Liquid–liquid extraction - Knowledge (XXG)

1228:. However, dextran is relatively expensive, and research has been exploring using less expensive polysaccharides to generate the heavy phase. If the target compound being separated is a protein or enzyme, it is possible to incorporate a ligand to the target into one of the polymer phases. This improves the target's affinity to that phase, and improves its ability to partition from one phase into the other. This, as well as the absence of solvents or other denaturing agents, makes polymer–polymer extractions an attractive option for purifying proteins. The two phases of a polymer–polymer system often have very similar densities, and very low surface tension between them. Because of this, demixing a polymer–polymer system is often much more difficult than demixing a solvent extraction. Methods to improve the demixing include 1300:

derivatize the analyte of interest. The coating may be of such a concentration or characteristics that it would damage the instrumentation or interfere with the analysis. If the sample can be extracted from the sorbent using a nonpolar solvent (such as toluene or carbon disulfide), and the coating is polar (such as HBr or phosphoric acid) the dissolved coating will partition into the aqueous phase. Clearly the reverse is true as well, using polar extraction solvent and a nonpolar solvent to partition a nonpolar interferent. A small aliquot of the organic phase (or in the latter case, polar phase) can then be injected into the instrument for analysis.

691: 1311:(analogously to ammonia) have a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom that can form a relatively weak bond to a hydrogen atom. It is therefore the case that under acidic conditions amines are typically protonated, carrying a positive charge and under basic conditions they are typically deprotonated and neutral. Amines of sufficiently low molecular weight are rather polar and can form hydrogen bonds with water and therefore will readily dissolve in aqueous solutions. Deprotonated amines on the other hand, are neutral and have 739:). This is the simplest type of solvent extraction. When a solvent is extracted, two immiscible liquids are shaken together. The more polar solutes dissolve preferentially in the more polar solvent, and the less polar solutes in the less polar solvent. Some solutes that do not at first sight appear to undergo a reaction during the extraction process do not have distribution ratio that is independent of concentration. A classic example is the extraction of 3503: 707: 1440: 1349: 1156: 776: 493: 305: 80: 25: 133: 1849:(TPEN) acts as a masking agent for the zinc and an extractant for the cadmium. In the modified Zincex process, zinc is separated from most divalent ions by solvent extraction. D2EHPA (Di (2) ethyl hexyl phosphoric acid) is used for this. A zinc ion replaces the proton from two D2EHPA molecules. To strip the zinc from the D2EHPA, 1273:

The ability to purify DNA from a sample is important for many modern biotechnology processes. However, samples often contain nucleases that degrade the target DNA before it can be purified. It has been shown that DNA fragments will partition into the light phase of a polymer–salt separation system.

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Success of liquid–liquid extraction is measured through separation factors and decontamination factors. The best way to understand the success of an extraction column is through the liquid–liquid equilibrium (LLE) data set. The data set can then be converted into a curve to determine the steady state

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with a nonpolar solvent that is immiscible with water. The organic phase is then drained off. Subsequent processing can recover the amine by techniques such as recrystallization, evaporation or distillation; subsequent extraction back to a polar phase can be performed by adding HCl and shaking again

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is used, however PEG–NaCl systems have been documented when the salt concentration is high enough. Since polymer–salt systems demix readily they are easier to use. However, at high salt concentrations, proteins generally either denature, or precipitate from solution. Thus, polymer–salt systems are

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A novel settling device, Sudhin BioSettler, can separate an oil-water emulsion continuously at a much faster rate than simple gravity settlers. In this photo, an oil-water emulsion, stirred by an impeller in an external reservoir and pumped continuously into the two bottom side ports of BioSettler,

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perspective, solvent extraction is exclusively used in separation and purification of uranium and plutonium, zirconium and hafnium, separation of cobalt and nickel, separation and purification of rare earth elements etc., its greatest advantage being its ability to selectively separate out even very

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are mostly used to extract lithium from brine (with high Li/Mg ratio). Alternatively, Cyanex 272 was also used to extract lithium. The mechanism of lithium extraction was found differently from other metals, such as cobalt, due to the weak coordinating bonding between lithium ions and extractants.

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In a typical scenario, an industrial process will use an extraction step in which solutes are transferred from the aqueous phase to the organic phase; this is often followed by a scrubbing stage in which unwanted solutes are removed from the organic phase, then a stripping stage in which the wanted

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from one liquid into another liquid phase, generally from aqueous to organic. The transfer is driven by chemical potential, i.e. once the transfer is complete, the overall system of chemical components that make up the solutes and the solvents are in a more stable configuration (lower free energy).

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Often there are chemical species present or necessary at one stage of sample processing that will interfere with the analysis. For example, some air monitoring is performed by drawing air through a small glass tube filled with sorbent particles that have been coated with a chemical to stabilize or

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If ligands known to bind and deactivate nucleases are incorporated into the polymer phase, the nucleases will then partition into the heavy phase and be deactivated. Thus, this polymer–salt system is a useful tool for purifying DNA from a sample while simultaneously protecting it from nucleases.

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arrays have been used for the separation of lanthanides. For the design of a good process, the distribution ratio should be not too high (>100) or too low (<0.1) in the extraction portion of the process. It is often the case that the process will have a section for scrubbing unwanted metals

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In the multistage countercurrent process, multiple mixer settlers are installed with mixing and settling chambers located at alternating ends for each stage (since the outlet of the settling sections feed the inlets of the adjacent stage's mixing sections). Mixer-settlers are used when a process

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mix and separate in one unit. Two liquids will be intensively mixed between the spinning rotor and the stationary housing at speeds up to 6000 RPM. This develops great surfaces for an ideal mass transfer from the aqueous phase into the organic phase. At 200–2000 g, both phases will be separated

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requires longer residence times and when the solutions are easily separated by gravity. They require a large facility footprint, but do not require much headspace, and need limited remote maintenance capability for occasional replacement of mixing motors. (Colven, 1956; Davidson, 1957)

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from one extraction unit is fed to the next unit as the aqueous feed, while the organic phase is moved in the opposite direction. Hence, in this way, even if the separation between two metals in each stage is small, the overall system can have a higher decontamination factor.

