Geocentric model - Knowledge (XXG)

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long as each confines himself within his own lines, and both are careful, as St. Augustine warns us, "not to make rash assertions, or to assert what is not known as known". If dissension should arise between them, here is the rule also laid down by St. Augustine, for the theologian: "Whatever they can really demonstrate to be true of physical nature, we must show to be capable of reconciliation with our Scriptures; and whatever they assert in their treatises which is contrary to these Scriptures of ours, that is to Catholic faith, we must either prove it as well as we can to be entirely false, or at all events we must, without the smallest hesitation, believe it to be so." To understand how just is the rule here formulated we must remember, first, that the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately, the Holy Ghost "Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things (that is to say, the essential nature of the things of the visible universe), things in no way profitable unto salvation." Hence they did not seek to penetrate the secrets of nature, but rather described and dealt with things in more or less figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even by the most eminent men of science. Ordinary speech primarily and properly describes what comes under the senses; and somewhat in the same way the sacred writers-as the Angelic Doctor also reminds us – "went by what sensibly appeared", or put down what God, speaking to men, signified, in the way men could understand and were accustomed to.

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and yearly motions, to His Holiness through Divine Providence, Pope Pius VII. Previously, His Holiness had referred this request to the Supreme Sacred Congregation and concurrently to the consideration of the Most Eminent and Most Reverend General Cardinal Inquisitor. His Holiness has decreed that no obstacles exist for those who sustain Copernicus' affirmation regarding the Earth's movement in the manner in which it is affirmed today, even by Catholic authors. He has, moreover, suggested the insertion of several notations into this work, aimed at demonstrating that the above mentioned affirmation , as it has come to be understood, does not present any difficulties; difficulties that existed in times past, prior to the subsequent astronomical observations that have now occurred. has also recommended that the implementation be given to the Cardinal Secretary of the Supreme Sacred Congregation and Master of the Sacred Apostolic Palace. He is now appointed the task of bringing to an end any concerns and criticisms regarding the printing of this book, and, at the same time, ensuring that in the future, regarding the publication of such works, permission is sought from the Cardinal Vicar whose signature will not be given without the authorization of the Superior of his Order.

472:. The deferent is a circle whose center point, called the eccentric and marked in the diagram with an X, is distant from the Earth. The original purpose of the eccentric was to account for the difference in length of the seasons (northern autumn was about five days shorter than spring during this time period) by placing the Earth away from the center of rotation of the rest of the universe. Another sphere, the epicycle, is embedded inside the deferent sphere and is represented by the smaller dotted line to the right. A given planet then moves around the epicycle at the same time the epicycle moves along the path marked by the deferent. These combined movements cause the given planet to move closer to and further away from the Earth at different points in its orbit, and explained the observation that planets slowed down, stopped, and moved backward in 372:. Therefore, the Greeks chose the simpler of the two explanations. Another observation used in favor of the geocentric model at the time was the apparent consistency of Venus' luminosity, which implies that it is usually about the same distance from Earth, which in turn is more consistent with geocentrism than heliocentrism. (In fact, Venus' luminous consistency is due to any loss of light caused by its phases being compensated for by an increase in apparent size caused by its varying distance from Earth.) Objectors to heliocentrism noted that terrestrial bodies naturally tend to come to rest as near as possible to the center of the Earth. Further, barring the opportunity to fall closer the center, terrestrial bodies tend not to move unless forced by an outside object, or transformed to a different element by heat or moisture. 1792:

centrality of the Earth, was to think that our understanding of the physical world's structure was, in some way, imposed by the literal sense of Sacred Scripture. Let us recall the celebrated saying attributed to Baronius "Spiritui Sancto mentem fuisse nos docere quomodo ad coelum eatur, non quomodo coelum gradiatur". In fact, the Bible does not concern itself with the details of the physical world, the understanding of which is the competence of human experience and reasoning. There exist two realms of knowledge, one which has its source in Revelation and one which reason can discover by its own power. To the latter belong especially the experimental sciences and philosophy. The distinction between the two realms of knowledge ought not to be understood as opposition.

451: 1473:], not only those moving uniformly, but also those moving quite arbitrarily, relative to each other? If this can be done, our difficulties will be over. We shall then be able to apply the laws of nature to any CS. The struggle, so violent in the early days of science, between the views of Ptolemy and Copernicus would then be quite meaningless. Either CS could be used with equal justification. The two sentences, 'the sun is at rest and the Earth moves', or 'the sun moves and the Earth is at rest', would simply mean two different conventions concerning two different CS. Could we build a real relativistic physics valid in all CS; a physics in which there would be no place for absolute, but only for relative, motion? This is indeed possible!" 1679:

as the Angelic Doctor says, speaking either "in figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even among the most eminent men of science". For "the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately – the words are St. Augustine's – the Holy Spirit, Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things – that is the essential nature of the things of the universe – things in no way profitable to salvation"; which principle "will apply to cognate sciences, and especially to history", that is, by refuting, "in a somewhat similar way the fallacies of the adversaries and defending the historical truth of Sacred Scripture from their attacks".

352:. He further described his system by explaining the natural tendencies of the terrestrial elements: earth, water, fire, air, as well as celestial aether. His system held that earth was the heaviest element, with the strongest movement towards the center, thus water formed a layer surrounding the sphere of Earth. The tendency of air and fire, on the other hand, was to move upwards, away from the center, with fire being lighter than air. Beyond the layer of fire, were the solid spheres of aether in which the celestial bodies were embedded. They were also entirely composed of aether. 1207:, and stated that they orbited around Jupiter, not Earth. This was a significant claim as it would mean not only that not everything revolved around Earth as stated in the Ptolemaic model, but also showed a secondary celestial body could orbit a moving celestial body, strengthening the heliocentric argument that a moving Earth could retain the Moon. Galileo's observations were verified by other astronomers of the time period who quickly adopted use of the telescope, including 262: 1233: 44: 504:. The resultant system, which eventually came to be widely accepted in the west, seems unwieldy to modern astronomers; each planet required an epicycle revolving on a deferent, offset by an equant which was different for each planet. It predicted various celestial motions, including the beginning and end of retrograde motion, to within a maximum error of 10 degrees, considerably better than without the equant. 1823:, which establishes that "when two bodies in space are in motion relative to one another, ... science declares with absolute certainty that from the scientific point of view both possibilities are equally valid, namely that the Earth revolves around the sun, or the sun revolves around the Earth", although he also went on to refer to people who believed in geocentrism as "remaining in the world of Copernicus". 389: 725: 1319: 1224: 500:. The equant was a point near the center of a planet's orbit where, if you were to stand there and watch, the center of the planet's epicycle would always appear to move at uniform speed; all other locations would see non-uniform speed, as on the Earth. By using an equant, Ptolemy claimed to keep motion which was uniform and circular, although it departed from the Platonic ideal of 7152: 1023: 1743:

astronomers, as long as there are no other contrary indications, on the basis of the decrees of the Sacred Congregation of the Index of 1757 and of this Supreme of 1820; and that those who would show themselves to be reluctant or would disobey, should be forced under punishments at the choice of Sacred Congregation, with derogation of claimed privileges, where necessary.

7176: 7128: 1076: 7164: 7140: 1489:, the planets do indeed move around the Sun, which due to its much larger mass, moves far less than its own diameter and the gravity of which is dominant in determining the orbits of the planets (in other words, the center of mass of the Solar System is near the center of the Sun). The Earth and Moon are much closer to being a 1678:

The first and greatest care of Leo XIII was to set forth the teaching on the truth of the Sacred Books and to defend it from attack. Hence with grave words did he proclaim that there is no error whatsoever if the sacred writer, speaking of things of the physical order "went by what sensibly appeared"

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we have to contend against those who, making an evil use of physical science, minutely scrutinize the Sacred Book in order to detect the writers in a mistake, and to take occasion to vilify its contents. ... There can never, indeed, be any real discrepancy between the theologian and the physicist, as

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This showed that with a Ptolemaic cosmology, the Venus epicycle can be neither completely inside nor completely outside of the orbit of the Sun. As a result, Ptolemaics abandoned the idea that the epicycle of Venus was completely inside the Sun, and later 17th-century competition between astronomical

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has moons) called into question some of the tenets of geocentrism but did not seriously threaten it. Because he observed dark "spots" on the Moon, craters, he remarked that the moon was not a perfect celestial body as had been previously conceived. This was the first detailed observation by telescope

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was conceived to move uniformly) and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model without abandoning geocentrism. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the

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thought that the Earth was a sphere (in accordance with observations of eclipses), but not at the center; he believed that it was in motion around an unseen fire. Later these views were combined, so most educated Greeks from the 4th century BC onwards thought that the Earth was a sphere at the center

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The Assessor of the Holy Office has referred the request of Giuseppe Settele, Professor of Optics and Astronomy at La Sapienza University, regarding permission to publish his work Elements of Astronomy in which he espouses the common opinion of the astronomers of our time regarding the Earth’s daily

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Relativity agrees with Newtonian predictions that regardless of whether the Sun or the Earth are chosen arbitrarily as the center of the coordinate system describing the Solar System, the paths of the planets form (roughly) ellipses with respect to the Sun, not the Earth. With respect to the average

496:, even though it was an improvement over Hipparchus' system. Most noticeably the size of a planet's retrograde loop (especially that of Mars) would be smaller, or sometimes larger, than expected, resulting in positional errors of as much as 30 degrees. To alleviate the problem, Ptolemy developed the 441:

Ptolemy argued that the Earth was a sphere in the center of the universe, from the simple observation that half the stars were above the horizon and half were below the horizon at any time (stars on rotating stellar sphere), and the assumption that the stars were all at some modest distance from the

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The Zohar states: "The entire world and those upon it, spin round in a circle like a ball, both those at the bottom of the ball and those at the top. All God's creatures, wherever they live on the different parts of the ball, look different (in color, in their features) because the air is different

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stated that, "though this Earth on which we live may not be the center of the universe as at one time was thought, it was the scene of the original happiness of our first ancestors, witness of their unhappy fall, as too of the Redemption of mankind through the Passion and Death of Jesus Christ". In

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What the principle of relativity points out is that correct mathematical calculations can be made regardless of the reference frame chosen, and these will all agree with each other as to the predictions of actual motions of bodies with respect to each other. It is not necessary to choose the object

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entirely inside the sphere of the Sun (between the Sun and Mercury), but this was arbitrary; he could just as easily have swapped Venus and Mercury and put them on the other side of the Sun, or made any other arrangement of Venus and Mercury, as long as they were always near a line running from the

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Atmospheric explanations for many phenomena were preferred because the Eudoxan–Aristotelian model based on perfectly concentric spheres was not intended to explain changes in the brightness of the planets due to a change in distance. Eventually, perfectly concentric spheres were abandoned as it was

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All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted ... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere ...

