146:
119:
1804:
412:
The collar bears a number of large arms, each of which includes a row of tentacles along one side. The number of arms varies between species, with anything from one to nine pairs. The tentacles are covered in cilia and aid in filtering food from the water. The trunk includes a simple tubular gut, and
468:. Despite the close relationship between the two groups, the larva does not resemble that of the acorn worms; they are "planula-like", and do not feed (lecithotrophic). Eventually, the larva settles onto the substrate and metamorphoses to an adult. Alternatively, they also reproduce
1540:
389:, a collar, and a trunk. The proboscis is wide and flattened at the tip, and in most species contains glands that secrete a tube of organic material in which the pterobranch spends its adult life. The animals are mostly colonial, with several
1147:
1626:
Slater, Ben J; Willman, Sebastian; Budd, Graham E; Peel, John S (2017). "Widespread preservation of small carbonaceous fossils (SCFs) in the early
Cambrian of North Greenland".
1693:"The enigmatic mitochondrial genome of Rhabdopleura compacta(Pterobranchia) reveals insights into selection of an efficient tRNA system and supports monophyly of Ambulacraria"
1986:
2012:
1824:
1960:
1999:
1819:
1177:
Mitchell, C. E.; Melchin, M. J.; Cameron, C. B.; Maletz, J. R. (2012). "Phylogenetic analysis reveals that
Rhabdopleura is an extant graptolite".
1264:
1161:
943:
1291:
2071:
845:
1837:
2004:
1506:
Sato, A; Bishop JDD and
Holland PWH (2008). "Developmental biology of pterobranch hemichordates: history and perspectives".
1750:
Li, Yuanning; Kocot, Kevin M.; Tassia, Michael G.; Cannon, Johanna T.; Bernt, Matthias; Halanych, Kenneth M. (2019-01-01).
1116:
Sato, A; Rickards RB; Holland PWH (2008). "The origins of graptolites and other pterobranchs: a journey from 'Polyzoa'".
1832:
145:
1921:
1908:
1691:
Perseke, Marleen; Hetmank, Joerg; Bernt, Matthias; Stadler, Peter F; Schlegel, Martin; Bernhard, Detlef (2011-05-20).
502:
2017:
393:
living together in a cluster of tubes. In some species, the individual zooids within the colony are connected by
127:
1585:
Hou, X. G.; Aldridge, R. J.; Siveter, D. J.; Siveter, D. J.; Williams, M.; Zalasiewicz, J.; Ma, X. Y. (2011).
403:
is unusual in lacking the tubes typical of other pterobranchs, living as a naked zooid on corals. Recently,
2099:
1848:
1656:
KM. (1995). "The
Phylogenetic Position of the Pterobranch Hemichordates Based on 18S rDNA Sequence Data".
1926:
2048:
1833:
Cameron, Christopher B. (2016). A comprehensive list of extant hemichordate species with links to images
792:
450:
328:
409:
has been regarded as a questionable species by Tassia et al. (2016) and is no longer considered valid.
369:, and phylogenetic analysis suggests that the pterobranchs are living members of the graptolite clade.
1281:
2027:
1947:
1895:
1320:
807:
749:
587:
469:
456:
2076:
493:
355:
1886:
1475:
Lester, SM (1986). "Ultrastructure of adult gonads and development and structure of the larva of
1426:
1387:
222:
140:
2053:
2035:
1934:
1781:
1732:
1714:
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518:
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1488:
1457:
1418:
1379:
1338:
1328:
1222:
1186:
1125:
41:
1991:
299:. On the other hand, there are several hundred extinct genera, some of which date from the
814:
Table of alternative codons in pterobranchs and comparison with the standard genetic code
345:
300:
250:
118:
521:
sequences indicated that pterobranchs are closely related to enteropneust hemichordates.
1324:
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1492:
1461:
1343:
1308:
1143:
740:
682:
672:
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498:
208:
1900:
381:
living on the ocean floor, often in relatively deep waters. Like their relatives, the
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Tassia, MG; Cannon, JT; Konikoff, CE; Shenkar, N; Halanych, KM; Swalla, BJ (2016).
803:
767:
615:
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254:
177:
1333:
1973:
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262:
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51:
1603:
1586:
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Loduca, S. T.; Caron, J. B.; Schiffbauer, J. D.; Xiao, S.; Kramer, A. (2015).