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partitioning behavior of the solute between the two phases. The y-axis is the concentration of solute in the extract (solvent) phase, and the x-axis is the concentration of the solute in the raffinate phase. From here, one can determine steps for optimization of the process.

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Temperature swing solvent extraction is an experimental technique for the desalination of drinking water. It has been used to remove up to 98.5% of the salt content in water, and is able to process hypersaline brines that cannot be desalinated using reverse osmosis.

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The PEG–NaCl system has been shown to be effective at partitioning small molecules, such as peptides and nucleic acids. These compounds are often flavorants or odorants. The system could then be used by the food industry to isolate or eliminate particular flavors.

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similar metals. One obtains high-purity single metal streams on 'stripping' out the metal value from the 'loaded' organic wherein one can precipitate or deposit the metal value. Stripping is the opposite of extraction: Transfer of mass from organic to aqueous phase.

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can also be extracted from coffee beans and tea leaves using a direct organic extraction. The beans or leaves can be soaked in ethyl acetate which favorably dissolves the caffeine, leaving a majority of the coffee or tea flavor remaining in the initial sample.

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is important. The partition coefficient is a thermodynamic equilibrium constant and has a fixed value for the solute’s partitioning between the two phases. The distribution ratio’s value, however, changes with solution conditions if the relative amounts of

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counter currently interconnected. Each mixer-settler unit provides a single stage of extraction. A mixer settler consists of a first stage that mixes the phases together followed by a quiescent settling stage that allows the phases to separate by gravity.

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unless the nitrate concentration is very high (circa 10 mol/L nitrate is required in the aqueous phase). Another method is to simply use dilute nitric acid as a stripping agent for the plutonium. This PUREX chemistry is a classic example of a

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It is important to investigate the rate at which the solute is transferred between the two phases, in some cases by an alteration of the contact time it is possible to alter the selectivity of the extraction. For instance, the extraction of

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Scholz, F.; S. Komorsky-Lovric; M. Lovric (February 2000). "A new access to Gibbs energies of transfer of ions across liquid|liquid interfaces and a new method to study electrochemical processes at well-defined three-phase junctions".

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In order to calculate the phase equilibrium, it is necessary to use a thermodynamic model such as NRTL, UNIQUAC, etc. The corresponding parameters of these models can be obtained from literature (e.g. Dechema Chemistry Data Series,

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can also refer to the separation of a substance from a mixture by preferentially dissolving that substance in a suitable solvent. In that case, a soluble compound is separated from an insoluble compound or a complex matrix.

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again. Centrifugal extractors minimize the solvent in the process, optimize the product load in the solvent and extract the aqueous phase completely. Counter current and cross current extractions are easily established.

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Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Olaya, M.M.; Velasco, R.; Serrano, M.D.; Marcilla, A. (2009). "Correlation of the Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium Data for Specific Ternary Systems with One or Two Partially Miscible Binary Subsystems".

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to separate the organic and aqueous layers. This process is useful in extraction organic compounds such as organochloride and organophsophorus pesticides, as well as substituted benzene compounds from water samples.

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usually have different values. Depending on the system, the distribution ratio can be a function of temperature, the concentration of chemical species in the system, and a large number of other parameters. Note that

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Rezaee, Mohammad; Assadi, Yaghoub; Milani Hosseini, Mohammad-Reza; Aghaee, Elham; Ahmadi, Fardin; Berijani, Sana (2006). "Determination of organic compounds in water using dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction".

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is separated very quickly into a clear organic (mineral oil) layer exiting via the top of BioSettler and an aqueous (coloured with a red food dye) layer being pumped out continuously from the bottom of BioSettler.

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solutes dissolve preferentially in the more polar solvent, and the less polar solutes in the less polar solvent. In this experiment, the nonpolar halogens preferentially dissolve in the non-polar mineral oil.

402:. The partition coefficient and the distribution ratio are identical if the solute has only one chemical form in each phase; however, if the solute exists in more than one chemical form in either phase, then 3291:

Topological Analysis of the Gibbs Energy Function (Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium Correlation Data). Including a Thermodynamic Review and a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for Surfaces/Tie-lines/Hessian matrix

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If a complexing agent is present in the aqueous phase then it can lower the distribution ratio. For instance, in the case of iodine being distributed between water and an inert organic solvent such as

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Marcilla, Antonio; Reyes-Labarta, Juan A.; Olaya, M.Mar (2017). "Should we trust all the published LLE correlation parameters in phase equilibria? Necessity of their Assessment Prior to Publication".

751:. Here, it is often the case that the carboxylic acid will form a dimer in the organic layer so the distribution ratio will change as a function of the acid concentration (measured in either phase). 3097:

K. Takeshita; K. Watanabe; Y. Nakano; M. Watanabe (2003). "Solvent extraction separation of Cd(II) and Zn(II) with the organophosphorus extractant D2EHPA and the aqueous nitrogen-donor ligand TPEN".

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Giridhar, P.; Venkatesan, K.A.; Srinivasan, T.G.; Vasudeva Rao, P.R. (2006). "Extraction of fission palladium by Aliquat 336 and electrochemical studies on direct recovery from ionic liquid phase".

