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the field before they reach the flowering stage by looking for plants which are taller and more mature than the rest of the field. The fungus causes infected plants to grow slightly taller and mature slightly sooner than the uninfected plants in the field. Since it must infect through the open florets, this gives the fungus a competitive advantage by allowing it to fall down to the healthy plants and ensuring that the fungus has a little extra time to produce and disperse spores before the florets of the healthy plants open.
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which also possess other desirable traits such as those for yield and grain quality. Another option is heat treating the seed to kill the fungus before planting, but this is a delicate process because too much heat will kill the plant embryo and not enough will allow the fungus to survive. Research has also been done to use radio frequency heating to treat seed.
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plant, they will be good for the fungus. However, if there are environmental stressors on the plant such as drought or extreme heat, the plant will be more susceptible to injury because of the added stress from the fungal infection. If the plant doesn't survive to its reproductive stage, the fungus will not get to reproduce either.
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Barley varieties with resistance to loose smut are also commercially available. Although technology is being researched and used to help speed the process of resistant variety development, these traditional breeding methods are still very slow, and it is difficult to develop varieties with resistance
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The most widely used method of control for loose smut is using treated seed. Seeds are typically treated with a systemic fungicide to kill any fungus that may be inside. Since the fungus grows up with the plant, it is very important that the fungicide used to treat the seed be systemic and not just
285:
Plants which are infected with
Ustilago spp. actually grow taller and flower earlier than their healthy counterparts. This gives the infected plants an advantage in that the flowers of uninfected plants are more physically and morphologically susceptible to infection. The teliospores in the smutted
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After germination inside the ovary, the fungal mycelia invade the developing embryo in the seed. The fungus stays alive in the seed until the next growing season, when it is planted along with the seed. As the developing plant grows, the fungus grows with it. Once it's time for the flowers to form,
227:
The major symptom of loose smut is the "smutted" grain heads, which contain masses of black or brown spores where the grain would normally be. The spores completely replace the grain head so that there is no grain to be harvested on infected plants. It may be possible to identify infected plants in
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region in the
Himalayan mountains of India. This area has been particularly affected by global climate change and has experienced many new crop pests and diseases because of it. Barley is an important staple crop in this region and although loose smut is not the most prevalent disease of barley in
325:
If uncontrolled, loose smut can wipe out entire crops, since it replaces the grain. In areas where people depend on their grain crops for survival and don't have the money or technology resources to control it, the disease can be devastating. Not only does it wipe out the crop, growers cannot even
294:
Loose smut is unique in that it needs to infect the seed in the previous growing season in order to be a pathogen of the plant in the current growing season. This means that regardless of environmental conditions, if an infected seed is planted as long as the growing conditions are good for the
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Environment becomes a factor once teliospores have been produced and are ready for dispersal. In order to get to the open flowers of healthy plants, the teliospores must be moved by wind or rain or possibly insects. If dry, calm conditions persist for the entire time the flowers are open, the
299:
infection rate will be low. Wind and moderate rain, as well as cool temperatures (16–22 °C or 61–72 °F) are ideal for the dispersal of spores. Conditions in
Eastern Europe, Western Siberia, and the Northern Caucasus regions are some of the most conducive to loose smut.
258:
are blown to open flowers and infect the ovary either through the stigma or directly through the ovary wall. There are multiple mating types for
Ustilago spp. so infection will only occur if two compatible mating types are present in the same flower.
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group of chemicals. Although carboxins are highly toxic to fish and mildly toxic to other animals, they degrade rapidly in the environment and since there the fungicide is coated on seed and not sprayed there is not much loss to the environment.
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which infect the open flowers of healthy plants and grow into the seed, without showing any symptoms. Seeds appear healthy and only when they reach maturity the following season is it clear that they were infected. Systemic
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In places like the United States where there are ample resources and technologies such as fungicide seed treatment, loose smut is not an especially important disease.