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Donald B. DeYoung, for example, states that "Similar terminology is often used today when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, even though the earth, not the sun, is doing the moving. Bible writers used the 'language of appearance,' just as people always have. Without it, the intended message

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could remove Ptolemy's epicycles because the retrograde motion could be seen to be the result of the combination of the movements and speeds of Earth and planets. Copernicus felt strongly that equants were a violation of Aristotelian purity, and proved that replacement of the equant with a pair of

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should change considerably over the course of a year. As they did not appear to move, either the stars are much farther away than the Sun and the planets than previously conceived, making their motion undetectable, or the Earth is not moving at all. Because the stars are actually much further away

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stated that, "Consequently, we cannot but deplore certain habits of mind, which are sometimes found too among Christians, which do not sufficiently attend to the rightful independence of science and which, from the arguments and controversies they spark, lead many minds to conclude that faith and

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for the year 1631. The change from circular orbits to elliptical planetary paths dramatically improved the accuracy of celestial observations and predictions. Because the heliocentric model devised by Copernicus was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, new observations were needed to persuade

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The deferent-and-epicycle model had been used by Greek astronomers for centuries along with the idea of the eccentric (a deferent whose center is slightly away from the Earth), which was even older. In the illustration, the center of the deferent is not the Earth but the spot marked X, making it

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Cardinal Poupard has also reminded us that the sentence of 1633 was not irreformable, and that the debate which had not ceased to evolve thereafter, was closed in 1820 with the imprimatur given to the work of Canon Settele. ... The error of the theologians of the time, when they maintained the

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To summarize, Ptolemy conceived a system that was compatible with Aristotelian philosophy and succeeded in tracking actual observations and predicting future movement mostly to within the limits of the next 1000 years of observations. The observed motions and his mechanisms for explaining them

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The model with epicycles is in fact a very good model of an elliptical orbit with low eccentricity. The well-known ellipse shape does not appear to a noticeable extent when the eccentricity is less than 5%, but the offset distance of the "center" (in fact the focus occupied by the Sun) is very

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In the fully developed Aristotelian system, the spherical Earth is at the center of the universe, and all other heavenly bodies are attached to 47–55 transparent, rotating spheres surrounding the Earth, all concentric with it. (The number is so high because several spheres are needed for each

1545:, A. L. Graebner observed that the synod had no doctrinal position on geocentrism, heliocentrism, or any scientific model, unless it were to contradict Scripture. He stated that any possible declarations of geocentrists within the synod did not set the position of the church body as a whole. 1742:

The most excellent have decreed that there must be no denial, by the present or by future Masters of the Sacred Apostolic Palace, of permission to print and to publish works which treat of the mobility of the Earth and of the immobility of the sun, according to the common opinion of modern

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Despite giving more respectability to the geocentric view than Newtonian physics does, relativity is not geocentric. Rather, relativity states that the Sun, the Earth, the Moon, Jupiter, or any other point for that matter could be chosen as a center of the Solar System with equal validity.

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While geocentrism is important in Maimonides' calendar calculations, the great majority of Jewish religious scholars, who accept the divinity of the Bible and accept many of his rulings as legally binding, do not believe that the Bible or Maimonides command a belief in geocentrism.

1167:), which posited that the Earth and the other planets instead revolved around the Sun. The geocentric system was still held for many years afterwards, as at the time the Copernican system did not offer better predictions than the geocentric system, and it posed problems for both 281:

proposed a cosmology with Earth shaped like a section of a pillar (a cylinder), held aloft at the center of everything. The Sun, Moon, and planets were holes in invisible wheels surrounding Earth; through the holes, humans could see concealed fire. About the same time,

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models provide identical results to identical inputs: they are computationally equivalent. It was not until Kepler demonstrated a physical observation that could show that the physical Sun is directly involved in determining an orbit that a new model was required.

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remains speculative, since there is no documentary evidence to prove it. The possibility that Copernicus independently developed the Tusi couple remains open, since no researcher has yet demonstrated that he knew about Tusi's work or that of the Maragha school.

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is most useful in those cases, galactic and extragalactic astronomy is easier if the Sun is treated as neither stationary nor the center of the universe, but rather rotating around the center of our galaxy, while in turn our galaxy is also not at rest in the

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successfully, and disproved Ptolemy's claim that parallax motion did not exist. This finally confirmed the assumptions made by Copernicus, providing accurate, dependable scientific observations, and conclusively displaying how distant stars are from Earth.

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In this depiction of the Tychonic system, the objects on blue orbits (the Moon and the Sun) revolve around the Earth. The objects on orange orbits (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) revolve around the Sun. Around all is a sphere of stars, which

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quotes a 2006 survey that show currently some 20% of the U.S. population believe that the Sun goes around the Earth (geocentricism) rather than the Earth goes around the Sun (heliocentricism), while a further 9% claimed not to know. Polls conducted by

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as the force which both kept the Earth and planets moving through the universe and also kept the atmosphere from flying away. The theory of gravity allowed scientists to rapidly construct a plausible heliocentric model for the Solar System. In his

249:(1571–1630). There was much resistance to the transition between these two theories, since for a long time the geocentric postulate produced more accurate results. Additionally some felt that a new, unknown theory could not subvert an accepted 841:

based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky." The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states:

1493:; the center of mass around which they both rotate is still inside the Earth, but is about 4,624 km (2,873 mi) or 72.6% of the Earth's radius away from the centre of the Earth (thus closer to the surface than the center). 1665:

Maurice Finocchiaro, author of a book on the Galileo affair, notes that this is "a view of the relationship between biblical interpretation and scientific investigation that corresponds to the one advanced by Galileo in the

1556:, which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis. For example, in 1643:. In regards to the theological basis for such an argument, two Popes addressed the question of whether the use of phenomenological language would compel one to admit an error in Scripture. Both taught that it would not. 1497:

in the Solar System with the largest gravitational field as the center of the coordinate system in order to predict the motions of planetary bodies, though doing so may make calculations easier to perform or interpret. A

1390:, Newton explained his theory of how gravity, previously thought to be a mysterious, unexplained occult force, directed the movements of celestial bodies, and kept our Solar System in working order. His descriptions of 1509:), or when calculating what the sky will look like when viewed from Earth (as opposed to an imaginary observer looking down on the entire Solar System, where a different coordinate system might be more convenient). 1715:

The position of the curia evolved slowly over the centuries towards permitting the heliocentric view. In 1757, during the papacy of Benedict XIV, the Congregation of the Index withdrew the decree which prohibited

1336:(in which the Earth was still at the center of the universe, and around it revolved the Sun, but all other planets revolved around the Sun in one massive set of epicycles), or variations on the Copernican system. 1405:

of Newton's theory, explaining the longer period of oscillation of a pendulum at the equator and the differing size of a degree of latitude, would gradually become available between 1673 and 1738. In addition,

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In 1822, the Congregation of the Holy Office removed the prohibition on the publication of books treating of the Earth's motion in accordance with modern astronomy and Pope Pius VII ratified the decision:

1586:). These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a geocentric worldview. Most contemporary 1131:

was the most radical. He correctly realized in the 4th century BC that the universe does not have any single center. This theory was widely accepted by the later Epicureans and was notably defended by

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planet.) These spheres, known as crystalline spheres, all moved at different uniform speeds to create the revolution of bodies around the Earth. They were composed of an incorruptible substance called

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Adherence to the geocentric model stemmed largely from several important observations. First of all, if the Earth did move, then one ought to be able to observe the shifting of the fixed stars due to

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in each place, but they stand erect as all other human beings, therefore, there are places in the world where, when some have light, others have darkness; when some have day, others have night."

873:), which some have interpreted to imply he was criticizing Ptolemy's geocentrism, but most agree that he was actually criticizing the details of Ptolemy's model rather than his geocentrism. 298:, wrote works based on the geocentric model. According to Plato, the Earth was a sphere, stationary at the center of the universe. The stars and planets were carried around the Earth on 1619:, an expert in the public understanding of science and technology, found that about 20%, or one in five, of American adults believe that the Sun orbits the Earth. According to 2011 713:

new epicycles was entirely equivalent. Astronomers often continued using the equants instead of the epicycles because the former was easier to calculate, and gave the same result.

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Although the basic tenets of Greek geocentrism were established by the time of Aristotle, the details of his system did not become standard. The Ptolemaic system, developed by the

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in the 4th century BC, believed that the Earth rotated on its axis but remained at the center of the universe. Such a system still qualifies as geocentric. It was revived in the

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A geocentric frame is useful for many everyday activities and most laboratory experiments, but is a less appropriate choice for Solar System mechanics and space travel. While a

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impossible to develop a sufficiently accurate model under that ideal, with the mathematical methods then available. However, while providing for similar explanations, the later

302:, arranged in the order (outwards from the center): Moon, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, fixed stars, with the fixed stars located on the celestial sphere. In his " 3562: 966:

Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations. The most important of the Maragha astronomers included

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Earth through the Sun, such as placing the center of the Venus epicycle near the Sun. In this case, if the Sun is the source of all the light, under the Ptolemaic system:

1123:, saying that the Sun was at the center of the universe, while the Earth and other planets revolved around it. His theory was not popular, and he had one named follower, 4265: 1033: 817:

generally accepted the Ptolemaic system and the geocentric model, but by the 10th century texts appeared regularly whose subject matter was doubts concerning Ptolemy (

5892: 930:) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has." To support his 1724:

and a few other books continued to be explicitly included. In 1820, the Congregation of the Holy Office, with the pope's approval, decreed that Catholic astronomer

1111:. Heraclides Ponticus was once thought to have proposed that both Venus and Mercury went around the Sun rather than the Earth, but it is now known that he did not. 941:

The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragha school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the

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in 1609 and 1619, based on a heliocentric view where the planets move in elliptical paths. Using these laws, he was the first astronomer to successfully predict a

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mechanisms, though this resulted in a system that was mathematically less accurate. His alternative system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century.

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those who still adhered to the geocentric model. However, Kepler's laws based on Brahe's data became a problem which geocentrists could not easily overcome.

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Lattis, James L. (1995). Between Copernicus and Galileo: Christoph Clavius and the Collapse of Ptolemaic Cosmology, University of Chicago Press, pgs 186-190

5158: 3101: 850:), the Earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the Earth and not the stars. 450: 5591: 4773: 3395: 7018: 5733: 1611:

in the 1990s found that 16% of Germans, 18% of Americans and 19% of Britons hold that the Sun revolves around the Earth. A study conducted in 2005 by

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center of the universe. If the Earth were substantially displaced from the center, this division into visible and invisible stars would not be equal.

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Two observations supported the idea that Earth was the center of the Universe. First, from anywhere on Earth, the Sun appears to revolve around Earth

1398:, finally replacing the previous schools of scientific thought, which had been dominated by Aristotle and Ptolemy. However, the process was gradual. 7201: 5194: 4536: 3841:

Grant, Edward (1984-01-01). "In Defense of the Earth's Centrality and Immobility: Scholastic Reaction to Copernicanism in the Seventeenth Century".

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The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450

821:). Several Muslim scholars questioned the Earth's apparent immobility and centrality within the universe. Some Muslim astronomers believed that the 1171:

and scripture. The Copernican system was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, because it still used circular orbits. This was not altered until

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assumed it was the correct cosmological model. Because of its influence, people sometimes wrongly think the Ptolemaic system is identical with the

7012: 6791: 6642: 5749: 4740: 4090: 6546: 129:. While the Moon and the planets have their own motions, they also appear to revolve around Earth about once per day. The stars appeared to be 3238: 1287:. He thought that while this observation was incompatible with the Ptolemaic system, it was a natural consequence of the heliocentric system. 190:

placing all of the then-known planets in their correct order around the Sun. The ancient Greeks believed that the motions of the planets were

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Prominent cases of modern geocentrism are very isolated. Very few individuals promoted a geocentric view of the universe. One of them was

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was allowed to treat the Earth's motion as an established fact and removed any obstacle for Catholics to hold to the motion of the Earth:

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meaning "center"), from which the spot takes its name. Unfortunately, the system that was available in Ptolemy's time did not quite match

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common to the major Eurasian religious traditions. It also follows the decreasing orbital periods of the Moon, Sun, planets and stars.