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Polymer–salt systems. Aqueous two-phase systems can also be generated by generating the heavy phase with a concentrated salt solution. The polymer phase used is generally still PEG. Generally, a

610:, then the anisole will enter the organic phase. The two phases would then be separated. The acetic acid can then be scrubbed (removed) from the organic phase by shaking the organic extract with 2003: 1112:

anion into nitrobenzene, while the energy required to transfer a chloride anion from an aqueous phase to nitrobenzene is 43.8 kJ mol. Hence, if the aqueous phase in a reaction is a solution of

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in a separatory funnel (at which point the ammonium ion could be recovered by adding an insoluble counterion), or in either phase, reactions could be performed as part of a chemical synthesis.

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B.L. Karger, 2014, "Separation and Purification: Single-stage versus multistage processes" and "Separation and Purification: Separations Based on Equilibrium", Encyclopædia Britannica, see

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Touma, J. G.; Coblyn, M.; Freiberg, L. J.; Kowall, C.; Zoebelein, A.; Jovanovic, G. N. (2024). "Intensification of Solvent Extraction in an Additively Manufactured Microfluidic Separator".

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are ionic compounds with low melting points. While they are not technically aqueous, recent research has experimented with using them in an extraction that does not use organic solvents.

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to form benzyl acetate and a chloride anion. The chloride anion is then transferred to the aqueous phase. The transfer energies of the anions contribute to that given out by the reaction.

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extraction used to be done using liquid–liquid extraction, specifically direct and indirect liquid–liquid extraction (Swiss Water Method), but has since moved towards super-critical CO

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The separation factor is one distribution ratio divided by another; it is a measure of the ability of the system to separate two solutes. For instance, if the distribution ratio for

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By mixing partially organic soluble samples in organic solvent (toluene, benzene, xylene), the organic soluble compounds will dissolve into the solvent and can be separated using a

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and many rare earth elements from acid solutions in a selective way by using the right choice of organic extracting solvent and diluent. One solvent used for this purpose is the

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or membrane-based techniques, it is normally done on the industrial scale using machines that bring the two liquid phases into contact with each other. Such machines include

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After use, the organic phase may be subjected to a cleaning step to remove any degradation products; for instance, in PUREX plants, the used organic phase is washed with

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A process used to extract small amounts of organic compounds from water samples. This process is done by injecting small amounts of an appropriate extraction solvent (C

235:, and other industries. It is among the most common initial separation techniques, though some difficulties result in extracting out closely related functional groups. 3234: 554:. Processes include DLLME and direct organic extraction. After equilibration, the extract phase containing the desired solute is separated out for further processing. 2578:

Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Grossmann, I.E (2001). "Disjunctive Programming Models for the Optimal Design of Liquid-Liquid Multistage Extractors and Separation Sequences".

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In solvent extraction, a distribution ratio (D) is often quoted as a measure of how well-extracted a species is. The distribution ratio is a measure of the total

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Sanchez, J.M.; Hidalgo, M.; Salvadó, V.; Valiente, M. (1999). "Extraction of Neodymium(III) at Trace Level with Di(2-Ethyl-Hexyl)Phosphoric Acid in Hexane".

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Some extraction systems are able to extract metals by both the solvation and ion exchange mechanisms; an example of such a system is the americium (and

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in dilute nitric acid. The plutonium(IV) forms a similar complex to the uranium(VI), but it is possible to strip the plutonium in more than one way; a

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Peker, Hulya; Srinivasan, M. P.; Smith, J. M.; McCoy, Ben J. (1992). "Caffeine extraction rates from coffee beans with supercritical carbon dioxide".

3237: 1056:. At both high- and low-nitric acid concentrations, the metal distribution ratio is higher than it is for an intermediate nitric acid concentration. 394:

change. If we know the solute’s equilibrium reactions within each phase and between the two phases, we can derive an algebraic relationship between K

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Filiz, M.; Sayar, N.A.; Sayar, A.A. (2006). "Extraction of cobalt(II) from aqueous hydrochloric acid solutions into Alamine 336–m-xylene mixtures".

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Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Olaya, M.M.; Gómez, A.; Marcilla, A. (1999). "New method for quaternary systems liquid-liquid extraction tray to tray design".

2339: 657:; because the separation factors between the lanthanides are so small many extraction stages are needed. In the multistage processes, the aqueous 1130:

A 43.8 to 31.1 kJ mol = 12.7 kJ mol of additional energy is given out by the reaction when compared with energy if the reaction had been done in

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Dreyer, Kragl. Ionic Liquids for Aqueous Two-Phase Extraction and Stabilization of Enzymes. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 99:6:1416. 2008

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Baba, Yoshinari; Iwakuma, Minako; Nagami, Hideto (2002). "Extraction Mechanism for Copper(II) with 2-Hydroxy-4-n-octyloxybenzophenone Oxime".

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Polymer–polymer systems. In a Polymer–polymer system, both phases are generated by a dissolved polymer. The heavy phase will generally be a

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Schulz, Wallace W.; Schiefelbein, Gary F.; Bruns, Lester E. (1969). "Pyrochemical Extraction of Polonium from Irradiated Bismuth Metal".

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G.W. Stevens, T.C., Lo, & M. H. I. Baird, 2007, "Extraction, liquid–liquid", in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,

2043: 3672: 2064: 1664: 1487: 1396: 1203: 823: 532: 344: 119: 61: 176:. Liquid–liquid extraction is a basic technique in chemical laboratories, where it is performed using a variety of apparatus, from 3873: 3285: 2415:"Free energies of transfer of 1: 1 electrolytes from water to nitrobenzene. Partition of ions in the water + nitrobenzene system" 3959: 3477: 2142: 1120:, then, when a phase transfer catalyst, the acetate anions can be transferred from the aqueous layer where they react with the 275:, while at an inert electrode (such as platinum) the sodium cations are not reduced. Instead, water is reduced to hydrogen. A 3964: 3487: 1465: 1374: 1181: 801: 514: 326: 101: 886:

nitric acid solution; the equilibrium is shifted away from the organic soluble uranium complex and towards the free TBP and

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The solvent that is enriched in solute(s) is called extract. The feed solution that is depleted in solute(s) is called the

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devices, reducing extraction and separation times from minutes/hours to mere seconds compared to conventional extractors.