758:
713:
704:
600:
382:
366:
363:
96:
61:
1871:
1718:
1709:
1554:"A reexamination of Yuknessia from the Cambrian of British Columbia and Utah"
1236:
1227:
1210:
1211:"The classification of the Pterobranchia (Cephalodiscida and Graptolithina)"
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461:
386:
258:
157:
101:
17:
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1149:
Life: A Natural
History of the First Four Billion Years of Life on Earth
1570:
1553:
1422:
1383:
464:, with the fertilised egg hatching to produce a free-swimming ciliated
430:
278:
106:
81:
1978:
1519:
1639:
1366:
Stebbing, ARD (1970). "Aspects of the reproduction and life cycle of
1259:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 1026–1027.
394:
167:
45:
1842:
1965:
1809:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
465:
390:
359:
311:
270:
414:
1846:
1952:
358:
studies have suggested that pterobranchs belong to the same
1752:"Mitogenomics Reveals a Novel Genetic Code in Hemichordata"
442:
Development of pterobranchs have been studied only in
385:, their body is divided into three parts: an anterior
1444:
Lester, SM (1988). "Settlement and metamorphosis of
1855:
253:of small worm-shaped animals. They belong to the
310:in 1877. It contained, at that time, the single
417:projects upwards, lying dorsal to the collar.
277:. There are about 25 known living pterobranch
8:
1838:Swalla Billie J. (2007). Class Pterobranchia
1828:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
340:was published in 1887, it became clear that
306:The class Pterobranchia was established by
1843:
117:
31:
1775:
1726:
1708:
1602:
1569:
1342:
1332:
1226:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1071:
812:
429:have a single pair of gill slits in the
1108:
344:, the second genus now included in the
1587:"An Early Cambrian Hemichordate Zooid"
1309:"The Global Diversity of Hemichordata"
1658:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1152:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p.
485:The earliest pterobranchs, including
323:was at first regarded as an aberrant
7:
2028:2b8b8947-4ab1-45fd-8ba2-41fad772a268
1250:
1248:
1246:
245:, members of which are often called
708:Kozlowski 1928 sensu Kozlowski 1949
593:
568:
543:
533:
472:by budding to create a new colony.
1493:10.1111/j.1463-6395.1988.tb00906.x
1462:10.1111/j.1463-6395.1988.tb00907.x
771:Maletz, Carlucci and Mitchell 2009
744:Fowler 1892 sensu Beklemishev 1951
735:Kozlowski 1938 sensu Kozlowsk 1949
269:out of the water with the help of
265:. Pterobranchia feed by filtering
25:
397:. The single member in the genus
377:Pterobranchs are small worm-like
1802:
1448:(Hemichordata: Pterobranchia)".
1405:Dilly, PN (1973). "The larva of
1191:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2012.00319.x
1130:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2008.00123.x
233:Lapworth sensu Beklemishev, 1951
144:
497:, are known from mid-Cambrian
1:
944:Cephalodiscidae mitochondrial
460:). Both of these species are
1756:Genome Biology and Evolution
1334:10.1371/journal.pone.0162564
1541:Hemichordate Nervous System
846:Pterobranchia mitochondrial
527:Phylogeny of Pterobranchia
413:is curved over so that the
281:in three genera, which are
2116:
1255:Barnes, Robert D. (1982).
503:small carbonaceous fossils
348:, had affinities with the
1604:10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005
1050:
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947:
942:
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804:alternative genetic codes
790:The two pterobranch taxa
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141:Scientific classification
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34:
1710:10.1186/1471-2148-11-134
1697:BMC Evolutionary Biology
1228:10.3140/bull.geosci.1465
1097:Termination: stop codon
128:Cephalodiscus nigrescens
1825:Encyclopædia Britannica
1558:Journal of Paleontology
1283:Graptolite Paleobiology
1215:Bulletin of Geosciences
1080:biochemical properties
1670:10.1006/mpev.1995.1007
677:Fowler 1892 stat. nov.
27:Class of hemichordates
2049:Paleobiology Database
1407:Rhabdopleura compacta
1368:Rhabdopleura compacta
1280:Maletz, Jörg (2017).
1209:Maletz, Jörg (2014).
840:Standard translation
793:Rhabdopleura compacta
753:Mitchell et al., 2013
451:Rhabdopleura compacta
1477:Rhabdopleura normani
1446:Rhabdopleura normani
1257:Invertebrate Zoology
808:mitochondrial genome
457:Rhabdopleura normani
454:) and from Bermuda (
131:(collected from the
1325:2016PLoSO..1162564T
1286:. Wiley-Blackwell.
815:
505:are known from the
356:Electron microscope
1768:10.1093/gbe/evy254
1571:10.1017/jpa.2014.7
1423:10.1007/BF00347923
1384:10.1007/BF00346908
1144:Fortey, Richard A.
813:
2087:
2086:
2036:Open Tree of Life
1849:Taxon identifiers
1520:10.1002/dvg.20395
1409:(Hemichordata)".