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would be awkward at best and probably not understood clearly. When the Bible touches on scientific subjects, it is entirely accurate."

1866:. He rejected the heliocentric model and wrote a book that explains the movement of the sun, moon and other planets around the Earth. 1840: 4058: 145:

of Earth. Second, Earth seems to be unmoving from the perspective of an earthbound observer; it feels solid, stable, and stationary.

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Sabra, A. I. (1998). "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy".

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system has already been mentioned; some Pythagoreans believed the Earth to be one of several planets going around a central fire.

7196: 4251: 344:. Aristotle believed that the Moon was in the innermost sphere and therefore touches the realm of Earth, causing the dark spots ( 6418: 6408: 5124: 971: 2825: 7216: 6276: 4766: 4016: 3951: 3928: 3916: 3808: 3563:"EgoCentrism and GeoCentrism; Human Significance and Existential Despair; Bible and Science; Fundamentalism and Skepticalism" 3357: 3079: 2805: 2558: 1784: 234: 75: 6211: 3446:"Orthodox Jews & science: An empirical study of their attitudes toward evolution, the fossil record, and modern geology" 1708:) and attached the various decrees connected with those books, including those concerned with heliocentrism. He stated in a 6231: 5816: 6327: 4663: 3669: 3195: 328:, who worked with Plato, developed a less mythical, more mathematical explanation of the planets' motion based on Plato's 7118: 5806: 1811:

leaders maintain a geocentric model of the universe based on the aforementioned Biblical verses and an interpretation of

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Only ratio between radius of deferent and associated epicycle determined; absolute distances not determined in theory

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notion of the Earth's centrality within the universe, but instead argues that there are "a thousand thousand worlds (

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Another demonstration of the complexity of observed orbits when assuming a geocentric model of the Solar System

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that his purpose in doing so was that "the succession of things done from the beginning might be made known ".

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in 1992. The Pope declared the incident to be based on a "tragic mutual miscomprehension". He further stated:

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can be more convenient when dealing only with bodies mostly influenced by the gravity of the Earth (such as

881: 501: 274: 6765: 6725: 6539: 6480: 6439: 6266: 6246: 6165: 6043: 5334: 5324: 4602: 4475: 4410: 4076: 3818: 3472:

Nussbaum, Alexander (January–April 2002). "Creationism and geocentrism among Orthodox Jewish scientists".

2374: 1771: 975: 692: 661: 35: 613:

Motion of epicycle in same direction as deferent. Period of epicycle is time between retrograde motions (

7032: 6826: 6740: 6413: 6226: 6195: 6140: 5928: 5579: 5569: 5400: 5319: 5116: 4956: 4638: 4567: 4305: 1761: 1657: 1395: 1044: 950: 901: 893: 469: 377: 3655: 3015:"Excerpts from Frank Zindler's 'Report from the center of the universe' and 'Turtles all the way down'" 967: 826: 336:

in the heavens can be explained with uniform circular motion. Aristotle elaborated on Eudoxus' system.

4053: 3745:"From Geocentrism to Allocentrism: Teaching the Phases of the Moon in a Digital Full-Dome Planetarium" 1725: 7051: 7025: 6866: 6836: 6241: 6221: 5912: 5811: 5796: 5607: 5516: 5410: 4841: 4709: 4450: 4400: 4320: 4295: 3756: 2729: 2458: 2423: 2396: 2226: 1899: 1502: 1124: 1116: 942: 907: 801: 427: 313: 250: 172: 7180: 6992: 6831: 6811: 6745: 6730: 6601: 6560: 6281: 6256: 5943: 5907: 5862: 5536: 5455: 5405: 5178: 5152: 5046: 4981: 4961: 4480: 4385: 4335: 4310: 3018: 2720:

Eastwood, B. S. (1992-11-01). "Heraclides and heliocentrism – Texts diagrams and interpretations".

1919: 1863: 1820: 1402: 1100: 822: 308: 50:— An illustration of a non-Ptolemaic geocentric system by Portuguese cosmographer and cartographer 5201: 3690: 1525:; from the late 16th century onward it was gradually replaced as the consensus description by the 7168: 7156: 7056: 6997: 6675: 6485: 6038: 5832: 5370: 5299: 5138: 4836: 4714: 4628: 3935: 3866: 3774: 3744: 3725: 3604: 2745: 2474: 2242: 2195: 2125: 2088: 1695: 1526: 1482: 1407: 1262: 1208: 1168: 705: 679: 187: 119: 6627: 6286: 3071: 3065: 1394:

were a breakthrough in scientific thought, using the newly developed mathematical discipline of

1195:

of the Moon's imperfections, which had previously been explained by Aristotle as the Moon being

265:

Illustration of Anaximander's models of the universe. On the left, summer; on the right, winter.

2591: 7087: 7082: 6956: 6816: 6475: 6357: 6291: 6003: 5627: 5548: 5481: 5385: 5375: 5145: 5039: 4946: 4926: 4623: 4470: 4375: 4330: 4012: 3995: 3985: 3966: 3947: 3924: 3912: 3858: 3804: 3705: 3635: 3584: 3514: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3353: 3294: 3174: 3075: 3061: 2993: 2968: 2943: 2939: 2933: 2869: 2831: 2801: 2772: 2768: 2685: 2681: 2652: 2627: 2595: 2554: 2522: 2492:"Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School". 2343: 2318: 2154: 2039: 2035: 2006: 2002: 1816: 1780: 1470: 1418:

over a period of ten years, finishing in 1680. However, it was not explained until 1729, when

1391: 1249:, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the 1112: 809: 547: 431: 325: 317: 299: 6378: 4063: 3499: 3495: 3047: 2623: 2264: 7132: 7097: 7066: 6941: 6931: 6720: 6680: 6665: 6588: 6553: 6533: 6398: 6383: 6104: 5953: 5842: 5662: 5380: 5314: 5284: 5274: 5264: 5208: 5164: 4991: 4782: 4735: 4688: 4658: 4597: 4572: 4190: 4027: 3850: 3764: 3717: 3627: 3422: 2861: 2821: 2737: 2673: 2579: 2466: 2431: 2265:"Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on physics and the nature of the physical world: A preliminary survey" 2234: 2187: 2117: 2080: 2027: 1994: 1883: 1882:

and geocentric models. In particular, the geocentric model is still used for projecting the

1808: 1766: 1756: 1569: 1549: 1356: 1232: 931: 885: 744: 600:

Eastward motion of deferents; period set by observation of planet going around the ecliptic

543: 460: 369: 365: 356: 134: 99: 51: 31: 3290: 1568:

says in part, "the world is established, firm and secure". Contemporary advocates for such

106:

Earth. The geocentric model was the predominant description of the cosmos in many European

7002: 6936: 6700: 6655: 6185: 6059: 6028: 5963: 5791: 5718: 5687: 5521: 5435: 5294: 5171: 5108: 5006: 4951: 4916: 4683: 4618: 4587: 4485: 4415: 4210: 4167: 4162: 3904: 3046:. St. Louis, MO: Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio and other states, Concordia Publishing: 2391:

Rufus, W. C. (May 1939). "The influence of Islamic astronomy in Europe and the far east".

1775:

science are mutually opposed." The footnote on this statement is to Msgr. Pio Paschini's,

1573: 1518: 1458: 1344: 1333: 1280: 1272: 1246: 1242: 1212: 1203:

of the higher spheres. Galileo could also see the moons of Jupiter, which he dedicated to

1187: 1172: 1136: 919: 717: 686: 655: 270: 242: 199: 195: 160: 142: 107: 6018: 5978: 4028: 3822: 3624:

Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures

3213: 1529:. Geocentrism as a separate religious belief, however, never completely died out. In the 412:

in the 2nd century AD, finally standardised geocentrism. His main astronomical work, the

3760: 3684: 2733: 2462: 2427: 2400: 2230: 6846: 6821: 6607: 6470: 6124: 6099: 6084: 6069: 6033: 5902: 5682: 5644: 5420: 5395: 5390: 5187: 5131: 5094: 4861: 4851: 4821: 4546: 4425: 4360: 4340: 4225: 4215: 4200: 4195: 3940: 3892: 3882: 3797: 1929: 1924: 1636: 1561: 1462: 1153:

In 1543, the geocentric system met its first serious challenge with the publication of

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verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," emphasizing the term "Worlds."

889: 614: 539: 481: 419: 203: 191: 148: 138: 126: 2512: 2071:

Goldstein, Bernard R. (1967). "The Arabic version of Ptolemy's planetary hypothesis".

1548:

Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early

1422:

provided an approximate explanation in terms of the Earth's revolution about the Sun.

43: 7190: 6966: 6876: 6750: 6620: 6613: 6312: 6180: 6155: 6094: 5564: 5469: 5450: 5080: 5073: 5066: 4976: 4971: 4941: 4866: 4816: 4668: 4653: 4633: 4172: 4157: 4152: 4118: 4099: 3778: 3729: 3168: 3164: 2862: 2749: 2674: 2580: 2575: 2542: 2478: 2435: 2246: 2199: 2129: 2028: 1995: 1671: 1644: 1612: 1603: 1582: 1530: 1490: 1442: 1419: 1196: 1120: 979: 789: 780: 405: 360: 7144: 6796: 6690: 6403: 6337: 6190: 5933: 5897: 5475: 5240: 4986: 4921: 4806: 4516: 4365: 4220: 4147: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4113: 3631: 3330: 2497: 1914: 1887: 1879: 1875: 1411: 1372: 1364: 1108: 349: 230: 211: 152: 5462: 3014: 388: 17: 4036: 3314: 3262: 3118:"Astronomy and the Bible: Selected questions and answers excerpted from the book" 2414:

Hartner, Willy (1955). "The Mercury horoscope of Marcantonio Michiel of Venice".

6971: 6961: 6926: 6735: 6715: 6594: 6434: 6170: 6119: 6079: 5847: 5445: 5339: 5224: 5023: 5001: 4936: 4871: 4831: 4811: 4355: 4300: 3878: 3319:(in Latin). Rome: Ex typographia Reurendae Camerae Apostolicae. 1664. p. v. 2547:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

1587: 1486: 1415: 1380: 1348: 1329: 1284: 1104: 994: 774: 493: 278: 156: 130: 3117: 2741: 1469:(1938): "Can we formulate physical laws so that they are valid for all CS [ 1379:

from the law of gravitation, thus helping to prove the latter. This introduced

1318: 1223: 724: 400:

point. The Green shaded area is the celestial sphere which the planet occupies.

6916: 6906: 6896: 6801: 6781: 6705: 6373: 6322: 6160: 6150: 5988: 5983: 5968: 5692: 5511: 5486: 5360: 5344: 5087: 4876: 4826: 4673: 4490: 4435: 4395: 4325: 3769: 3721: 3550:. Translated by Touger, Eliyahu. Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center. Halacha 13–14. 2449:

Goldstein, Bernard R. (1972). "Theory and observation in medieval astronomy".