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to the organic phase. The ion reacts and then forms another ion, which is then transferred back to the aqueous phase.

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Liquid–liquid extraction is possible in non-aqueous systems: In a system consisting of a molten metal in contact with

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Szlag, Giuliano. A Low-Cost Aqueous Two Phase System for Enzyme Extraction. Biotechnology Techniques 2:4:277. 1988

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solutes are removed from the organic phase. The organic phase may then be treated to make it ready for use again.

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Sikdar, Cole, et al. Aqueous Two-Phase Extractions in Bioseparations: An Assessment. Biotechnology 9:254. 1991

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Gunt Hamburg, 2014, "Thermal Process Engineering: liquid–liquid extraction and solid-liquid extraction", see

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can be very slow because the rate of ligand exchange at these metal centers is much lower than the rates for

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Dialkyl sulfides, tributyl phosphate and alkyl amines have been used for extracting palladium and platinum.

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liquids, usually water (polar) and an organic solvent (non-polar). There is a net transfer of one or more

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Phase separation during a laboratory scale liquid-liquid extraction. The upper organic ether solution of

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solution to remove any dibutyl hydrogen phosphate or butyl dihydrogen phosphate that might be present.

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Colin Poole & Michael Cooke, 2000, "Extraction", in Encyclopedia of Separation Science, 10 Vols.,

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is transferred in the other direction to maintain the charge balance. This additional ion is often a

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as extractants, a recent paper describes an extractant that has a good selectivity for copper over

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mechanism. Here, when an ion is transferred from the aqueous phase to the organic phase, another

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Journal of the Chemical Society, Faraday Transactions 1: Physical Chemistry in Condensed Phases

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https://web.archive.org/web/20100702074135/http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/chemsep/extraction/

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where a metal can be reduced, the metal will often then dissolve in the mercury to form an

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While solvent extraction is often done on a small scale by synthetic lab chemists using a

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can be extracted from one phase to another without the need for a chemical reaction (see

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It is possible by careful choice of counterion to extract a metal. For instance, if the

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is commonly used to refer to the underlying chemical and physical processes involved in

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The rare earth element Neodymium is extracted by di(2-ethyl-hexyl)phosphoric acid into

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Adamo, Andrea; Heider, Patrick L.; Weeranoppanant, Nopphon; Jensen, Klavs F. (2013).

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is formed, then the organic layer bearing the uranium is brought into contact with a

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and are back-extracted (stripped) using weak nitric acid. An organic soluble uranium

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This is commonly used on the small scale in chemical labs. It is normal to use a

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can be added. This oxidation state does not form a stable complex with TBP and

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In solvent extraction, two immiscible liquids are shaken together. The more

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that modifies its electrochemistry greatly. For example, it is possible for

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used for liquid–liquid extraction, as evident by the two immiscible liquids.

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Shacter, Emily (1984). "Organic extraction of Pi with isobutanol/toluene".

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Labarta, Juan A.; Olaya, Maria del Mar; Marcilla, Antonio (2015-11-27).

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Liquid–liquid extraction is also widely used in the production of fine

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Marcilla, A.; Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Serrano, M.D.; Olaya, M.M. (2011).

2564: 2310: 938:. An example of an ion exchange extraction would be the extraction of 3397: 3282:

Boland. Aqueous Two-Phase Systems: Methods and Protocols. Pg 259-269

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is used, at a concentration of above 170g/L (typically 240-265g/L).

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Zinc and cadmium are both extracted by an ion exchange process, the

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in the aqueous phase can alter the extraction chemistry: instead of

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Nickel can be extracted using di(2-ethyl-hexyl)phosphoric acid and

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Wesselborg, Tobias; Virolainen, Sami; Sainio, Tuomo (2021-06-01).

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de Namor, Angela F. Danil; Hill, Tony; Sigstad, Elizabeth (1983).

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Lu, Junnan; Stevens, Geoff W.; Mumford, Kathryn A. (2021-12-01).

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4 stage battery of mixer-settlers for counter-current extraction.

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Lithium extraction is more popular due to the high demand of

614:. The acetic acid reacts with the sodium bicarbonate to form 238:

Liquid-Liquid extraction can be substantially accelerated in

2342:, Jack D. Law and Terry A. Todd, Idaho National Laboratory. 935: 1652:, etc.) or by a correlation process of experimental data. 674:

section to obtain the metal back from the organic phase.

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in the organic phase divided by its concentration in the

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Desalination § Temperature_swing_solvent_extraction

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as it is cheaper and can be done on a commercial scale.

1086:

An example that is more likely to be encountered by the

3294:- University of Alicante (Reyes-Labarta et al. 2015-18) 39: 2826:

Patel, Madhav; Karamalidis, Athanasios K. (May 2021).

2504:"Decaffeination 101: Four Ways to Decaffeinate Coffee" 1729:

The extraction methods for a range of metals include:

1116:

while the organic phase is a nitrobenzene solution of

454:) is 100, then the silver/nickel separation factor (SF 2102:

Mansour, Fotouh R.; Khairy, Mostafa A. (2017-08-09).