1370:(Hemichordata)".
1266:978-0-03-056747-6
1163:978-0-375-40119-0
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42:Cambrian Stage 3
38:Temporal range:
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448:from Plymouth (
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301:Cambrian Period
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1247:
1243:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1173:
1170:
1165:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1139:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1109:
1103:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1073:
1060:
1058:
1045:
1040:
1039:
1030:
1028:
1015:
1010:
1009:
1000:
998:
985:
980:
979:
970:
968:
955:
950:
945:
941:
932:
930:
917:
912:
911:
902:
900:
887:
882:
881:
872:
870:
857:
852:
847:
843:
839:
837:
829:
826:
821:
818:
817:
811:
809:
805:
801:
800:
799:Cephalodiscus
795:
794:
785:
780:
769:
765:
760:
756:
755:
751:
747:
742:
738:
733:
730:Order ?†
729:
724:
721:Order ?†
720:
715:
712:Order ?†
711:
706:
703:Order ?†
702:
701:
697:
696:
695:Graptolithina
691:
684:
680:
679:
675:
674:
669:
668:
667:
663:
662:Pterobranchia
649:
648:
640:
639:
631:
630:
622:
621:
618:
617:
611:
610:
607:
606:
603:
602:
596:
595:
589:
586:
585:
582:
581:
578:
577:
571:
570:
564:
563:Graptolithina
561:
560:
557:
556:
553:
552:
546:
545:
539:
538:Pterobranchia
536:
535:
531:
530:
526:
525:
522:
520:
512:
510:
508:
504:
500:
496:
495:
494:Galeaplumosus
490:
489:
480:
475:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
458:
453:
452:
447:
446:
440:
438:
437:
432:
428:
427:
422:
421:
420:Cephalodiscus
416:
410:
408:
407:
402:
401:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
372:
370:
368:
365:
361:
357:
353:
351:
350:Enteropneusta
347:
343:
342:Cephalodiscus
339:
338:
337:Cephalodiscus
333:
331:
326:
322:
318:
317:
313:
309:
308:Ray Lankester
304:
302:
298:
297:
292:
291:
290:Cephalodiscus
286:
285:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
261:tubes on the
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
243:Pterobranchia
230:
229:
227:
224:
220:
215:
214:Graptolithina
212:
210:
207:
206:
204:
199:
194:
189:
188:Pterobranchia
186:
183:
182:
179:
176:
173:
172:
169:
166:
163:
162:
159:
156:
153:
152:
147:
142:
138:
134:
130:
129:
124:
120:
115:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
47:
43:
35:Pterobranchia
33:
30:
19:
1856:
1823:
1762:(1): 29–40.
1759:
1755:
1745:
1700:
1696:
1686:
1664:(1): 72–76.
1661:
1657:
1648:
1631:
1627:
1621:
1597:(7): 612–6.
1594:
1590:
1580:
1561:
1557:
1547:
1536:
1511:
1507:
1501:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1470:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1400:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1361:
1316:
1312:
1302:
1282:
1275:
1256:
1218:
1214:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1148:
1138:
1121:
1117:
1111:
1075:
833:Translation
822:Translation
819:Genetic code
797:
791:
789:
786:Genetic code
768:Graptoloidea
693:
671:
661:
659:
616:Graptoloidea
614:
599:
574:
549:
537:
516:
499:Lagerstätten
492:
486:
484:
481:Paleontology
455:
449:
445:Rhabdopleura
443:
441:
436:Rhabdopleura
434:
424:
418:
411:
404:
398:
376:
354:
341:
335:
329:
321:Rhabdopleura
320:
316:Rhabdopleura
314:
305:
294:
288:
284:Rhabdopleura
282:
273:attached to
255:Hemichordata
247:pterobranchs
246:
242:
241:
187:
178:Hemichordata
126:
29:
18:Pterobranchs
1974:iNaturalist
1881:Wikispecies
1077:Amino acids
723:Dithecoidea
717:Bulman 1970
686:Fowler 1892
433:, although
383:acorn worms
367:graptolites
263:ocean floor
133:Weddell Sea
1703:(1): 134.
1104:References
1062:STOP = Ter
1032:STOP = Ter
934:STOP = Ter
759:Dendroidea
726:Obut, 1960
714:Crustoidea
705:Camaroidea
699:Bronn 1849
601:Dendroidea
501:. Earlier
439:has none.
330:Challenger
1719:1471-2148
1564:: 82–95.
1417:: 69–86.
1237:1214-1119
1185:: 34–56.