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497:"Recombination of virulence genes following hybridization between isolates of Ustilago nuda infecting barley under natural conditions"
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try again next year since any seeds they were able to harvest will be infected and will not produce seed the following season.
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grain heads disperse to the open flowers of the healthy plants, and the cycle continues.
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the region, it has the potential to develop into a more serious problem in coming years.
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external. The most common type of systemic fungicides used for loose smut are from the
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teliospores are produced in place of the flowers and develop where the grain would be.
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After landing in an open floret, the teliospores give rise to
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which infect many different cereal crops in a similar manner.
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Loose smut has recently become a more serious problem in the
198:. It is a disease that can destroy a large proportion of a
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of two compatible basidiospores then fuse to establish a
429:. Canadian Phytopathological Society. pp. 160 pp.
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425:Martens, J.W.; W.L. Seaman; T.G. Atkinson (1984).
445:"An albino strain of Ustilago nuda from Canada"
219:are the major control method for loose smut.
8:
254:The disease cycle of loose smut begins when
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246:, for example, is loose smut of wheat.
547:Martin, R.A.; L.V. Edgington (1980).
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754:90f324bd-7ea4-46ff-9e0d-3976c3bb8fd6
823:Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
556:Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology
504:Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology
452:Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology
238:L.' but there are many strains of
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427:Diseases of field crops in Canada
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405:"Index Fungorum - Names Record"
27:Fungal disease of barley plants
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270:right where they are. The
202:crop. Loose smut replaces
576:10.1080/07060668009501409
524:10.1080/07060668409501568
472:10.1080/07060668409501567
407:. www.speciesfungorum.org
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59:Scientific classification
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495:Thomas, P.L. (1984).
443:Thomas, P.L. (1984).
378:(C.N. Jensen) Rostr.
190:Loose smut of barley
568:1980CaJPP...2..201M
516:1984CaJPP...6..101T
464:1984CaJPP...6...98T
18:Loose smut (barley)
833:Ustilaginomycotina
223:Hosts and symptoms
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775:Open Tree of Life
603:Taxon identifiers
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106:Ustilaginomycetes
16:(Redirected from
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234:infects barley '
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363:Ustilago nuda
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354:Ustilago nuda
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345:Varieties of
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232:Ustilago nuda
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195:Ustilago nuda
192:is caused by
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168:Ustilago nuda
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159:Binomial name
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150:U. nuda
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726:NatureServe
674:iNaturalist
290:Environment
256:teliospores
204:grain heads
176:C.N. Jensen
35:Loose smut
817:Categories
589:2007-03-03
537:2007-03-03
485:2007-03-03
411:2008-03-15
392:References
321:Importance
217:fungicides
92:Division:
731:2.1157129
358:foliicola
341:Varieties
276:dikarytic
268:germinate
144:Species:
82:Kingdom:
76:Eukaryota
713:MycoBank
692:10384025
648:Fungorum
626:Q6676009
620:Wikidata
310:carboxin
240:Ustilago
137:Ustilago
122:Family:
72:Domain:
800:2416257
666:7238892
564:Bibcode
512:Bibcode
460:Bibcode
386:tritici
303:Control
278:stage.
132:Genus:
112:Order:
102:Class:
797:uBio:
780:862503
767:188799
751:NZOR:
718:199384
705:192069
679:384702
653:199384
367:hordei
331:Ladakh
272:hyphae
212:spores
200:barley
182:(1889)
180:Rostr.
787:PPE:
744:86802
687:IRMNG
640:7F3Y8
583:(PDF)
552:(PDF)
531:(PDF)
500:(PDF)
479:(PDF)
448:(PDF)
384:var.
374:var.
365:var.
356:var.
349:are:
206:with
86:Fungi
739:NCBI
700:ITIS
661:GBIF
376:nuda
208:smut
635:CoL
572:doi
520:doi
468:doi
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