1556: 1514: 1014:

diluent favours the formation of uncharged non-polar

3844: 3818: 3768: 3695: 3639: 3611: 3510: 3335: 2178: 2176: 1094:. This is a charged species that transfers another 836:Using solvent extraction it is possible to extract 34:

may be too technical for most readers to understand

1581: 1539: 1224:(PEG). Traditionally, the polysaccharide used is 590:Another example of this application is extracting 3009:. Halwachs Edelmetallchemie und Verfahrenstechnik 1068:concentration is high, it is possible to extract 3007:"Precious Metals Refining By Solvent Extraction" 694:Continuous separation of oil& water mixture 558:Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME) 2912:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 2751:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 2553:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 1899:- (NRTL model) LL Phase Equilibrium Calculation 863:uses a mixture of tri-n-butyl phosphate and an 16:Method to separate compounds or metal complexes 2982:"A Potential Nickel / Cobalt Recovery Process" 633:Multistage countercurrent continuous processes 374:. The partition or distribution coefficient (K 3673: 3313: 2796:"The Solvent Extraction of Some Major Metals" 922:Another extraction mechanism is known as the 894:that converts the plutonium to the trivalent 874:), the uranium(VI) are extracted from strong 8: 2295:"Lanthanides and Actinides in Ionic Liquids" 641:Coflore continuous countercurrent extractor. 1673:is being extracted with the lower alkaline 1468:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1377:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1184:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 804:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3680: 3666: 3658: 3320: 3306: 3298: 2984:. BioMetallurgical Pty Ltd. Archived from 1076:nitrate complex if the mixture contains a 3159: 2843: 2770: 2726: 2697: 2660: 2650: 2354:Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry 1847:-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine 1761:-(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphinic acid} 1689:, (yellow in color) in the organic phase. 1568: 1563: 1561: 1555: 1526: 1521: 1519: 1513: 1488:Learn how and when to remove this message 1397:Learn how and when to remove this message 1204:Learn how and when to remove this message 824:Learn how and when to remove this message 533:Learn how and when to remove this message 345:Learn how and when to remove this message 120:Learn how and when to remove this message 62:Learn how and when to remove this message 46:, without removing the technical details. 3254:10.1002/0471238961.120917211215.a01.pub2 1872: 1915: 754:For this case, the extraction constant 446:) is 10 and the distribution ratio for 155:, is a method to separate compounds or 3197:Separation and Purification Technology 2832:Separation and Purification Technology 2087:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2080: 1755:. Cobalt can be extracted also using 1677:sodium bicarbonate solution to remove 1643:Liquid-liquid equilibrium calculations 1252:not as useful for purifying proteins. 1146:Types of aqueous two-phase extractions 670:from the organic phase, and finally a 418:is related to the Gibbs Free Energy (Δ 2139:"EXTRACTION | Analytical Extractions" 1826:is produced in reactors from natural 1807:in a hydrocarbon diluent (Shellsol). 1771:Copper can be extracted using hydroxy 1685:anion, leaving a non-acidic organic, 1582:{\displaystyle D_{\mathrm {I} ^{+2}}} 1540:{\displaystyle D_{\mathrm {I} ^{+2}}} 978:Another example is the extraction of 192:, often including an acidic work-up. 44:make it understandable to non-experts 7: 1948: 1946: 1466:adding citations to reliable sources 1375:adding citations to reliable sources 1324:Temperature swing solvent extraction 1182:adding citations to reliable sources 802:adding citations to reliable sources 515:adding citations to reliable sources 327:adding citations to reliable sources 102:adding citations to reliable sources 2947:Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange 1220:, and the light phase is generally 546:Batch wise single stage extractions 2340:Liquid–Liquid Extraction Equipment 2144:Encyclopedia of Separation Science 1905:- LL Phase Equilibrium Calculation 1564: 1522: 727:Extraction without chemical change 14: 859:process that is commonly used in 3501: 3072:Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev 1954:"7.7: Liquid-Liquid Extractions" 1438: 1347: 1154: 774: 491: 303: 78: 23: 2639:The Open Thermodynamics Journal 2388:Electrochemistry Communications 502:needs additional citations for 314:needs additional citations for 89:needs additional citations for 3161:10.1016/j.hydromet.2021.105593 3049:10.1016/j.hydromet.2005.10.001 2889:10.1016/j.hydromet.2005.12.007 2502:Emden, Lorenzo (6 July 2012). 2272:"How is coffee decaffeinated?" 2270:Senese F (20 September 2005). 2157:10.1016/B0-12-226770-2/02271-7 1795:by an ion exchange mechanism. 1737:The extraction of cobalt from 747:) into nonpolar media such as 1: 3121:10.1016/s0304-386x(03)00046-x 2801:. Cognis GmbH. Archived from 2400:10.1016/S1388-2481(99)00156-3 2116:10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.07.055 3209:10.1016/j.seppur.2021.119307 2845:10.1016/j.seppur.2021.118981 2528:Evarts, Holly (6 May 2019). 2241:10.1016/0003-2697(84)90831-5 2198:10.1016/j.chroma.2006.03.007 1925:Chemical Engineering Journal 1757:Ionquest 290 or Cyanex 272 { 1547:being a constant it becomes 283:can be used to stabilize an 2690:10.1016/j.fluid.2016.11.009 2652:10.2174/1874396X01105010048 2620:10.1016/j.fluid.2008.12.002 2356:(10th ed.). Springer. 2352:James A. Kent, ed. (2003). 2186:Journal of Chromatography A 2108:Journal of Chromatography B 1897:Non-random two-liquid model 1745:(tri-octyl/decyl amine) in 1108:is required to transfer an 645:These are commonly used in 422:of the extraction process. 