrate the cells.
3882:
3849:
3652:
3647:
3524:
2959:
1350:
698:
615:
578:
566:
488:
353:
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193:, continuous infusion, and sonication. Chemicals include methods such as
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88:
53:
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2914:
Biology
Research Resource — Articles and Forums about Transfection
1582:
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455:
107:
to allow the uptake of material. Transfection can be carried out using
3082:
2540:
Schmidt A, Schwerd T, Hamm W, Hellmuth JC, Cui S, et al. (2009).
1507:
1218:
1182:
3315:
3253:
2798:
Luo D, Saltzman WM (January 2000). "Synthetic DNA delivery systems".
2501:"Structural mechanism of RNA recognition by the RIG-I-like receptors"
2344:
Hornung V, Ellegast J, Kim S, Brzozka K, Jung A, et al. (2006).
2047:
721:
499:
166:: some rely on physical treatment (electroporation, cell squeezing,
2767:
Segura T, Shea LD (2001). "Materials for non-viral gene delivery".
2232:
1625:
Primary and Stem Cells: Gene
Transfer Technologies and Applications
645:
in cells that can cause a variety of nonspecific effects including
3632:
3053:
2811:
2724:
2711:
2710:
Herb M, Farid A, Gluschko A, Krönke M, Schramm M (November 2019).
1933:
1920:
1919:
Herb M, Farid A, Gluschko A, Krönke M, Schramm M (November 2019).
787:
623:
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527:
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311:
228:
198:
123:
96:
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Eukaryotic mRNA contains chemically modified nucleotides such as
253:
uses a highly focused laser to form a ~1 μm diameter hole.
130:
that fuse with the cell membrane and deposit their cargo inside.
2919:
Research in optical transfection at the University of St Andrews
2401:
Saito T; Owen DM; Jiang F; Marcotrigiano J; Gale M, Jr. (2008).
717:
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521:
327:
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Diebold SS, Kaisho T, Hemmi H, Akira S, Reis e Sousa C (2004).
376:
or mixtures) to form an aggregate with the negatively charged (
554:
377:
369:
159:
49:
2013:"Macular degeneration treatment interferes with RNA messages"
103:
typically involves opening transient pores or "holes" in the
33:
is the process of deliberately introducing naked or purified
2077:
Kariko K, Ni H, Capodici J, Lamphier M, Weissman D (2004).
2913:
1986:"The first Covid-19 vaccines have changed biotech forever"
724:
cell may contain several hundred thousand mRNA and other,
27:
Process of introducing nucleic acids into eukaryotic cells
964:"Mammalian cell transfection: the present and the future"
245:
uses high-intensity ultrasound (attributed mainly to the
665:
The innate immune system has evolved to protect against
581:), the RNA may cause other changes in the cell (such as
249:
of gas bubbles interacting with nearby cell membranes),
2079:"mRNA is an endogenous ligand for Toll-like receptor 3"
1131:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 89. pp. 89–111.
736:
of the 5'-end of a long RNA molecule can influence its
618:(using short RNA that acts independently of the cell's
272:
particles and driven into the target cells by magnets.
1958:"How nanotechnology helps mRNA Covid-19 vaccines work"
480:
Common agents for selecting stable transfection are:
425:
as a carrier. In such cases, the technique is called
3167:
List of varieties of genetically modified maize/corn
2924:
The 10th US-Japan Symposium on Drug Delivery Systems
1087:
1085:
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3133:
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3052:
3003:
2974:
2837:"The inside scoop—evaluating gene delivery methods"
1048:
Applied Physics B: Photophysics and Laser Chemistry
368:. Lipofection generally uses a positively charged (
1904:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
158:There are various methods of introducing foreign
99:constructs), may be transfected. Transfection of
2121:Kariko K, Buckstein M, Ni H, Weissman D (2005).
1127:Suda T, Liu D (2015). "Hydrodynamic Delivery".
334:(PEI). The negatively charged DNA binds to the
268:, where nucleic acids are attached to magnetic
1795:Durocher Y, Perret S, Kamen A (January 2002).