2215:"Freeing astronomy from philosophy: An aspect of Islamic influence on science" 2191: 2174:

Ragep, F. Jamil (2001). "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's motion in context".

1812: 1709: 1557: 1522: 1258: 1154: 1005: 983: 954: 923: 303: 283: 238: 226: 164: 3999: 3862: 1565: 1315:

But Galileo saw Venus at first small and full, and later large and crescent.

788:

Ptolemy did not invent or work out this order, which aligns with the ancient

364:

than Greek astronomers postulated (making angular movement extremely small),

214:

showed that elliptical orbits could be derived from his laws of gravitation.

6951: 6891: 6670: 6449: 6393: 6064: 5998: 5973: 5857: 5672: 5667: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5269: 4881: 4856: 4801: 4796: 4577: 4430: 4420: 4405: 4350: 4345: 4290: 1802: 1602:, 26% of Americans surveyed believe that the Sun revolves around the Earth. 1183: 1132: 1096: 961:

problem (the circle around whose circumference a planet or the center of an

834: 830: 333: 295: 222: 168: 111: 59: 3492:

Mind over Matter: The Lubavitcher Rebbe on Science, Technology and Medicine

1307:

or all dark. If Venus is beyond the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be

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from Latin to Arabic, Muslims adopted and refined the geocentric model of

468:

In the Ptolemaic system, each planet is moved by a system of two spheres:

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If Venus is between Earth and the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be

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to the effect that he ruled that the Earth is orbited by the Sun. The

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noticeable even with low eccentricities as possessed by the planets.

497: 397: 329: 321: 246: 221:, developed in the 2nd century CE, served as the basis for preparing 3909:

The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe

3854: 3140:"1 In 4 Americans Thinks The Sun Goes Around The Earth, Survey Says" 2225:(Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64, 66–71. 2084: 1265:

and disproved the then conventional geocentric model (second image).

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regretted the treatment which Galileo received, in a speech to the

716:

It has been determined that the Copernican, Ptolemaic and even the

6921: 6786: 6710: 5531: 5440: 5304: 5216: 4891: 1859: 1553: 1317: 1276: 1254: 1074: 749: 449: 392:

The basic elements of Ptolemaic astronomy, showing a planet on an

387: 291: 260: 103: 83: 42: 3799:

Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution

3264:'СОЛНЦЕ – СПУТНИК ЗЕМЛИ', ИЛИ РЕЙТИНГ НАУЧНЫХ ЗАБЛУЖДЕНИЙ РОССИЯН 2676:

A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Beginnings to Augustine

1351:'s famously accurate observations and afterwards constructed his 667:

Size of epicycles set by these angles, proportional to distances

639:

Equants per planet (Copernicus used a pair of epicycles instead)

550:

with it; normally ignored; other spheres have additional motions

476:, and then again reversed to resume normal, or prograde, motion. 5542: 4068: 1506: 759: 739: 95: 91: 6506: 5760: 5722: 4755: 4247: 4072: 3620:"Almagest: Its Reception and Transmission in the Islamic World" 380:

model was already flexible enough to accommodate observations.

27:

Superseded description of the Universe with Earth at the center

6579: 5247: 2289:

Alessandro Bausani (1973). "Cosmology and Religion in Islam".

1851:, which they believed correlated with the teachings of Islam. 1375:

and others. His main achievement was to mathematically derive

1250: 1083:

manuscript dated around 1750 illustrates the geocentric model.

1016: 754: 229:

for over 1,500 years. The geocentric model held sway into the

87: 4054:

Geocentric Perspective animation of the Solar System in 150AD

2574:

Dallal, Ahmad (1999). "Science, Medicine and Technology". In

957:

predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the

233:

age, but from the late 16th century onward, it was gradually

3963:

From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy

2888:

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

2620:

The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West

1819:

also explained that geocentrism is defensible based on the

1533:

between 1870 and 1920, for example, various members of the

290:

In the 4th century BC, two influential Greek philosophers,

1115:

definitely put Mercury and Venus in orbit around the Sun.

535:

Westward motion of entire sky in ~24 hrs ("first motion")

159:

philosophers usually combined the geocentric model with a

30:"Geocentric" redirects here. For orbits around Earth, see 3067:

The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism

2938:(1966 ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 1004:

to heliocentrism. The influence of the Maragha school on

3269:'Sun-earth', or rating scientific fallacies of Russians 3097:"In this world view, the sun revolves around the earth" 1560:, the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and in 1040: 1199:

by Earth and its heavier elements, in contrast to the

735:

The Ptolemaic order of spheres from Earth outward is:

7116: 3581:

Science in the Light of Torah: A B'Or Ha'Torah Reader

3196:"New Poll Gauges Americans' General Knowledge Levels" 2992:. London: Heineman Educational Books Ltd. p. 1. 2767:(2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 2315:

Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period

1087:

Not all Greeks agreed with the geocentric model. The

997:(died 1525), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (died 1550). 273:

and philosophy at an early point; it can be found in

3474:

Reports of the National Center for Science Education

3289:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 2649:

Encyclopaedia of Islamic Science and Scientists: A-H

1948:

This argument is given in Book I, Chapter 5, of the

1631:

Historical positions of the Roman Catholic hierarchy

704:

The geocentric model was eventually replaced by the

7075: 7044: 6985: 6774: 6641: 6577: 6517: 6463: 6427: 6366: 6305: 6204: 6133: 6052: 5921: 5825: 5784: 5641: 5600: 5557: 5353: 5257: 5015: 4789: 4723: 4702: 4611: 4560: 4499: 4281: 4183: 4106: 3579:Branover, Herman; Attia, Ilana Coven, eds. (1994). 1513:

Religious and contemporary adherence to geocentrism

1414:in 1674, and tested in a series of observations by 3939: 3843:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 3796: 3656:"How Islamic scholarship birthed modern astronomy" 3280: 3278: 3038:Graebner, A. L. (1902). "Science and the church". 2990:Nicolaus Copernicus: An Essay On His Life and Work 2965:Nicolaus Copernicus: An Essay On His Life and Work 2073:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 1639:pitted the geocentric model against the claims of 575:Eccentric orbit (Sun's deferent center off Earth) 359:. Thus if the Earth was moving, the shapes of the 171:. However, the Greek astronomer and mathematician 3982:Relativity: An introduction to the special theory 2340:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 1674:(1939–1958) repeated his predecessor's teaching: 698:Radii of epicycles aligned to the Sun–Earth line 572:Non-uniform rate along ecliptic (uneven seasons) 430:astronomers. For over a millennium, European and 86:at the center. Under most geocentric models, the 2707:Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece 1720:books teaching the Earth's motion, although the 1541:and promoting geocentrism. However, in the 1902 470:one called its deferent; the other, its epicycle 3467: 3465: 2134: 1789: 1740: 1730: 1676: 1649: 1301: 1175:postulated that they were elliptical (Kepler's 3544:"Sefer Zemanim: Kiddush HaChodesh: Chapter 11" 1598:According to a report released in 2014 by the 1099:, two Pythagoreans of the 5th century BC, and 896:proposed a planetary model that abandoned the 418:, was the culmination of centuries of work by 5734: 4767: 4259: 4084: 3834:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy 3350:Galileo: For Copernicanism and For the Church 2794:Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia 2647:Kirmani, M. Zaki; Singh, Nagendra Kr (2005). 1905:Earth-centered, Earth-fixed coordinate system 1552:newsletters pointing to some passages in the 1030:The examples and perspective in this article 202:postulated that orbits were heliocentric and 8: 3824:A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler 3170:Dark Ages America: The Final Phase of Empire 2395:. Vol. 47, no. 5. pp. 233–8. 2258: 2256: 564:Eastward motion of Sun's sphere in one year 3984:. Singapore Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific. 3533:Zohar, Book 3 (Vayikra), Page 10, folio: a. 2613: 2611: 2317:. Cambridge University Press. p. 413. 2030:Planetary Motions: A Historical Perspective 1890:in education and sometimes for navigation. 1000:However, the Maragha school never made the 6521: 6514: 6503: 5770: 5757: 5741: 5727: 5719: 5592:Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics 4774: 4760: 4752: 4266: 4252: 4244: 4091: 4077: 4069: 3070:. University of California Press. p. 2153:. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. 2151:The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy 1165:On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 796:Persian and Arab astronomy and geocentrism 583:Monthly eastward motion compared to stars 3965:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3768: 3670:"Fauz e Mubeen Dar Radd e Harkat e Zamin" 3352:. University of Notre Dame. p. 475. 3316:Index librorum prohibitorum Alexandri VII 3287:The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History 1915:Hollow Earth § Concave Hollow Earths 1119:wrote a work, which has not survived, on 1063:Learn how and when to remove this message 945:and continuing with astronomers from the 731:thought the solar system looked like this 586:Monthly eastward motion of Moon's sphere 5195:Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era 3605:"Ptolemaic Astronomy in the Middle Ages" 2967:. New York: Harper and Row. p. 87. 2672:Johansen, K. F.; Rosenmeier, H. (1998). 2308: 2306: 2304: 1590:organizations reject such perspectives. 880:departed from the ancient Greek idea of 723: 678:Center their deferent centers along the 514: 70:, often exemplified specifically by the 7123: 5750:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world 3946:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 3686:A General View of the Sciences and Arts 3376:. Rome. 1921-04-30. § 4. Archived from 3271:] (in Russian), ВЦИОМ , 2011-02-08. 1973: 1941: 1627:believe that the Sun orbits the Earth. 1371:, described earlier as a hypothesis by 625:Variations in speed through the zodiac 6547:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity 5893:Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi 4064:The Galileo Project – Ptolemaic System 3411:"Faith can never conflict with reason" 2622:. Cambridge University Press. p. 118:in Roman Egypt, as well as during the 54:, 1568 (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris) 6568:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries 3239:"Scientific savvy? In U.S., not much" 2868:. Indianapolis, IL: Hackett. p. 2521:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 2362: 2058: 1910:History of the center of the Universe 1668:Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina 1580:and the 2014 pseudo-documentary film 1328:cosmologies focused on variations of 218: 7: 3836:. New York: Oxford University Press. 2722:Journal for the History of Astronomy 1997:The Cosmos: A Historical Perspective 1980: 1564:the world is described as immobile. 312:, Plato describes the cosmos as the 194:, a view that was not challenged in 3803:. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. 3138:Neuman, Scott (February 14, 2014). 2379:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2338:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993-01-01). 2313:Young, M. J. L., ed. (2006-11-02). 1779:, 2 volumes, Vatican Press (1964). 1519:Ptolemaic model of the solar system 1275:used his telescope to observe that 1160:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 3444:Nussbaum, Alexander (2007-12-19). 2919:Selections from Newton's Principia 2518:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 2513:"Al-Bitruji Al-Ishbili, Abu Ishaq" 2137:concentrically envelops the other. 1843:which included the translation of 1034:include all significant viewpoints 396:with an eccentric deferent and an 25: 4007:Walker, Christopher, ed. (1996). 3116:DeYoung, Donald B. (1997-11-05). 3105:. Hendersonville, NC. p. 5A. 2026:Hetherington, Norriss S. (2006). 1747:The 1835 edition of the Catholic 1377:Kepler's laws of planetary motion 1245:observed with his telescope that 910:(1149–1209), in dealing with his 884:by hypothesizing that the planet 790:Seven Heavens religious cosmology 675:Limited to movement near the Sun 664:of 23° (Mercury) and 46° (Venus) 34:. For the coordinate system, see 7174: 7162: 7150: 7138: 7126: 4011:. London: British Museum Press. 3434:(Published English translation). 3409:Pope John Paul II (1992-11-04). 3285:Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (1989). 2860:Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2008). 1231: 1222: 1021: 636:Variations in retrograde timing 594:General eastward motion through 348:) and the ability to go through 217:The astronomical predictions of 110:civilizations, such as those of 7202:Astronomical coordinate systems 6272:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi 3961:Linton, Christopher M. (2004). 3827:. New York: Dover Publications. 3218:Northwestern University website 2921:. Green Lion Press. p. 12. 2827:A History of Western Philosophy 2034:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 2001:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 1777:Vita e opere di Galileo Galilei 1537:published articles disparaging 1290:However, Ptolemy placed Venus' 464:, showing the Ptolemaic system. 6761:Schema for horizontal sundials 6277:Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi 5802:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī 4009:Astronomy Before the Telescope 3683:Hort, William Jillard (1822). 3632:10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_8988 3194:Crabtree, Steve (1999-07-06). 2149:Hoskin, Michael (1999-03-18). 1785:Pontifical Academy of Sciences 1535:Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod 1186:in 1609, observations made by 914:and the physical world in his 829:(d. circa 1020). According to 1: 4664:Inferior and superior planets 4059:Ptolemy’s system of astronomy 3749:Research in Science Education 3237:Dean, Cornelia (2005-08-30). 3173:. W.W. Norton & Company. 3013:Babinski, E. T., ed. (1995). 1751:for the first time omits the 1177:first law of planetary motion 1013:Geocentrism and rival systems 987: 867: 858:wrote a scathing critique of 846:According to the geometers ( 823:Earth rotates around its axis 647:Size of deferents, epicycles 558:Eastward motion yearly along 269:The geocentric model entered 237:by the heliocentric model of 208:first law of planetary motion 198:until the 17th century, when 176: 137:rotating once each day about 48:Figure of the heavenly bodies 7212:Early scientific cosmologies 7019:Constantinople (Taqi al-Din) 5159:Rājamṛgāṅka (astronomy book) 4902:Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis 3488:Schneersohn, Menachem Mendel 2917:Densmore, Dana, ed. (2004). 2436:10.1016/0083-6656(55)90016-7 1499:geocentric coordinate system 1369:law of universal gravitation 7008:University of al-Qarawiyyin 6212:Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi 5461: 5056: 4030:The Early History Of Heaven 2884:"Galileo and the Telescope" 2792:Lawson, Russell M. (2004). 2763:Lindberg, David C. (2010). 2582:The Oxford History of Islam 2342:. SUNY Press. p. 135. 2291:Scientia/Rivista di Scienza 1755:from the list. In his 1921 1701:Index Librorum Prohibitorum 1600:National Science Foundation 806:Astronomy in medieval Islam 488:meaning "from" and κέντρον 163:, in contrast to the older 7233: 6252:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi 4847:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar 4741:Medieval Islamic astronomy 4538:On the Sizes and Distances 4034:. Oxford University Press. 4026:Wright, J. Edward (2000). 3887:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 3795:Crowe, Michael J. (1990). 3743:Chastenay, Pierre (2016). 3348:Fantoli, Annibale (1996). 3095:Sefton, Dru (2006-03-30). 2830:. Routledge. p. 215. 2742:10.1177/002182869202300401 2184:Cambridge University Press 1800: 1215:, and Giovan Paulo Lembo. 1182:With the invention of the 1146: 854:Early in the 11th century 799: 219:Ptolemy's geocentric model 29: 7093:Medieval European science 6524: 6513: 6502: 6353:Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar 6110:Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli 5773: 5769: 5756: 4932:Venkatraman Radhakrishnan 4731:Medieval European science 4461:Sosigenes the Peripatetic 3942:The Copernican Revolution 3770:10.1007/s11165-015-9460-3 3722:10.1163/18253911-03502005 3490:; Gotfryd, Arnie (2003). 2932:Einstein, Albert (1938). 2553:. pp. 233–234, 240. 2551:New York University Press 2192:10.1017/s0269889701000060 1993:Fraser, Craig G. (2006). 1576:(author of the 2006 book 1521:held sway into the early 277:. In the 6th century BC, 6343:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri 6237:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi 5878:Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi 3618:Kunitzsch, Paul (2008). 3561:Rabinowitz, Avi (1987). 3263: 2935:The Evolution of Physics 2511:Samsó, Julio (1970–80). 2213:Ragep, F. Jamil (2001). 1932:, Catholic mathematician 1749:List of Prohibited Books 1706:List of Prohibited Books 1467:The Evolution of Physics 1427:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel 1149:Copernican heliocentrism 882:uniform circular motions 710:Copernican heliocentrism 320:and turned by the three 114:in Classical Greece and 7197:Ancient Greek astronomy 6445:Baha' al-din al-'Amili 6419:'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i 6297:Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati 6217:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili 5613:Ancient Greek astronomy 4897:Madhava of Sangamagrama 4456:Sosigenes of Alexandria 4275:Ancient Greek astronomy 4231:Template:Exceptionalism 2705:Sarton, George (1953). 