267:to be reduced at a mercury 182:countercurrent distribution 3986: 3538:Electrostatic precipitator 2274:. General Chemistry Online 2030:"Solvent Extraction Notes" 1327: 1266: 159:, based on their relative 3760:Thermodynamic equilibrium 3578:Rotary vacuum-drum filter 3499: 2959:10.1080/07366299908934623 2004:"18.6: Gibbs Free Energy" 1937:10.1016/j.cej.2024.149285 1867:TBP (Tri-butyl phosphate) 1627:Industrial process design 1616:anion is an example of a 1430:Aqueous complexing agents 1029:by a combination of 6,6'- 579:Direct organic extraction 295:Measures of effectiveness 3913:Distribution coefficient 3857:Hammett acidity function 3836:Liquid–liquid extraction 3745:Le Chatelier's principle 3621:Aqueous two-phase system 3443:Liquid–liquid extraction 2293:Binnemans, Koen (2007). 1979:"4.5: Extraction Theory" 1232:, and application of an 1090:chemist is the use of a 1081:quaternary ammonium salt 201:liquid–liquid extraction 145:Liquid–liquid extraction 3518:API oil–water separator 3388:Dissolved air flotation 3270:, accessed 12 May 2014. 3256:, accessed 12 May 2014. 3245:, accessed 12 May 2014. 3239:, accessed 12 May 2014. 2229:Analytical Biochemistry 2137:Wilson, Ian D. (2000). 1255:Ionic liquids systems. 1101:For instance, the 31.1 1092:phase transfer catalyst 3960:Extraction (chemistry) 3874:Coordination complexes 3810:Thermodynamic activity 3483:Solid-phase extraction 2719:University of Alicante 2678:Fluid Phase Equilibria 2608:Fluid Phase Equilibria 2532:. Columbia Engineering 2454:"Extraction Operation" 2151:. pp. 1371–1382. 2110:. 1061–1062: 382–391. 1811:Palladium and platinum 1703:centrifugal contactors 1690: 1623:that is quite common. 1583: 1541: 1339:Kinetics of extraction 1304:Purification of amines 918:Ion exchange mechanism 720:Centrifugal extractors 715:Centrifugal extractors 711: 695: 649:for the processing of 642: 141: 3965:Laboratory techniques 3886:Dissociation constant 3831:Equilibrium unfolding 3718:Equilibrium chemistry 3603:Vacuum ceramic filter 3598:Sublimation apparatus 3403:Electrochromatography 3363:Cross-flow filtration 2592:10.1002/aic.690471011 2481:10.1002/aic.690380513 2362:10.1007/0-387-23816-6 1863:lithium-ion batteries 1707:Thin Layer Extraction 1668: 1584: 1542: 1504:then the presence of 1037:-1,2,4-triazin-3-yl)- 731:Some solutes such as 709: 693: 640: 135: 3795:Predominance diagram 3778:Equilibrium constant 3553:Fractionating column 3348:Acid–base extraction 3329:Separation processes 2794:Mackenzie, Murdoch. 2431:10.1039/f19837902713 2008:Chemistry LibreTexts 1983:Chemistry LibreTexts 1958:Chemistry LibreTexts 1887:Fragrance extraction 1725:Extraction of metals 1597:This is because the 1554: 1512: 1502:carbon tetrachloride 1462:improve this section 1371:improve this section 1295:Analytical chemistry 1178:improve this section 942:by a combination of 861:nuclear reprocessing 798:improve this section 511:improve this article 323:improve this article 227:, the production of 223:, the processing of 184:equipment called as 98:improve this article 3869:Binding selectivity 3845:Specific equilibria 3755:Reversible reaction 3713:Dynamic equilibrium 3689:Chemical equilibria 3373:Cyclonic separation 3152:2021HydMe.20205593W 3113:2003HydMe..70...63T 3084:10.1021/i260032a013 3041:2006HydMe..81...30G 2881:2006HydMe..81..167F 2757:(31): 10802–10808. 2508:Coffee Confidential 1222:Polyethylene glycol 1060:Ion pair extraction 1002:H) into a nonpolar 766:Solvation mechanism 474:Measures of success 3879:Macrocyclic effect 3703:Chemical stability 3433:Gravity separation 1892:Dortmund Data Bank 1805:tributyl phosphate 1691: 1650:Dortmund Data Bank 1579: 1537: 1140:tetraalkylammonium 1025:) extraction from 994:phosphinic acid (R 853:tributyl phosphate 712: 696: 643: 612:sodium bicarbonate 434:Separation factors 358:Distribution ratio 213:hydrometallurgical 205:solvent extraction 178:separatory funnels 149:solvent extraction 142: 3970:Flavor technology 3947: 3946: 3925:Common-ion effect 3852:Acid dissociation 3805:Reaction quotient 3723:Equilibrium stage 3655: 3654: 3573:Rapid sand filter 3468:Recrystallization 3448:Electroextraction 3408:Electrofiltration 3265:978-0-12-226770-3 2924:10.1021/ie0106736 2918:(23): 5835–5841. 2763:10.1021/ie401180t 2586:(10): 2243–2252. 2565:10.1021/ie9900723 2452:zamani, Dariush. 2371:978-0-306-47411-8 2311:10.1021/cr050979c 2166:978-0-12-226770-3 1830:, bombarded with 1739:hydrochloric acid 1695:separatory funnel 1666: 1498: 1497: 1490: 1407: 1406: 1399: 1317:separatory funnel 1214: 1213: 1206: 1136:equivalent weight 910:. In this case, D 834: 833: 826: 585:separatory funnel 552:separating funnel 543: 542: 535: 355: 354: 347: 221:organic compounds 163:in two different 138:separatory funnel 130: 129: 122: 72: 71: 64: 3977: 3864:Binding constant 3750:Phase separation 3682: 3675: 3668: 3659: 3505: 3322: 3315: 3308: 3299: 3221: 3220: 3188: 3182: 3181: 3163: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3024: 3018: 3017: 3015: 3014: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2994: 2993: 2977: 2971: 2970: 2942: 2936: 2935: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2875:(3–4): 167–173. 2864: 2858: 2857: 2847: 2823: 2817: 2816: 2814: 2813: 2807: 2800: 2791: 2785: 2784: 2774: 2748: 2739: 2733: 2732: 2730: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2701: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2664: 2654: 2630: 2624: 2623: 2602: 2596: 2595: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2559:(8): 3083–3095. 2548: 2542: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2525: 2519: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2499: 2493: 2492: 2464: 2458: 2457: 2449: 2443: 2442: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2305:(6): 2592–2614. 