887:
885:
883:
487:, or G418, neutralized by the product of the
3098:
2944:
2346:"5'-triphosphate RNA is the ligand for RIG-I"
545:either chemically, or enzymatically using an
8:
1846:"The Science of Stable Cell Line Generation"
1366:Transfer and Expression: A Laboratory Manual
421:DNA can also be introduced into cells using
338:and the complex is taken up by the cell via
3740:Detection of genetically modified organisms
2749:"RNA offers a safer way to reprogram cells"
2116:
2114:
1984:Foley, Katherine Ellen (22 December 2020).
614:) or to express or block the activity of a
429:, and the cells are said to be transduced.
3597:
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3364:
3139:
3130:
3105:
3091:
3083:
2951:
2937:
2929:
2646:
2644:
1241:"Nanoparticle Based Transfection Reagents"
48:" is typically used to describe non-viral
2906:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
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2723:
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2624:
2575:
2565:
2516:
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2369:
2320:
2303:Levin DH, Petryshyn R, London IM (1981).
2279:
2187:
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1932:
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1424:
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1340:
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987:
957:
955:
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951:
924:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
873:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
592:was a breakthrough for producing viable
1652:Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology
863:
458:or degraded. Cell lines expressing the
1897:
1622:Lakshmipathy U, Thyagarajan B (2011).
1245:Biology Transfection Research Resource
968:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
671:pathogen-associated molecular patterns
1956:Cooney, Elizabeth (1 December 2020).
1305:Bacchetti S, Graham FL (April 1977).
537:RNA can be purified from cells after
7:
1571:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
260:of nucleic acid with a fine needle;
119:, by cell squeezing, or by mixing a
2770:Annual Review of Materials Research
1534:. Transfection of Mammalian Cells.
1454:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
962:Kim TK, Eberwine JH (August 2010).
681:(PRRs) for exogenous RNA including
290:can be divided into several kinds:
3770:Genetic use restriction technology
1866:Mawji IA, Marsden PA (June 2006).
1025:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.07.026
588:Encapsulating the RNA molecule in
25:
2716:Journal of Visualized Experiments
1925:Journal of Visualized Experiments
1872:Experimental Biology and Medicine
1628:(1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
1368:. W. H. Freeman. pp. 96–97.
1247:. Transfection.ws. Archived from
661:Endogenous vs. exogenous long RNA
442:Stable and transient transfection
298:One of the cheapest methods uses
2878:
1664:10.1111/j.1472-8206.2005.00344.x
897:Protocols and Applications Guide
782:Inhibiting only three proteins,
732:. Several reports suggest that
677:". Many cells express specific
3788:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
1758:10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00403
360:that can easily merge with the
2791:10.1146/annurev.matsci.31.1.25
1886:(inactive 12 September 2024).
794:is sufficient to rescue human
778:Repeated long-RNA transfection
364:since they are both made of a
1:
3550:Somatic cell nuclear transfer
2499:Yoneyama M, Fujita T (2008).
2322:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)69008-3
2281:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)69192-1
1467:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)41980-6
679:pattern recognition receptors
322:Another method is the use of
126:with the material to produce
2678:10.1371/journal.pone.0011756
2617:10.1016/j.immuni.2009.05.008
2518:10.1016/j.immuni.2008.07.009
2477:10.1016/j.molcel.2007.11.028
2140:10.1016/j.immuni.2005.06.008
1884:10.3181/00379727-231-2310704
1284:10.1016/0042-6822(73)90341-3
1137:10.1016/bs.adgen.2014.10.002
943:Dorland's Medical Dictionary
2011:Tansey B (11 August 2006).
1707:10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00153
1544:10.1016/j.ymeth.2003.11.002
567:lipid-mediated transfection
302:, originally discovered by
288:Chemical-based transfection
262:biolistic particle delivery
3945:
2747:Trafton A (26 July 2010).
2651:Angel M, Yanik MF (2010).
2015:. San Francisco Chronicle.