2588:Oxford University Press 2109:Perspectives on Science 1856:Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi 1686:Divino afflante Spiritu 1617:Northwestern University 502:uniform circular motion 275:pre-Socratic philosophy 6726:Navigational astrolabe 6481:Al Achsasi al Mouakket 6247:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 6166:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi 6115:Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani 6044:Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi 4528:On Sizes and Distances 3980:Qadir, Asghar (1989). 3704:Raposo, Pedro (2020). 3567:Science & Religion 3421:(1264). Archived from 3394:. § 36. Archived from 2618:Huff, Toby E. (2003). 2139: 1794: 1772:Second Vatican Council 1745: 1735: 1692: 1663: 1324: 1313: 1084: 976:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 902:epicycle and eccentric 852: 732: 465: 401: 370:until the 19th century 266: 167:model implied in some 55: 36:Geocentric coordinates 7217:Copernican Revolution 7062:Hellenistic astronomy 7033:Samarkand (Ulugh Beg) 6827:Deferent and epicycle 6227:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi 6196:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi 5838:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi 5618:Hellenistic astronomy 5401:Deferent and epicycle 5125:Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta 4957:Jai Singh II of Amber 4639:Deferent and epicycle 4568:Antikythera mechanism 3832:Evans, James (1998). 3706:"Recounting the Orbs" 3144:National Public Radio 3040:Theological Quarterly 2864:The Essential Galileo 2680:. Routledge. p. 2494:Science and Its Times 1762:In praeclara summorum 1658:Providentissimus Deus 1543:Theological Quarterly 1503:artificial satellites 1396:differential calculus 1321: 1079:This drawing from an 1078: 951:Samarkand observatory 912:conception of physics 876:In the 12th century, 844: 727: 628:Eccentric per planet 540:Daily westward motion 516:The Ptolemaic system 453: 391: 378:deferent and epicycle 264: 46: 7052:Babylonian astronomy 6867:Gravitational energy 6242:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 6232:Najm al‐Din al‐Misri 5913:Yahya ibn Abi Mansur 5812:Mashallah ibn Athari 5797:Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht 5608:Babylonian astronomy 4842:Radhagobinda Chandra 4710:Babylonian astronomy 4401:Hippocrates of Chios 3884:Aristarchus of Samos 3626:. pp. 140–141. 3415:L'Osservatore Romano 3120:. Answers in Genesis 2988:Hoyle, Fred (1973). 2963:Hoyle, Fred (1973). 2122:10.1162/posc_a_00552 1900:Aristotelian physics 1841:translation movement 1821:theory of relativity 1539:Copernican astronomy 1425:In 1838, astronomer 1205:Cosimo II de' Medici 1125:Seleucus of Seleucia 1117:Aristarchus of Samos 972:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 932:theological argument 908:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi 833:, Sijzi invented an 802:Maragheh observatory 480:eccentric (from the 314:Spindle of Necessity 306:", a section of the 173:Aristarchus of Samos 6993:Al-Azhar University 6812:Celestial mechanics 6602:Book of Fixed Stars 6561:The Book of Healing 6540:Aja'ib al-Makhluqat 6282:Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi 6257:Zakariya al-Qazwini 5868:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf 5863:Abu Hanifa Dinawari 5456:Hindu units of time 5179:Vasishtha Siddhanta 5153:Paitamaha Siddhanta 5047:Shatapatha Brahmana 4962:Nilakantha Somayaji 4481:Theon of Alexandria 3897:Nicolaus Copernicus 3761:2016RScEd..46...43C 3658:. 14 February 2017. 3494:. Shamir. pp. 3019:TalkOrigins Archive 2734:1992JHA....23..233E 2463:1972Isis...63...39G 2428:1955VA......1...84H 2416:Vistas in Astronomy 2401:1939PA.....47..233R 2375:Nicolaus Copernicus 2272:Islam & Science 2263:Setia, Adi (2004). 2231:2001Osir...16...49R 1920:Religious cosmology 1878:can switch between 1864:Indian subcontinent 1647:(1878–1903) wrote: 1247:Venus showed phases 1101:Heraclides Ponticus 1041:improve the article 943:Maragha observatory 691:Retrograde only at 527:Modeling mechanism 517: 432:Islamic astronomers 410:Claudius Ptolemaeus 227:astronomical charts 78:description of the 7057:Egyptian astronomy 6998:House of Knowledge 6676:Astronomical clock 6486:Muhammad al-Rudani 5883:Banū Mūsā brothers 5833:Abu Ali al-Khayyat 5633:European astronomy 5371:Cardinal direction 5300:Equatorial sundial 5139:Pancha-Siddhantika 4837:Sandip Chakrabarti 4715:Egyptian astronomy 4629:Circle of latitude 3398:on April 11, 2011. 3062:Numbers, Ronald L. 2850:Line 1067 onwards. 2176:Science in Context 1696:Pope Alexander VII 1527:heliocentric model 1471:coordinate systems 1443:heliocentric frame 1408:stellar aberration 1325: 1271:In December 1610, 1263:heliocentric model 1257:, as predicted by 1209:Christoph Scheiner 1169:natural philosophy 1085: 968:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi 827:Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi 815:Muslim astronomers 733: 706:heliocentric model 515: 466: 402: 316:, attended by the 300:spheres or circles 267: 188:heliocentric model 120:Islamic Golden Age 56: 18:Ptolemaic universe 7207:Scientific models 7114: 7113: 7110: 7109: 7106: 7105: 7088:Chinese astronomy 7083:Byzantine science 6957:Temporal finitism 6887:Islamic cosmology 6817:Celestial spheres 6637: 6636: 6529:Arabic star names 6498: 6497: 6494: 6493: 6358:Fathullah Shirazi 6292:Al-Ashraf Umar II 6004:Ibrahim ibn Sinan 5807:Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī 5716: 5715: 5628:Chinese astronomy 5623:Islamic astronomy 5386:Celestial spheres 5376:Celestial equator 5146:Paulisa Siddhanta 5040:Aitareya Brahmana 4947:Jagannatha Samrat 4927:Achyuta Pisharati 4749: 4748: 4624:Celestial spheres 4241: 4240: 4184:Related phenomena 4107:Regional variants 3911:. Penguin Books. 3641:978-1-4020-4559-2 3583:. Jason Aronson. 2822:Russell, Bertrand 2651:. Global Vision. 2601:978-0-19-510799-9 2393:Popular Astronomy 2061:, pp. 60–62. 1817:Lubavitcher Rebbe 1781:Pope John Paul II 1578:Galileo Was Wrong 1570:religious beliefs 1448:cosmic background 1392:centripetal force 1143:Copernican system 1113:Martianus Capella 1073: 1072: 1065: 1045:discuss the issue 928:alfa alfi 'awalim 864:Doubts on Ptolemy 810:Islamic cosmology 702: 701: 695:, when brightest 672:Interior planets 660:Average greatest 609:Retrograde motion 474:retrograde motion 368:was not detected 332:stating that all 326:Eudoxus of Cnidus 287:of the universe. 253:for geocentrism. 245:(1564–1642), and 16:(Redirected from 7224: 7179: 7178: 7177: 7167: 7166: 7165: 7155: 7154: 7153: 7143: 7142: 7131: 7130: 7129: 7122: 7098:Indian astronomy 7067:Indian astronomy 7035: 7028: 7021: 6942:Sublunary sphere 6932:Specific gravity 6832:Earth's rotation 6721:Mural instrument 6666:Armillary sphere 6589:Alfonsine tables 6554:Tabula Rogeriana 6534:Islamic calendar 6522: 6515: 6504: 6399:Sibt al-Maridini 6384:Jamshid al-Kashi 6105:Said al-Andalusi 5908:Thābit ibn Qurra 5843:Abu Said Gorgani 5817:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq 5771: 5758: 5743: 5736: 5729: 5720: 5466: 5436:Geoheliocentrism 5406:Earth's rotation 5381:Celestial sphere 5315:Mural instrument 5265:Armillary sphere 5209:Vedanga Jyotisha 5165:Romaka Siddhanta 5061: 4992:Shankara Variyar 4783:Indian astronomy 4776: 4769: 4762: 4753: 4736:Indian astronomy 4689:Sublunary sphere 4659:Hipparchic cycle 4598:Mural instrument 4573:Armillary sphere 4552: 4542: 4532: 4522: 4512: 4268: 4261: 4254: 4245: 4191:Anthropocentrism 4093: 4086: 4079: 4070: 4035: 4033: 4022: 4003: 3976: 3957: 3945: 3922: 3905:Koestler, Arthur 3900: 3888: 3874: 3837: 3828: 3814: 3802: 3783: 3782: 3772: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3701: 3695: 3694: 3680: 3674: 3673: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3652: 3646: 3645: 3615: 3609: 3608: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3576: 3574: 3573: 3558: 3552: 3551: 3540: 3534: 3531: 3525: 3524: 3498:, cf. xvi-xvii, 3484: 3478: 3477: 3469: 3460: 3459: 3457: 3456: 3450:Skeptic Magazine 3441: 3435: 3433: 3431: 3430: 3406: 3400: 3399: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3345: 3339: 3338: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3311: 3305: 3304: 3282: 3273: 3272: 3259: 3253: 3252: 3250: 3249: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3225: 3224: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3191: 3185: 3184: 3161: 3155: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3126: 3125: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3058: 3052: 3051: 3035: 3029: 3028: 3026: 3025: 3010: 3004: 3003: 2985: 2979: 2978: 2960: 2954: 2953: 2929: 2923: 2922: 2914: 2908: 2905: 2899: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2867: 2857: 2851: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2818: 2812: 2811: 2789: 2783: 2782: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2702: 2696: 2695: 2679: 2669: 2663: 2662: 2644: 2638: 2637: 2615: 2606: 2605: 2585: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2539: 2533: 2532: 2508: 2502: 2501: 2489: 2483: 2482: 2446: 2440: 2439: 2411: 2405: 2404: 2388: 2382: 2372: 2366: 2360: 2354: 2353: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2310: 2299: 2298: 2286: 2280: 2279: 2269: 2260: 2251: 2250: 2210: 2204: 2203: 2171: 2165: 2164: 2146: 2140: 2133: 2103: 2097: 2096: 2068: 2062: 2056: 2050: 2049: 2033: 2023: 2017: 2016: 2000: 1990: 1984: 1983:, pp. 5–20. 1978: 1963: 1959: 1953: 1946: 1884:celestial sphere 1797:Orthodox Judaism 1767:Pope Benedict XV 1757:papal encyclical 1726:Giuseppe Settele 1698:republished the 1690: 1661: 1550:creation science 1410:was observed by 1357:transit of Venus 1235: 1226: 1068: 1061: 1057: 1054: 1048: 1025: 1024: 1017: 992: 989: 872: 869: 862:'s model in his 687:Exterior planets 656:Interior planets 518: 461:De sphaera mundi 458:on Sacrobosco's 454:Pages from 1550 446:Ptolemaic system 436:geocentric model 366:stellar parallax 357:stellar parallax 294:and his student 185: 181: 178: 143:geographic poles 135:celestial sphere 72:Ptolemaic system 64:geocentric model 52:Bartolomeu Velho 32:Geocentric orbit 21: 7232: 7231: 7227: 7226: 7225: 7223: 7222: 7221: 7187: 7186: 7185: 7175: 7173: 7163: 7161: 7151: 7149: 7137: 7127: 7125: 7117: 7115: 7102: 7071: 7040: 7031: 7024: 7017: 7003:House of Wisdom 6981: 6937:Spherical Earth 6770: 6701:Equatorial ring 6681:Celestial globe 6656:Analog computer 6633: 6628:Sullam al-sama' 6573: 6509: 6490: 6459: 6423: 6362: 6301: 6200: 6186:Jabir ibn Aflah 6129: 6060:Abu Nasr Mansur 6048: 6029:Abolfadl Harawi 5964:Ahmad ibn Yusuf 5917: 5821: 5792:Ahmad Nahavandi 5780: 5765: 5752: 5747: 5717: 5712: 5643: 5637: 5596: 5553: 5522:Spherical Earth 5349: 5295:Equatorial ring 5275:Celestial globe 5253: 5172:Surya Siddhanta 5109:Makarandasarini 5011: 5007:Pathani Samanta 4952:Bapudeva Sastri 4917:Jayant Narlikar 4867:M. K. Das Gupta 4785: 4780: 4750: 4745: 4719: 4698: 4684:Spherical Earth 4619:Callippic cycle 4607: 4588:Equatorial ring 4556: 4550: 4540: 4530: 4520: 4510: 4495: 4486:Theon of Smyrna 4277: 4272: 4242: 4237: 4211:Religiocentrism 4179: 4168:Hellenocentrism 4163:Germanocentrism 4102: 4097: 4045: 4025: 4019: 4006: 3992: 3979: 3973: 3960: 3954: 3936:Kuhn, Thomas S. 3934: 3919: 3903: 3891: 3877: 3855:10.2307/1006444 3840: 3831: 3817: 3811: 3794: 3791: 3786: 3742: 3741: 3737: 3703: 3702: 3698: 3682: 3681: 3677: 3668: 3667: 3663: 3654: 3653: 3649: 3642: 3617: 3616: 3612: 3603: 3602: 3598: 3591: 3578: 3571: 3569: 3560: 3559: 3555: 3542: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3528: 3521: 3486: 3485: 3481: 3471: 3470: 3463: 3454: 3452: 3443: 3442: 3438: 3428: 3426: 3408: 3407: 3403: 3390: 3389: 3385: 3372: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3347: 3346: 3342: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3313: 3312: 3308: 3301: 3284: 3283: 3276: 3265: 3261: 3260: 3256: 3247: 3245: 3236: 3235: 3231: 3222: 3220: 3214:"Jon D. Miller" 3212: 3211: 3207: 3193: 3192: 3188: 3181: 3163: 3162: 3158: 3148: 3146: 3137: 3136: 3132: 3123: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3110: 3094: 3093: 3089: 3082: 3060: 3059: 3055: 3037: 3036: 3032: 3023: 3021: 3012: 3011: 3007: 3000: 2987: 2986: 2982: 2975: 2962: 2961: 2957: 2950: 2931: 2930: 2926: 2916: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2902: 2892: 2890: 2882: 2881: 2877: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2849: 2845: 2838: 2820: 2819: 2815: 2808: 2791: 2790: 2786: 2779: 2762: 2761: 2757: 2719: 2718: 2714: 2704: 2703: 2699: 2692: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2659: 2646: 2645: 2641: 2634: 2617: 2616: 2609: 2602: 2573: 2572: 2568: 2561: 2541: 2540: 2536: 2529: 2510: 2509: 2505: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2448: 2447: 2443: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2390: 2389: 2385: 2373: 2369: 2365:, p. 5–10. 