1083:nonpolar
830:RNA codon
827:DNA codon
806:in their
692:Subclass
670:Subclass
488:Yuknessia
476:Evolution
470:asexually
462:dioecious
387:proboscis
275:tentacles
193:Lankester
164:Kingdom:
158:Eukaryota
2094:Category
1866:Wikidata
1786:30476024
1737:21599892
1654:Halanych
1613:21439828
1528:18798243
1431:86563917
1392:84014156
1353:27701429
1313:PLOS ONE
1146:(1998).
781:Genomics
732:Tuboidea
513:Taxonomy
426:Atubaria
406:Atubaria
400:Atubaria
325:polyzoon
296:Atubaria
267:plankton
259:secreted
223:Synonyms
174:Phylum:
168:Animalia
154:Domain:
2064:1731181
1872:Q874843
1813::
1777:6319601
1728:3121625
1678:7620637
1628:Geology
1508:Genesis
1344:5049775
1321:Bibcode
1179:Lethaia
1118:Lethaia
1092:acidic
766:Order †
757:Order †
748:Clade †
431:pharynx
395:stolons
373:Biology
364:extinct
362:as the
279:species
249:, is a
201:Orders
184:Class:
2061:uBio:
2041:841340
2025:NZOR:
2005:158642
1979:152120
1927:494606
1807:
1784:
1774:
1735:
1725:
1717:
1676:
1611:
1526:
1429:
1390:
1351:
1341:
1290:
1263:
1235:
1160:
1089:basic
1086:polar
739:Order
681:Order
660:Class
391:zooids
332:report
293:, and
46:Recent
2072:WoRMS
2054:33521
2018:33627
1987:IRMNG
1940:62274
1427:S2CID
1388:S2CID
824:table
466:larva
360:clade
346:order
312:genus
271:cilia
251:class
2077:1819
2013:NCBI
2000:ITIS
1992:1446
1961:GBIF
1953:8855
1922:BOLD
1782:PMID
1733:PMID
1715:ISSN
1674:PMID
1609:PMID
1524:PMID
1349:PMID
1288:ISBN
1261:ISBN
1233:ISSN
1158:ISBN
802:use
796:and
491:and
423:and
415:anus
195:1877
52:PreꞒ
1966:278
1948:EoL
1935:CoL
1909:AFD
1896:ADW
1822:".
1772:PMC
1764:doi
1723:PMC
1705:doi
1666:doi
1636:doi
1599:doi
1566:doi
1516:doi
1489:doi
1479:".
1458:doi
1419:doi
1380:doi
1339:PMC
1329:doi
1223:doi
1187:doi
1154:129
1126:doi
1065:(*)
1055:(Y)
1052:Tyr
1047:UAA
1042:TAA
1035:(*)
1025:(W)
1022:Trp
1017:UGA
1012:TGA
1005:(R)
1002:Arg
995:(K)
992:Lys
987:AGG
982:AGG
975:(R)
972:Arg
965:(S)
962:Ser
957:AGA
952:AGA
937:(*)
927:(W)
924:Trp
919:UGA
914:TGA
907:(R)
904:Arg
897:(K)
894:Lys
889:AGG
884:AGG
877:(R)
874:Arg
867:(S)
864:Ser
859:AGA
854:AGA
334:on
2096::
2074::
2051::
2038::
2015::
2002::
1989::
1976::
1963::
1950::
1937::
1924::
1911::
1898::
1883::
1868::
1780:.
1770:.
1760:11
1758:.
1754:.
1731:.
1721:.
1713:.
1701:11
1699:.
1695:.
1672:.
1660:.
1632:46
1630:.
1607:.
1595:21
1593:.
1589:.
1562:89
1560:.
1556:.
1522:.
1512:46
1510:.
1485:69
1483:.
1454:69
1452:.
1425:.
1415:18
1413:.
1386:.
1374:.
1347:.
1337:.
1327:.
1317:11
1315:.
1311:.
1245:^
1231:.
1219:89
1217:.
1213:.
1199:^
1183:46
1181:.
1156:.
1122:41
1120:.
948:33
850:24
810:.
509:.
352:.
319:.
303:.
287:,
135:)
102:Pg
1788:.
1766::
1739:.
1707::
1680:.
1668::
1662:4
1642:.
1638::
1615:.
1601::
1574:.
1568::
1530:.
1518::
1495:.
1491::
1464:.
1460::
1433:.
1421::
1394:.
1382::
1376:5
1355:.
1331::
1323::
1296:.
1269:.
1239:.
1225::
1193:.
1189::
1166:.
1132:.
1128::
107:N
97:K
92:J
87:T
82:P
77:C
72:D
67:S
62:O
57:Ꞓ
44:–
20:)
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