1106:10.1016/j.addr.2004.12.007
847:Vector (molecular biology)
3873:
3608:Genetically modified food
3039:Sister chromatid exchange
980:10.1007/s00216-010-3821-6
899:. Promega. Archived from
541:or synthesized from free
173:Physical methods include
3034:Horizontal gene transfer
2964:homologous recombination
2908:Medical Subject Headings
926:Medical Subject Headings
875:Medical Subject Headings
573:, transfected cells may
569:. If the RNA encodes a
2968:mobile genetic elements
2567:10.1073/pnas.0900971106
2371:10.1126/science.1132505
2189:10.1126/science.1093616
1416:10.1073/pnas.84.21.7413
583:RNAi-mediated knockdown
93:supercoiled plasmid DNA
2546:Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
2096:10.1074/jbc.M310175200
1801:Nucleic Acids Research
1746:Bioconjugate Chemistry
1332:10.1073/pnas.74.4.1590
1207:Bioconjugate Chemistry
1171:Bioconjugate Chemistry
801:reprogramming proteins
643:innate immune response
234:
215:adeno-associated virus
3221:Roundup ready soybean
3019:Chromosomal crossover
2854:10.1038/nmeth1105-875
922:Transduction, Genetic
742:7-methylguanosine cap
276:Hydrodynamic delivery
232:
3760:Reverse transfection
3535:Genetic transduction
2800:Nature Biotechnology
601:innate immune system
366:phospholipid bilayer
310:in 1973 (see also).
251:optical transfection
219:herpes simplex virus
191:hydrostatic pressure
145:-infecting virus or
113:tricalcium phosphate
3750:Genetics in fiction
3682:Genetic enhancement
3484:Hepatitis B vaccine
3114:Genetic engineering
2783:2001AnRMS..31...25S
2669:2010PLoSO...511756A
2558:2009PNAS..10612067S
2552:(29): 12067–12072.
2427:10.1038/nature07106
2419:2008Natur.454..523S
2362:2006Sci...314..964H
2180:2004Sci...303.1529D
2174:(5663): 1529–1531.
2089:(13): 12542–12550.
2040:2001Natur.413..732A
1813:10.1093/nar/30.2.e9
1701:(21): 11391–11441.
1407:1987PNAS...84.7413F
1364:Kriegler M (1991).
1323:1977PNAS...74.1590B
1060:1984ApPhB..35..135T
768:secondary structure
726:regulatory long RNA
590:lipid nanoparticles
3860:Stem cell research
3479:Ice-minus bacteria
2888:has a profile for
2835:Bonetta L (2005).
2751:. MIT News Office.
1844:Fanelli A (2016).
1583:10.1007/PL00000769
1094:Adv Drug Deliv Rev
1068:10.1007/BF00697702
683:toll-like receptor
460:Epstein–Barr virus
374:cationic liposomes
235:
162:into a eukaryotic
91:material (such as
64:) in these cells.
3914:Molecular biology
3901:
3900:
3865:Synthetic biology
3755:Human enhancement
3745:Genetic pollution
3721:
3720:
3589:
3588:
3497:
3496:
3460:
3459:
3354:
3353:
3080:
3079:
2894:
2413:(7203): 523–527.
2356:(5801): 994–997.
2315:(14): 7638–7641.
2274:(12): 6491–6495.
2034:(6857): 732–738.
1635:978-0-470-61074-9
1508:10.2144/05381bm05
1375:978-0-7167-7004-6
1219:10.1021/bc025550w
1183:10.1021/bc800193p
803:in primary human
772:adaptive immunity
386:calcium phosphate
324:cationic polymers
300:calcium phosphate
109:calcium phosphate
16:(Redirected from
3936:
3924:Applied genetics
3638:Dow AgroSciences
3598:
3508:
3365:
3140:
3131:
3107:
3100:
3093:
3084:
2953:
2946:
2939:
2930:
2892:
2882:
2881:
2866:
2856:
2831:
2794:
2753:
2752:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2727:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2690:
2680:
2648:
2639:
2638:
2628:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2579:
2569:
2537:
2531:
2530:
2520:
2496:
2490:
2489:
2479:
2455:
2449:
2448:
2438:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2373:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2324:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2283:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2191:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2142:
2118:
2109:
2108:
2098:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2048:10.1038/35099560
2023:
2017:
2016:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1936:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1903:
1895:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1824:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1752:(8): 2165–2182.