2361: 2357: 2350: 2337: 2336: 2332: 2325: 2312: 2311: 2302: 2288: 2287: 2283: 2267: 2262: 2261: 2254: 2212: 2211: 2207: 2173: 2172: 2168: 2161: 2148: 2147: 2143: 2116:(3): 288–330 . 2105: 2104: 2100: 2085:10.2307/1006040 2070: 2069: 2065: 2057: 2053: 2046: 2025: 2024: 2020: 2013: 1992: 1991: 1987: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1960: 1956: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1896: 1872: 1862:scholar of the 1837: 1809:Orthodox Jewish 1805: 1799: 1691: 1683: 1662: 1656: 1633: 1596: 1574:Robert Sungenis 1515: 1483:reference frame 1459:Albert Einstein 1456: 1403:empirical tests 1345:Johannes Kepler 1342: 1334:Tychonic system 1273:Galileo Galilei 1269: 1268: 1267: 1266: 1243:Galileo Galilei 1238: 1237: 1236: 1228: 1227: 1213:Johannes Kepler 1188:Galileo Galilei 1173:Johannes Kepler 1151: 1145: 1137:De rerum natura 1069: 1058: 1052: 1049: 1038: 1026: 1022: 1015: 990: 947:Damascus mosque 934:, he cites the 870: 812: 800:Main articles: 798: 784:("First Moved") 546:, carrying all 544:sphere of stars 448: 386: 384:Ptolemaic model 271:Greek astronomy 259: 200:Johannes Kepler 196:Western culture 183: 179: 161:spherical Earth 66:(also known as 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7230: 7228: 7220: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7189: 7188: 7184: 7183: 7171: 7159: 7147: 7135: 7112: 7111: 7108: 7107: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7079: 7077: 7073: 7072: 7070: 7069: 7064: 7059: 7054: 7048: 7046: 7042: 7041: 7039: 7038: 7037: 7036: 7029: 7022: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6989: 6987: 6983: 6982: 6980: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6847:Elliptic orbit 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6822:Circular orbit 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6778: 6776: 6772: 6771: 6769: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6647: 6645: 6639: 6638: 6635: 6634: 6632: 6631: 6624: 6617: 6610: 6608:Toledan Tables 6605: 6598: 6591: 6585: 6583: 6575: 6574: 6572: 6571: 6564: 6557: 6550: 6543: 6536: 6531: 6525: 6519: 6511: 6510: 6507: 6500: 6499: 6496: 6495: 6492: 6491: 6489: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6471:Yang Guangxian 6467: 6465: 6461: 6460: 6458: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6431: 6429: 6425: 6424: 6422: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6370: 6368: 6364: 6363: 6361: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6309: 6307: 6303: 6302: 6300: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6208: 6206: 6202: 6201: 6199: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6137: 6135: 6131: 6130: 6128: 6127: 6125:Ali ibn Khalaf 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6100:Kushyar Gilani 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6070:Ali ibn Ridwan 6067: 6062: 6056: 6054: 6050: 6049: 6047: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6034:Haseb-i Tabari 6031: 6026: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5925: 5923: 5919: 5918: 5916: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5903:Sahl ibn Bishr 5900: 5895: 5890: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5829: 5827: 5823: 5822: 5820: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5788: 5786: 5782: 5781: 5779: 5778: 5774: 5767: 5766: 5761: 5754: 5753: 5748: 5746: 5745: 5738: 5731: 5723: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5649: 5647: 5645:Vedic calendar 5639: 5638: 5636: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5604: 5602: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5594: 5589: 5588: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5561: 5559: 5555: 5554: 5552: 5551: 5546: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5472: 5467: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5421:Elliptic orbit 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5396:Circular orbit 5393: 5391:Center of mass 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5357: 5355: 5351: 5350: 5348: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5261: 5259: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5251: 5244: 5237: 5236: 5235: 5228: 5212: 5205: 5198: 5191: 5188:Tantrasangraha 5184: 5183: 5182: 5175: 5168: 5161: 5156: 5149: 5142: 5135: 5132:Maha-Siddhanta 5128: 5112: 5105: 5098: 5095:Khandakhadyaka 5091: 5084: 5077: 5070: 5063: 5052: 5051: 5050: 5043: 5027: 5019: 5017: 5013: 5012: 5010: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4862:Gautama Siddha 4859: 4854: 4852:Amil Kumar Das 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4793: 4791: 4787: 4786: 4781: 4779: 4778: 4771: 4764: 4756: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4727: 4725: 4721: 4720: 4718: 4717: 4712: 4706: 4704: 4700: 4699: 4697: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4615: 4613: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4564: 4562: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4554: 4548:On the Heavens 4544: 4534: 4524: 4521:(Eratosthenes) 4514: 4503: 4501: 4497: 4496: 4494: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4426:Philip of Opus 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4287: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4273: 4271: 4270: 4263: 4256: 4248: 4239: 4238: 4236: 4235: 4234: 4233: 4226:Exceptionalism 4223: 4218: 4216:Sentiocentrism 4213: 4208: 4203: 4201:Exceptionalism 4198: 4196:Chronocentrism 4193: 4187: 4185: 4181: 4180: 4178: 4177: 4176: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4145: 4144: 4143: 4142: 4141: 4131: 4121: 4116: 4110: 4108: 4104: 4103: 4098: 4096: 4095: 4088: 4081: 4073: 4067: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4044: 4043:External links 4041: 4040: 4039: 4023: 4017: 4004: 3990: 3977: 3971: 3958: 3952: 3932: 3923:1990 reprint: 3917: 3901: 3889: 3875: 3845:. New Series. 3838: 3829: 3819:Dreyer, J.L.E. 3815: 3809: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3784: 3735: 3716:(2): 274–299. 3696: 3675: 3661: 3647: 3640: 3610: 3596: 3589: 3553: 3535: 3526: 3519: 3479: 3461: 3436: 3401: 3383: 3380:on 2014-11-09. 3365: 3358: 3340: 3322: 3306: 3299: 3274: 3254: 3243:New York Times 3229: 3205: 3186: 3179: 3165:Berman, Morris 3156: 3130: 3108: 3087: 3080: 3053: 3030: 3005: 2998: 2980: 2973: 2955: 2948: 2924: 2909: 2900: 2875: 2852: 2843: 2836: 2813: 2806: 2800:. p. 19. 2784: 2777: 2755: 2728:(4): 233–260. 2712: 2709:. p. 290. 2697: 2690: 2664: 2657: 2639: 2632: 2607: 2600: 2576:Esposito, John 2566: 2559: 2543:Saliba, George 2534: 2527: 2503: 2484: 2471:10.1086/350839 2441: 2406: 2383: 2367: 2355: 2348: 2330: 2323: 2300: 2281: 2252: 2239:10.1086/649338 2221:. 2nd Series. 2205: 2166: 2159: 2141: 2098: 2063: 2051: 2044: 2018: 2011: 1985: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1965: 1964: 1954: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1934: 1933: 1930:Wolfgang Smith 1927: 1925:Sphere of fire 1922: 1917: 1912: 1907: 1902: 1895: 1892: 1871: 1868: 1836: 1833: 1798: 1795: 1681: 1654: 1637:Galileo affair 1632: 1629: 1595: 1592: 1514: 1511: 1463:Leopold Infeld 1455: 1452: 1341: 1338: 1240: 1239: 1230: 1229: 1221: 1220: 1219: 1218: 1217: 1190:(such as that 1147:Main article: 1144: 1141: 1071: 1070: 1029: 1027: 1020: 1014: 1011: 1002:paradigm shift 918:, rejects the 890:elliptic orbit 797: 794: 786: 785: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 700: 699: 696: 689: 683: 682: 680:Sun–Earth line 676: 673: 669: 668: 665: 658: 652: 651: 648: 645: 641: 640: 637: 634: 630: 629: 626: 623: 619: 618: 615:synodic period 611: 606: 602: 601: 598: 592: 591:The 5 planets 588: 587: 584: 581: 577: 576: 573: 570: 566: 565: 562: 556: 552: 551: 536: 533: 529: 528: 525: 522: 447: 444: 385: 382: 361:constellations 258: 257:Ancient Greece 255: 186:) developed a 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7229: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7194: 7192: 7182: 7172: 7170: 7160: 7158: 7148: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7134: 7124: 7120: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7080: 7078: 7074: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7049: 7047: 7043: 7034: 7030: 7027: 7023: 7020: 7016: 7015: 7014: 7013:Observatories 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6990: 6988: 6984: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6967:Triangulation 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6877:Heliocentrism 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6777: 6773: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6751:Shadow square 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6648: 6646: 6644: 6640: 6630: 6629: 6625: 6623: 6622: 6621:Zij-i Sultani 6618: 6616: 6615: 6614:Zij-i Ilkhani 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6603: 6599: 6597: 6596: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6586: 6584: 6582: 6581: 6576: 6570: 6569: 6565: 6563: 6562: 6558: 6556: 6555: 6551: 6549: 6548: 6544: 6542: 6541: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6526: 6523: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6505: 6501: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6468: 6466: 6462: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6432: 6430: 6426: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6389:Kadızade Rumi 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6371: 6369: 6365: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6313:Ibn al-Shatir 6311: 6310: 6308: 6304: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6287:Ibn al‐Raqqam 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6209: 6207: 6203: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6181:Ibn al-Kammad 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6138: 6136: 6132: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6095:Ibn al-Saffar 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6057: 6055: 6051: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5920: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5830: 5828: 5824: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5789: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5775: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5744: 5739: 5737: 5732: 5730: 5725: 5724: 5721: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5650: 5648: 5646: 5642:Months of the 5640: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5605: 5603: 5601:Other regions 5599: 5593: 5590: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5567: 5566: 5565:Jantar Mantar 5563: 5562: 5560: 5556: 5550: 5549:Zodiacal sign 5547: 5545: 5544: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5477: 5473: 5471: 5470:Kali ahargaṇa 5468: 5465: 5464: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5451:Heliocentrism 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5352: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5245: 5243: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5233: 5229: 5227: 5226: 5222: 5221: 5220: 5219: 5218: 5213: 5211: 5210: 5206: 5204: 5203: 5199: 5197: 5196: 5192: 5190: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5180: 5176: 5174: 5173: 5169: 5167: 5166: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5154: 5150: 5148: 5147: 5143: 5141: 5140: 5136: 5134: 5133: 5129: 5127: 5126: 5122: 5121: 5120: 5119: 5118: 5113: 5111: 5110: 5106: 5104: 5103: 5099: 5097: 5096: 5092: 5090: 5089: 5085: 5083: 5082: 5081:Shulba Sutras 5078: 5076: 5075: 5074:Jyotirmimamsa 5071: 5069: 5068: 5067:Ganitagannadi 5064: 5062: 5060: 5059: 5058:Bṛhat Saṃhitā 5053: 5049: 5048: 5044: 5042: 5041: 5037: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5028: 5026: 5025: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5014: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4977:Govind Swarup 4975: 4973: 4972:Mahendra Suri 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4942:Megh Nad Saha 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4794: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4777: 4772: 4770: 4765: 4763: 4758: 4757: 4754: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4722: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4701: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4669:Metonic cycle 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4654:Heliocentrism 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4634:Counter-Earth 