2299:Chemical Reviews 2290: 2284: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2267: 2261: 2260: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2180: 2171: 2170: 2134: 2128: 2127: 2099: 2093: 2092: 2086: 2078: 2076: 2075: 2069: 2063:. Archived from 2062: 2054: 2048: 2047: 2040: 2034: 2033: 2025: 2019: 2018: 2016: 2015: 2000: 1994: 1993: 1991: 1990: 1975: 1969: 1968: 1966: 1965: 1950: 1941: 1940: 1920: 1875: 1838:Zinc and cadmium 1667: 1637:sodium carbonate 1601:reacts with the 1588: 1586: 1585: 1580: 1578: 1577: 1576: 1575: 1567: 1546: 1544: 1543: 1538: 1536: 1535: 1534: 1533: 1525: 1493: 1486: 1482: 1479: 1473: 1442: 1434: 1402: 1395: 1391: 1388: 1382: 1351: 1343: 1263:DNA purification 1243:salt, such as Na 1209: 1202: 1198: 1195: 1189: 1158: 1150: 829: 822: 818: 815: 809: 778: 770: 758:is described by 741:carboxylic acids 538: 531: 527: 524: 518: 495: 487: 350: 343: 339: 336: 330: 307: 299: 147:, also known as 125: 118: 114: 111: 105: 82: 74: 67: 60: 56: 53: 47: 27: 26: 19: 3985: 3984: 3980: 3979: 3978: 3976: 3975: 3974: 3950: 3949: 3948: 3943: 3896:Self-ionization 3840: 3826:Buffer solution 3814: 3764: 3691: 3686: 3656: 3651: 3635: 3613: 3607: 3568:Protein skimmer 3506: 3497: 3493:Ultrafiltration 3473:Reverse osmosis 3453:Microfiltration 3428:Froth flotation 3368:Crystallization 3331: 3326: 3230: 3228:Further reading 3225: 3224: 3190: 3189: 3185: 3140:Hydrometallurgy 3133: 3132: 3128: 3100:Hydrometallurgy 3096: 3095: 3091: 3069: 3068: 3064: 3029:Hydrometallurgy 3026: 3025: 3021: 3012: 3010: 3005: 3004: 3000: 2991: 2989: 2979: 2978: 2974: 2944: 2943: 2939: 2909: 2908: 2904: 2869:Hydrometallurgy 2866: 2865: 2861: 2825: 2824: 2820: 2811: 2809: 2805: 2798: 2793: 2792: 2788: 2746: 2741: 2740: 2736: 2712: 2711: 2707: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2632: 2631: 2627: 2604: 2603: 2599: 2577: 2576: 2572: 2550: 2549: 2545: 2535: 2533: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2512: 2510: 2501: 2500: 2496: 2466: 2465: 2461: 2451: 2450: 2446: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2384: 2383: 2379: 2372: 2351: 2350: 2346: 2338: 2334: 2292: 2291: 2287: 2277: 2275: 2269: 2268: 2264: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2182: 2181: 2174: 2167: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2101: 2100: 2096: 2079: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2060: 2058:"Archived copy" 2056: 2055: 2051: 2042: 2041: 2037: 2027: 2026: 2022: 2013: 2011: 2002: 2001: 1997: 1988: 1986: 1977: 1976: 1972: 1963: 1961: 1952: 1951: 1944: 1922: 1921: 1917: 1912: 1883: 1874: 1870: 1859: 1840: 1821: 1813: 1801: 1789: 1769: 1735: 1727: 1699:Craig apparatus 1660: 1658: 1645: 1629: 1615: 1610: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1551: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1509: 1494: 1483: 1477: 1474: 1459: 1443: 1432: 1403: 1392: 1386: 1383: 1368: 1352: 1341: 1332: 1326: 1306: 1297: 1290: 1280: 1271: 1265: 1250: 1246: 1210: 1199: 1193: 1190: 1175: 1159: 1148: 1118:benzyl chloride 1062: 1039:2,2'-bipyridine 1001: 997: 970: 961:. In this case 948:carboxylic acid 920: 913: 896:oxidation state 850:organophosphate 830: 819: 813: 810: 795: 779: 768: 729: 717: 680: 635: 581: 569: 565: 560: 548: 539: 528: 522: 519: 508: 496: 485: 476: 469: 465: 461: 458:) is equal to D 457: 453: 445: 436: 407: 397: 383: 377: 360: 351: 340: 334: 331: 320: 308: 297: 157:metal complexes 126: 115: 109: 106: 95: 83: 68: 57: 51: 48: 40:help improve it 37: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3983: 3981: 3973: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3952: 3951: 3945: 3944: 3942: 3941: 3940: 3939: 3929: 3928: 3927: 3917: 3916: 3915: 3905: 3904: 3903: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3882: 3881: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3860: 3859: 3848: 3846: 3842: 3841: 3839: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3822: 3820: 3816: 3815: 3813: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3786: 3785: 3774: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3763: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3741: 3740: 3735: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3705: 3699: 3697: 3693: 3692: 3687: 3685: 3684: 3677: 3670: 3662: 3653: 3652: 3650: 3649: 3647:Unit operation 3643: 3641: 3637: 3636: 3634: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3617: 3615: 3609: 3608: 3606: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3514: 3512: 3508: 3507: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3425: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3358:Chromatography 3355: 3350: 3345: 3339: 3337: 3333: 3332: 3327: 3325: 3324: 3317: 3310: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3288: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3257: 3246: 3240: 3229: 3226: 3223: 3222: 3183: 3126: 3107:(1–3): 63–71. 3089: 3078:(4): 508–515. 3062: 3019: 2998: 2972: 2953:(3): 455–474. 2937: 2902: 2859: 2818: 2786: 2734: 2705: 2668: 2625: 2597: 2570: 2543: 2520: 2494: 2475:(5): 761–770. 2459: 2444: 2405: 2394:(2): 112–118. 2377: 2370: 2344: 2332: 2285: 2262: 2235:(2): 416–420. 2219: 2172: 2165: 2149:Academic Press 2129: 2094: 2049: 2035: 2020: 1995: 1970: 1942: 1914: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1907: 1906: 1900: 1894: 1889: 1882: 1879: 1858: 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359: 356: 353: 352: 311: 309: 302: 296: 293: 273:sodium amalgam 229:vegetable oils 186:mixer settlers 128: 127: 86: 84: 77: 70: 69: 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3982: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3957: 3955: 3938: 3935: 3934: 3933: 3930: 3926: 3923: 3922: 3921: 3918: 3914: 3911: 3910: 3909: 3906: 3902: 3899: 3898: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3880: 3877: 3876: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3858: 3855: 3854: 3853: 3850: 3849: 3847: 3843: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3817: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3790:Phase diagram 3788: 3784: 3783:determination 3781: 3780: 3779: 3776: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3730: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3683: 