1741:
1735:
1734:
1695:Chemical Reviews
1690:
1684:
1683:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1594:
1577:(8–9): 1326–33.
1562:
1556:
1555:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1510:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1469:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1428:
1418:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1344:
1334:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1251:on 21 April 2013
1237:
1231:
1230:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1089:
1080:
1079:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1008:
1002:
1001:
991:
959:
946:
935:
929:
919:
913:
912:
910:
908:
889:
878:
868:
760:5-methylcytidine
756:-methyladenosine
706:protein kinase R
516:RNA transfection
332:polyethylenimine
316:calcium chloride
308:A. J. van der Eb
283:Chemical methods
225:Physical methods
21:
3944:
3943:
3939:
3938:
3937:
3935:
3934:
3933:
3904:
3903:
3902:
3897:
3869:
3838:
3792:
3774:
3727:
3717:
3691:
3687:Genetic testing
3669:
3659:
3585:
3571:Recombinant DNA
3559:
3530:Electroporation
3493:
3489:Oncolytic virus
3468:
3456:
3413:
3399:Herman the Bull
3350:
3284:
3266:
3248:
3230:
3207:
3189:
3171:
3125:
3123:
3116:
3111:
3081:
3076:
3062:Antigenic shift
3048:
3024:Gene conversion
2999:
2970:
2957:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2883:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2847:(11): 875–883.
2834:
2797:
2766:
2762:
2760:Further reading
2757:
2756:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2650:
2649:
2642:
2598:
2597:
2593:
2539:
2538:
2534:
2498:
2497:
2493:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2400:
2399:
2395:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2261:
2260:
2256:
2218:
2217:
2213:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2120:
2119:
2112:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2025:
2024:
2020:
2010:
2009:
2005:
1995:
1993:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1968:
1966:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1918:
1917:
1913:
1896:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1850:
1848:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1794:
1793:
1789:
1743:
1742:
1738:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1388:
1387:
1383:
1376:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1254:
1252:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1177:(12): 2357–62.
1167:
1166:
1162:
1147:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1091:
1090:
1083:
1045:
1044:
1040:
1019:(31): 4705–16.
1010:
1009:
1005:
961:
960:
949:
936:
932:
920:
916:
906:
904:
903:on 25 June 2014
891:
890:
881:
869:
865:
860:
813:
780:
764:2'-O-methylated
734:phosphorylation
663:
563:electroporation
518:
491:resistance gene
444:
419:
390:electroporation
285:
239:electroporation
227:
175:electroporation
156:
139:
117:electroporation
56:and non-animal
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3942:
3940:
3932:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3906:
3905:
3899:
3898:
3896:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3874:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3846:
3844:
3843:Similar fields
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3800:
3798:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3790:
3784:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3731:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3715:
3713:Gene targeting
3710:
3708:Gene knockdown
3705:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3692:
3690:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3673:
3671:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3657:
3656:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3643:DuPont Pioneer
3640:
3635:
3630:
3622:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3604:
3602:
3601:In agriculture
3595:
3591:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3584:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3567:
3565:
3561:
3560:
3558:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3545:Microinjection
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3516:
3514:
3505:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3492:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3475:
3473:
3462:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3427:
3421:
3419:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3382:Knockout mouse
3373:
3371:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3292:
3290:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3282:
3276:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3264:
3258:
3256:
3250:
3249:
3247:
3246:
3240:
3238:
3232:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3223:
3217:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3199:
3197:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3187:
3181:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3148:
3146:
3137:
3128:
3118:
3117:
3112:
3110:
3109:
3102:
3095:
3087:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3058:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3010:
3008:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2997:
2995:Transformation
2992:
2987:
2981:
2979:
2972:
2971:
2958:
2956:
2955:
2948:
2941:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2884:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2872:External links
2870:
2868:
2867:
2841:Nature Methods
2832:
2795:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2739:
2702:
2640:
2591:
2532:
2511:(2): 178–181.
2491:
2470:(4): 428–440.
2450:
2393:
2336:
2295:
2254:
2233:10.1038/ni1087
2227:(7): 730–737.
2211:
2154:
2133:(2): 165–175.
2110:
2069:
2018:
2003:
1992:. Quartz Media
1976:
1948:
1911:
1878:(6): 704–708.
1858:
1836:
1787:
1736:
1685:
1641:
1634:
1614:
1557:
1522:
1481:
1460:(4): 2550–61.
1440:
1401:(21): 7413–7.
1381:
1374:
1356:
1297:
1262:
1232:
1213:(5): 1124–33.
1196:
1160:
1145:
1119:
1081:
1054:(3): 135–140.
1038:
1003:
947:
938:"Transfection"
930:
914:
893:"Transfection"
879:
862:
861:
859:
856:
855:
854:
849:
844:
839:
834:
832:Transformation
829:
824:
819:
817:Gene targeting
812:
809:
779:
776:
738:immunogenicity
702:RIG1 (RARRES3)
662:
659:
632:macromolecular
559:microinjection
547:RNA polymerase
517:
514:
513:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
448:daughter cells
443:
440:
418:
415:
414:
413:
403:
397:
343:
320:
284:
281:
266:magnetofection
258:microinjection
226:
223:
179:microinjection
155:
152:
138:
135:
62:carcinogenesis
46:transformation
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3941:
3930:
3929:Biotechnology
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3919:Gene delivery
3917:
3915:
3912:
3911:
3909:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3888:Biotechnology
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3875:
3872:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3841:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3829:South America
3827:
3824:
3820:
3819:North America
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3795:
3789:
3786:
3785:
3783:
3781:
3777:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3765:Transhumanism
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3724:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3703:Gene knockout
3701:
3700:
3698:
3694:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3625:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3614:
3613:Controversies
3611:
3610:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3603:
3599:
3596:
3592:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3562:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3513:
3512:Inserting DNA
3509:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3474:
3472:
3467:
3463:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3418:Other animals
3416:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3370:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3357:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3287:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3269:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3251:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3210:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3138:
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3132:
3129:
3127:
3119:
3115:
3108:
3103:
3101:
3096:
3094:
3089:
3088:
3085:
3073:
3070:
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3065:
3063:
3060:
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3055:
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3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
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3015:
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3009:
3007:
3002:
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2978:
2973:
2969:
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2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2909:
2905:
2902:
2901:
2896:
2895:
2891:transfection
2887:
2871:
2864:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2812:10.1038/71889
2809:
2805:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2759:
2750:
2743:
2740:
2735:
2731:
2726:
2725:10.3791/60143
2721:
2717:
2713:
2706:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2663:(7): e11756.
2662:
2658:
2654:
2647:
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2641:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
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2328:
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2258:
2255:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2215:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2022:
2019:
2014:
2007:
2004:
1991:
1987:
1980:
1977:
1965:
1964:
1959:
1952:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1935:
1934:10.3791/60143
1930:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1912:
1907:
1901:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1859:
1847:
1840:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1788:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1740:
1737:
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1724:
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1716:
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1689:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
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1661:
1657:
1653:
1645:
1642:
1637:
1631:
1627:
1626:
1618:
1615:
1610:
1606:
1602:
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1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1538:(2): 104–12.
1537:
1533:
1526:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1495:BioTechniques
1492:
1485:
1482:
1477:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1444:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1408:
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1377:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1317:(4): 1590–4.
1316:
1312:
1308:
1301:
1298:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1278:(2): 456–67.
1277:
1273:
1266:
1263:
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1246:
1242:
1236:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1200:
1197:
1192:
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1180:
1176:
1172:
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1156:
1152:
1148:
1146:9780128022726
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1123:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1100:(5): 733–53.
1099:
1095:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1042:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1007:
1004:
999:
995:
990:
985:
981:
977:
974:(8): 3173–8.