3678: 3676: 3671: 3669: 3664: 3663: 3660: 3648: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3638: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3618: 3616: 3610: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3588:Spinning cone 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3563:Mixer-settler 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3509: 3504: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3478:Sedimentation 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3463:Precipitation 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3344: 3341: 3340: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3318: 3316: 3311: 3309: 3304: 3303: 3300: 3293: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3272: 3269: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3244: 3241: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3231: 3227: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3187: 3184: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3130: 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John. 2976: 2973: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2941: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2906: 2903: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2863: 2860: 2855: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2822: 2819: 2808:on 2010-01-04 2804: 2797: 2790: 2787: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2745: 2738: 2735: 2729: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2709: 2706: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2672: 2669: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2629: 2626: 2621: 2617: 2614:(1–2): 9–14. 2613: 2609: 2601: 2598: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2580:AIChE Journal 2574: 2571: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2547: 2544: 2531: 2524: 2521: 2509: 2505: 2498: 2495: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2469:AIChE Journal 2463: 2460: 2455: 2448: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2409: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2381: 2378: 2373: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2348: 2345: 2341: 2336: 2333: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2289: 2286: 2273: 2266: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2223: 2220: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2168: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2145: 2140: 2133: 2130: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2098: 2095: 2090: 2084: 2070:on 2015-09-29 2066: 2059: 2053: 2050: 2045: 2039: 2036: 2031: 2024: 2021: 2009: 2005: 1999: 1996: 1984: 1980: 1974: 1971: 1959: 1955: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1919: 1916: 1909: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1895: 1893: 1890: 1888: 1885: 1884: 1880: 1878: 1868: 1864: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1851:sulfuric acid 1848: 1846: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1818: 1816: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1798: 1796: 1794: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1754: 1750: 1749: 1744: 1740: 1732: 1730: 1724: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1711:spray columns 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1642: 1640: 1638: 1633: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1619: 1611: 1604: 1600: 1592: 1572: 1569: 1558: 1550: 1549: 1548: 1530: 1527: 1516: 1507: 1503: 1492: 1489: 1481: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1457: 1456: 1452: 1447:This section 1445: 1441: 1436: 1435: 1429: 1427: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1401: 1398: 1390: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1366: 1365: 1361: 1356:This section 1354: 1350: 1345: 1344: 1338: 1336: 1331: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1303: 1301: 1294: 1292: 1286: 1278:Food industry 1277: 1275: 1270: 1262: 1260: 1258: 1257:Ionic liquids 1253: 1242: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1208: 1205: 1197: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1173: 1172: 1168: 1163:This section 1161: 1157: 1152: 1151: 1145: 1143: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1128: 1126: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1059: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1043:hexanoic acid 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 993: 989: 985: 981: 974: 967: 964: 963: 962: 960: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 917: 915: 909: 906: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 866: 862: 858: 854: 851: 847: 843: 839: 828: 825: 817: 807: 803: 799: 793: 792: 788: 783:This section 781: 777: 772: 771: 765: 763: 761: 757: 752: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 726: 724: 721: 714: 708: 704: 700: 692: 688: 685: 677: 675: 673: 668: 663: 660: 656: 652: 648: 639: 632: 630: 627: 623: 622:, and water. 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 588: 586: 578: 576: 573: 557: 555: 553: 545: 537: 534: 526: 516: 512: 506: 505: 500:This section 498: 494: 489: 488: 482: 480: 473: 471: 449: 441: 433: 431: 428: 423: 421: 417: 412: 408: 401: 393: 389: 384: 373: 372:aqueous phase 369: 365: 364:concentration 357: 349: 346: 338: 328: 324: 318: 317: 312:This section 310: 306: 301: 300: 294: 292: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 263: 259: 255: 252: 248: 243: 241: 236: 234: 230: 226: 222: 217: 214: 209: 206: 202: 198: 193: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 139: 134: 124: 121: 113: 103: 99: 93: 92: 87:This section 85: 81: 76: 75: 66: 63: 55: 45: 41: 35: 32:This article 30: 21: 20: 3932:Vapor–liquid 3835: 3819:Applications 3548:Filter press 3533:Depth filter 3442: 3423:Flocculation 3393:Distillation 3200: 3196: 3186: 3143: 3139: 3129: 3104: 3098: 3092: 3075: 3071: 3065: 3035:(1): 30–39. 3032: 3028: 3022: 3011:. 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