973:
969:
965:
958:
956:
954:
952:
948:
945:
944:
939:
934:
931:
927:
923:
918:
915:
902:
898:
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888:
886:
884:
880:
876:
872:
867:
864:
857:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
814:
810:
808:
806:
802:
797:
793:
789:
785:
777:
775:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
755:
749:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
669:by detecting
668:
660:
658:
656:
652:
648:
644:
638:
636:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
608:
606:
602:
597:
595:
591:
586:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
535:
533:
529:
525:
523:
515:
511:
510:Blasticidin S
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
490:
486:
483:
482:
481:
478:
476:
472:
468:
463:
461:
457:
451:
449:
441:
439:
435:
432:
428:
424:
417:Viral methods
416:
411:
407:
404:
401:
398:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
362:cell membrane
359:
355:
351:
347:
344:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
296:
295:
293:
289:
282:
280:
277:
273:
271:
267:
263:
259:
254:
252:
248:
244:
240:
231:
224:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
187:impalefection
184:
180:
176:
171:
169:
168:nanoparticles
165:
161:
153:
151:
148:
147:bacteriophage
144:
136:
134:
131:
129:
125:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
105:cell membrane
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
69:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
40:
36:
35:nucleic acids
32:
19:
3677:Gene therapy
3576:Transgenesis
3555:Transfection
3554:
3520:Agrobacteria
3404:Knockout rat
3226:Vistive Gold
3122:Genetically
3067:Reassortment
3014:Transfection
3013:
2990:Transduction
2904:Transfection
2890:
2844:
2840:
2803:
2799:
2774:
2768:
2742:
2715:
2705:
2660:
2656:
2611:(1): 25–34.
2608:
2604:
2594:
2549:
2545:
2535:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2467:
2463:
2453:
2410:
2406:
2396:
2353:
2349:
2339:
2312:
2308:
2298:
2271:
2267:
2257:
2224:
2220:
2214:
2171:
2167:
2157:
2130:
2126:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2031:
2027:
2021:
2006:
1994:. Retrieved
1989:
1979:
1967:. Retrieved
1961:
1951:
1924:
1914:
1900:cite journal
1875:
1871:
1861:
1849:. Retrieved
1839:
1804:
1800:
1790:
1749:
1745:
1739:
1698:
1694:
1688:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1624:
1617:
1574:
1570:
1560:
1535:
1531:
1525:
1501:(1): 48–52.
1498:
1494:
1484:
1457:
1453:
1443:
1398:
1394:
1384:
1365:
1359:
1314:
1310:
1300:
1275:
1271:
1265:
1255:30 September
1253:. Retrieved
1249:the original
1244:
1235:
1210:
1206:
1199:
1174:
1170:
1163:
1128:
1122:
1097:
1093:
1051:
1047:
1041:
1016:
1013:Biomaterials
1012:
1006:
971:
967:
941:
933:
917:
905:. Retrieved
901:the original
896:
871:Transfection
866:
852:Viral vector
837:Transduction
827:Protofection
784:interferon-β
781:
753:
750:
744:(present in
730:cell biology
675:inflammation
664:
653:arrest, and
639:
609:
605:inflammation
598:
594:RNA vaccines
587:
536:
526:
519:
505:Hygromycin B
479:
464:
452:
445:
436:
427:transduction
420:
405:
399:
382:DEAE-dextran
356:, which are
345:
328:DEAE-dextran
323:
304:F. L. Graham
299:
292:cyclodextrin
287:
286:
274:
255:
243:Sonoporation
236:
172:
157:
140:
132:
101:animal cells
84:
80:
73:transfection
72:
70:
66:Transduction
52:transfer in
31:Transfection
30:
29:
3696:In research
3670:diagnostics
3540:Lipofection
3301:Arabidopsis
3203:Golden rice
3072:Viral shift
3029:Fusion gene
2985:Conjugation
2977:prokaryotic
2806:(1): 33–7.
2309:J Biol Chem
2268:J Biol Chem
2221:Nat Immunol
2083:J Biol Chem
1851:23 December
1807:(2): 9e–9.
1658:(1): 81–9.
805:fibroblasts
796:fibroblasts
697:), the RNA
647:translation
543:nucleotides
475:proliferate
467:marker gene
346:Lipofection
340:endocytosis
195:lipofection
137:Terminology
77:portmanteau
18:Lipofection
3908:Categories
3780:Regulation
3624:Companies
3581:Cisgenesis
3525:Biolistics
3331:Sugar beet
3244:Flavr Savr
3144:Maize/corn
3044:Transposon
3006:eukaryotes
3004:Occurs in
2975:Primarily
2893:(Q1429031)
1996:11 January
1969:3 December
907:25 October
858:References
822:Minicircle
746:eukaryotic
651:cell-cycle
551:transcribe
532:knock-down
431:Adenoviral
410:dendrimers
394:heat shock
336:polycation
270:iron oxide
247:cavitation
211:adenovirus
207:lentivirus
203:retrovirus
143:prokaryote
58:eukaryotic
39:eukaryotic
3893:Bioethics
3797:Geography
3735:Transgene
3503:Processes
3394:Enviropig
3387:Oncomouse
3326:SmartStax
3262:Bt cotton
3126:organisms
2777:: 25–46.
1782:199519310
1766:1043-1802
1731:203435702
1715:0009-2665
1076:123250337
842:Transgene
722:mammalian
667:infection
655:apoptosis
575:translate
522:RNA decay
495:Puromycin
485:Geneticin
406:Dendrimer
372:) lipid (
354:liposomes
128:liposomes
85:infection
71:The word
3883:Genetics
3850:Eugenics
3728:articles
3653:Syngenta
3648:Monsanto
3620:Pharming
3466:Bacteria
3162:StarLink
3124:modified
2960:Genetics
2820:10625387
2734:31762462
2697:20668695
2657:PLOS ONE
2635:19576794
2605:Immunity
2586:19574455
2527:18701081
2505:Immunity
2486:18242112
2464:Mol Cell
2445:18548002
2388:22436759
2380:17038590
2249:34876422
2241:15208624
2206:33144196
2198:14976261
2149:16111635
2127:Immunity
2105:14729660
2056:11607032
1943:31762462
1892:16740984
1831:11788735
1774:31398014
1723:31556597
1680:42585711
1672:16448398
1609:27916034
1601:11028922
1592:11146917
1552:15121164
1517:15679084
1272:Virology
1227:12236795
1191:19053312
1155:25620009
1114:15757758
1033:17675152
998:20549496
811:See also
699:helicase
628:plasmids
489:neomycin
370:cationic
358:vesicles
350:liposome
326:such as
183:gene gun
121:cationic
54:bacteria
3878:Biology
3855:Cloning
3834:Oceania
3726:Related
3471:viruses
3435:GloFish
3425:Insects
3369:Mammals
3360:Animals
3346:Mustard
3336:Tobacco
3306:Brinjal
3213:Soybean
3185:Amflora
3157:MON 863
3152:MON 810
2886:Scholia
2863:8078059
2828:7068508
2779:Bibcode
2718:(153).
2688:2909252
2665:Bibcode
2626:2824854
2577:2705279
2554:Bibcode
2436:2856441
2415:Bibcode
2358:Bibcode
2350:Science
2331:6265457
2290:7240221
2176:Bibcode
2168:Science
2064:4346537
2036:Bibcode
1927:(153).
1532:Methods
1476:8300583
1435:2823261
1403:Bibcode
1319:Bibcode
1292:4705382
1056:Bibcode
989:2911531
792:EIF2AK2
685:3,7,8 (
649:block,
624:viruses
571:protein
456:mitosis
423:viruses
378:anionic
217:, and
199:viruses
154:Methods
89:Genetic
3809:Africa
3804:Europe
3666:humans
3440:Salmon
3409:Rabbit
3316:Papaya
3311:Canola
3254:Cotton
3236:Tomato
3177:Potato
2910:(MeSH)
2861:
2826:
2818:
2732:
2695:
2685:
2633:
2623:
2584:
2574:
2525:
2484:
2443:
2433:
2407:Nature
2386:
2378:
2329:
2288:
2247:
2239:
2204:
2196:
2147:
2103:
2062:
2054:
2028:Nature
1990:Quartz
1941:
1890:
1829:
1819:
1780:
1772:
1764:
1729:
1721:
1713:
1678:
1670:
1632:
1607:
1599:
1589:
1550:
1515:
1474:
1433:
1426:299306
1423:
1372:
1351:193108
1349:
1342:430836
1339:
1290:
1225:
1189:
1153:
1143:
1112:
1074:
1031:
996:
986:
928:(MeSH)
877:(MeSH)
790:, and
762:, and
565:, and
528:siRNAs
500:Zeocin
400:Fugene
388:, and
115:), by
111:(i.e.
81:trans-
3633:Bayer
3564:Types
3452:Frogs
3447:Birds
3377:Mouse
3341:Trees
3296:Apple
3289:Other
3272:Wheat
3135:Crops
3054:Viral
2859:S2CID
2824:S2CID
2384:S2CID
2245:S2CID
2202:S2CID
2060:S2CID
1822:99848
1778:S2CID
1727:S2CID
1676:S2CID
1605:S2CID
1072:S2CID
788:STAT2
635:drugs
616:miRNA
612:siRNA
579:miRNA
539:lysis
471:toxin
312:HEPES
306:and
124:lipid
97:siRNA
75:is a
42:cells
37:into
3814:Asia
3628:BASF
3594:Uses
3469:and
3430:Fish
3321:Rose
3195:Rice
2816:PMID
2730:PMID
2693:PMID
2631:PMID
2582:PMID
2523:PMID
2482:PMID
2441:PMID
2376:PMID
2327:PMID
2286:PMID
2237:PMID
2194:PMID
2145:PMID
2101:PMID
2052:PMID
1998:2021
1971:2020
1963:Stat
1939:PMID
1906:link
1888:PMID
1853:2017
1827:PMID
1770:PMID
1762:ISSN
1719:PMID
1711:ISSN
1668:PMID
1630:ISBN
1597:PMID
1548:PMID
1513:PMID
1472:PMID
1431:PMID
1370:ISBN
1347:PMID
1288:PMID
1257:2009
1223:PMID
1187:PMID
1151:PMID
1141:ISBN
1110:PMID
1029:PMID
994:PMID
909:2014
718:OAS3
714:OAS2
710:OAS1
695:TLR8
691:TLR7
687:TLR3
620:RNAi
348:(or
164:cell
83:and
3668:and
3664:In
3280:HB4
2849:doi
2808:doi
2787:doi
2720:doi
2683:PMC
2673:doi
2621:PMC
2613:doi
2572:PMC
2562:doi
2550:106
2513:doi
2472:doi
2431:PMC
2423:doi
2411:454
2366:doi
2354:314
2317:doi
2313:256
2276:doi
2272:256
2229:doi
2184:doi
2172:303
2135:doi
2091:doi
2087:279
2044:doi
2032:413
1929:doi
1880:doi
1876:231
1817:PMC
1809:doi
1754:doi
1703:doi
1699:119
1660:doi
1587:PMC
1579:doi
1540:doi
1503:doi
1462:doi
1458:269
1421:PMC
1411:doi
1337:PMC
1327:doi
1280:doi
1215:doi
1179:doi
1133:doi
1102:doi
1064:doi
1021:doi
984:PMC
976:doi
972:397
940:at
585:).
555:DNA
549:to
330:or
160:DNA
95:or
87:.
79:of
50:DNA
3910::
3823:US
2966:/
2962::
2857:.
2843:.
2839:.
2822:.
2814:.
2804:18
2802:.
2785:.
2775:31
2773:.
2728:.
2714:.
2691:.
2681:.
2671:.
2659:.
2655:.
2643:^
2629:.
2619:.
2609:31
2607:.
2603:.
2580:.
2570:.
2560:.
2548:.
2544:.
2521:.
2509:29
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