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4616: 4614: 4610: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4565: 4563: 4559: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4543: 4541:(Aristarchus) 4539: 4535: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4504: 4502: 4498: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4288: 4286: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4264: 4262: 4257: 4255: 4250: 4249: 4246: 4232: 4229: 4228: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4188: 4186: 4182: 4174: 4173:Italocentrism 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4158:Gallocentrism 4156: 4154: 4153:Anglocentrism 4151: 4150: 4149: 4146: 4140: 4137: 4136: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4126: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4119:Americentrism 4117: 4115: 4112: 4111: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4100:Ethnocentrism 4094: 4089: 4087: 4082: 4080: 4075: 4074: 4071: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4032: 4031: 4024: 4020: 4014: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3991:9971-5-0612-2 3987: 3983: 3978: 3974: 3972:9780521827508 3968: 3964: 3959: 3955: 3949: 3944: 3943: 3937: 3933: 3930: 3926: 3920: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3885: 3880: 3879:Heath, Thomas 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3839: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3806: 3801: 3800: 3793: 3792: 3788: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3739: 3736: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3700: 3697: 3692: 3688: 3687: 3679: 3676: 3671: 3665: 3662: 3657: 3651: 3648: 3643: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3614: 3611: 3606: 3600: 3597: 3592: 3590:9781568210346 3586: 3582: 3577:Published in 3568: 3564: 3557: 3554: 3549: 3548:Mishneh Torah 3545: 3539: 3536: 3530: 3527: 3522: 3520:9789652930804 3516: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3483: 3480: 3475: 3468: 3466: 3462: 3451: 3447: 3440: 3437: 3425:on 2017-02-02 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3405: 3402: 3397: 3393: 3387: 3384: 3379: 3375: 3369: 3366: 3361: 3355: 3351: 3344: 3341: 3336: 3332: 3326: 3323: 3318: 3317: 3310: 3307: 3302: 3300:9780520066625 3296: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3279: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3258: 3255: 3244: 3240: 3233: 3230: 3219: 3215: 3209: 3206: 3201: 3197: 3190: 3187: 3182: 3180:9780393058666 3176: 3172: 3171: 3166: 3160: 3157: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3131: 3119: 3112: 3109: 3104: 3103: 3098: 3091: 3088: 3083: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3068: 3063: 3057: 3054: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3034: 3031: 3020: 3016: 3009: 3006: 3001: 2999:0-435-54425-X 2995: 2991: 2984: 2981: 2976: 2974:0-06-011971-3 2970: 2966: 2959: 2956: 2951: 2949:0-671-20156-5 2945: 2941: 2937: 2936: 2928: 2925: 2920: 2913: 2910: 2904: 2901: 2889: 2885: 2879: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2865: 2856: 2853: 2847: 2844: 2839: 2837:9781134343676 2833: 2829: 2828: 2823: 2817: 2814: 2809: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2788: 2785: 2780: 2778:9780226482040 2774: 2770: 2766: 2759: 2756: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2716: 2713: 2708: 2701: 2698: 2693: 2691:9780415127387 2687: 2683: 2678: 2677: 2668: 2665: 2660: 2658:9788182200586 2654: 2650: 2643: 2640: 2635: 2633:9780521529945 2629: 2625: 2621: 2614: 2612: 2608: 2603: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2584: 2583: 2577: 2570: 2567: 2562: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2538: 2535: 2530: 2528:0-684-10114-9 2524: 2520: 2519: 2514: 2507: 2504: 2499: 2495: 2488: 2485: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2445: 2442: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2422:(1): 118–22. 2421: 2417: 2410: 2407: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2387: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2368: 2364: 2359: 2356: 2351: 2349:9781438414195 2345: 2341: 2334: 2331: 2326: 2324:9780521028875 2320: 2316: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2301: 2296: 2292: 2285: 2282: 2277: 2273: 2266: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2209: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2170: 2167: 2162: 2160:9780521576000 2156: 2152: 2145: 2142: 2138: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2110: 2102: 2099: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2067: 2064: 2060: 2055: 2052: 2047: 2045:9780313332418 2041: 2037: 2032: 2031: 2022: 2019: 2014: 2012:9780313332180 2008: 2004: 1999: 1998: 1989: 1986: 1982: 1977: 1974: 1968: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1945: 1942: 1936: 1931: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1921: 1918: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1897: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1869: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1852: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1834: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1804: 1796: 1793: 1788: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1764: 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Like their 952: 948: 944: 939: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 874: 865: 861: 857: 851: 849: 843: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 811: 807: 803: 795: 793: 791: 783: 782: 781:Primum Mobile 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 743: 741: 738: 737: 736: 730: 726: 722: 719: 714: 711: 707: 697: 694: 690: 688: 685: 684: 681: 677: 674: 671: 670: 666: 663: 659: 657: 654: 653: 649: 646: 643: 642: 638: 635: 632: 631: 627: 624: 621: 620: 616: 612: 610: 607: 604: 603: 599: 597: 593: 590: 589: 585: 582: 579: 578: 574: 571: 568: 567: 563: 561: 557: 554: 553: 549: 548:other spheres 545: 541: 537: 534: 531: 530: 526: 523: 520: 519: 513: 509: 505: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 477: 475: 471: 463: 462: 457: 452: 445: 443: 439: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 416: 411: 407: 399: 395: 390: 383: 381: 379: 373: 371: 367: 362: 358: 353: 351: 347: 343: 337: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 310: 305: 301: 297: 293: 288: 285: 280: 276: 272: 263: 256: 254: 252: 248: 244: 241:(1473–1543), 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 215: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 184: 230 BC 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 153:ancient Roman 150: 149:Ancient Greek 146: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 123: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 7181:Solar System 6986:Institutions 6861: 6837:Eccentricity 6797:Astrophysics 6691:Compass rose 6626: 6619: 6612: 6600: 6593: 6578: 6566: 6559: 6552: 6545: 6538: 6404:Ibn al-Majdi 6379:Abd al‐Wajid 6338:Al-Wabkanawi 6333:Abū al‐ʿUqūl 6222:Jamal ad-Din 6191:Omar Khayyam 6019:Al-ʻIjliyyah 5994:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī 5979:Ibn al-A'lam 5898:Al-Khwarizmi 5693:Margashirsha 5541: 5474: 5430: 5411:Eccentricity 5246: 5241:Yavanajataka 5239: 5230: 5223: 5215: 5214: 5207: 5200: 5193: 5186: 5177: 5170: 5163: 5151: 5144: 5137: 5130: 5123: 5115: 5114: 5107: 5100: 5093: 5086: 5079: 5072: 5065: 5054: 5045: 5038: 5030: 5029: 5022: 4987:Varahamihira 4922:Parameshvara 4807:Aryabhata II 4648: 4547: 4537: 4531:(Hipparchus) 4527: 4518:Catasterismi 4517: 4507: 4366:Eratosthenes 4221:Xenocentrism 4205: 4148:Eurocentrism 4139:Little China 4134:Sinocentrism 4129:Indocentrism 4124:Asiacentrism 4114:Afrocentrism 4037:Google Books 4029: 4008: 3981: 3962: 3941: 3908: 3896: 3883: 3846: 3842: 3833: 3823: 3798: 3789:Bibliography 3752: 3748: 3738: 3713: 3709: 3699: 3685: 3678: 3664: 3650: 3623: 3613: 3599: 3580: 3570:. 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In 1687, 147: 141:through the 127:once per day 124: 71: 67: 63: 57: 47: 40: 7169:Outer space 7157:Spaceflight 6972:Tusi couple 6962:Trepidation 6927:Salah times 6862:Geocentrism 6736:Planisphere 6716:Graph paper 6643:Instruments 6595:Huihui Lifa 6476:Ehmedê Xanî 6435:Al-Birjandi 6414:al-Kubunani 6171:Abu al-Salt 6120:Al-Isfizari 6080:Ibn al-Samh 5959:Abu al-Wafa 5944:al-Khojandi 5848:Al-Farghani 5763:Astronomers 5431:Geocentrism 5340:Water clock 5285:Cross-staff 5258:Instruments 5225:Atharvaveda 5202:Vākyakaraṇa 5024:Aryabhatiya 5002:Yajnavalkya 4937:J. J. Rawal 4872:Jyesthadeva 4832:Brahmagupta 4822:Bhāskara II 4812:Vainu Bappu 4802:Aryabhata I 4790:Astronomers 4649:Geocentrism 4561:Instruments 4551:(Aristotle) 4356:Cleostratus 4321:Aristarchus 4301:Anaximander 4283:Astronomers 4206:Geocentrism 3893:Hoyle, Fred 3849:(4): 1–69. 2186:: 145–163. 1635:The famous 1588:creationist 1566:Psalms 93:1 1487:fixed stars 1416:Jean Picard 1381:gravitation 1367:stated the 1349:Tycho Brahe 1340:Gravitation 1330:Tycho Brahe 1279:showed all 1105:Middle Ages 1089:Pythagorean 995:Al-Birjandi 991: 1474 894:Alpetragius 871: 1028 775:Fixed Stars 662:elongations 456:Annotazione 424:Hellenistic 408:astronomer 406:Hellenistic 279:Anaximander 68:geocentrism 7191:Categories 7076:Influenced 7045:Influences 6917:Precession 6897:Multiverse 6802:Axial tilt 6782:Almucantar 6766:Triquetrum 6706:Equatorium 6455:Takiyüddin 6328:al-Battiwi 6323:Ibn Shuayb 6318:Al-Khalili 6161:Al-Khazini 6156:Al-Kharaqī 6151:Ibn Tufail 6141:Al-Bitruji 6075:Al-Zarqālī 6039:al-Majriti 5989:Al-Saghani 5984:Al-Nayrizi 5969:al-Battani 5888:Iranshahri 5873:Al-Marwazi 5777:by century 5678:Bhadrapada 5512:Precession 5487:Manvantara 5361:Axial tilt 5345:Yantraraja 5335:Triquetrum 5117:Siddhantas 5088:Panchangam 4877:Kamalakara 4857:P. Devadas 4827:Baudhayana 4817:Bhāskara I 4724:Influenced 4703:Influences 4674:Octaeteris 4603:Triquetrum 4491:Timocharis 4476:Theodosius 4436:Posidonius 4396:Hipparchus 4386:Heraclides 4326:Aristyllus 4311:Apollonius 4306:Andronicus 4018:0714117463 3953:0674171039 3929:0140192468 3918:014055212X 3810:0486261735 3689:. p. 3572:2013-12-01 3455:2008-12-18 3429:2012-10-18 3359:0268010323 3335:inters.org 3248:2007-07-19 3223:2007-07-19 3124:2013-12-01 3102:Times-News 3081:0520083938 3024:2013-12-01 2893:17 October 2807:1851095349 2590:. p. 2560:0814780237 2363:Qadir 1989 2297:(67): 762. 2059:Crowe 1990 1969:References 1839:After the 1813:Maimonides 1801:See also: 1710:papal bull 1523:modern age 1454:Relativity 1353:three laws 1259:Copernicus 1155:Copernicus 1006:Copernicus 984:Ali Qushji 955:Andalusian 924:Avicennian 848:muhandisīn 825:, such as 693:opposition 521:Object(s) 428:Babylonian 304:Myth of Er 284:Pythagoras 239:Copernicus 235:superseded 206:(Kepler's 204:elliptical 182: – c. 180: 310 165:flat-Earth 76:superseded 7133:Astronomy 6952:Supernova 6907:Obliquity 6892:Moonlight 6792:Astrology 6671:Astrolabe 6450:Piri Reis 6440:al-Khafri 6409:al-Wafa'i 6394:Ulugh Beg 6374:Ali Kuşçu 6348:al-Jadiri 6267:al-Abhari 6065:al-Biruni 5999:Ibn Yunus 5974:Al-Qabisi 5949:al-Khazin 5858:Al-Mahani 5673:Shraavana 5668:Aashaadha 5575:New Delhi 5502:Nityayoga 5497:Nakshatra 5492:Moonlight 5270:Astrolabe 5032:Brahmanas 4882:Katyayana 4797:Apastamba 4578:Astrolabe 4511:(Ptolemy) 4431:Philolaus 4421:Oenopides 4406:Hypsicles 4351:Cleomedes 4346:Callippus 4336:Autolycus 4291:Aglaonice 4000:841809663 3907:(1986) . 3863:0065-9746 3779:254983499 3755:(1): 43. 3730:225198696 2824:(2013) . 2750:118643709 2479:120700705 2457:(1): 41. 2247:142586786 2200:145372613 2130:117426616 1981:Kuhn 1957 1803:Firmament 1770:1965 the 1694:In 1664, 1465:wrote in 1387:Principia 1363:In 1687, 1347:analysed 1184:telescope 1133:Lucretius 1097:Ecphantus 1081:Icelandic 1053:June 2015 839:al-zūraqī 835:astrolabe 831:al-Biruni 512:include: 334:phenomena 296:Aristotle 251:consensus 169:mythology 112:Aristotle 60:astronomy 7026:Maragheh 6977:Universe 6947:Sunlight 6912:Parallax 6902:Muwaqqit 6842:Ecliptic 6775:Concepts 6741:Quadrant 6661:Aperture 6176:Averroes 6146:Avempace 6090:Avicenna 6024:Nastulus 6014:al-Sijzi 5939:Al-Adami 5853:Al-Kindi 5708:Phalguna 5658:Vaisakha 5585:Varanasi 5527:Sunlight 5507:Parallax 5416:Ecliptic 5354:Concepts 5320:Quadrant 5102:Mahādevī 4997:Vasistha 4907:Mahavira 4679:Solstice 4612:Concepts 4508:Almagest 4451:Seleucus 4411:Menelaus 4371:Euctemon 3938:(1957). 3895:(1973). 3881:(1913). 3821:(1953). 3476:: 38–43. 3167:(2006). 3064:(1993). 2798:ABC-CLIO 2545:(1994). 1950:Almagest 1894:See also 1845:Almagest 1753:Dialogue 1722:Dialogue 1682:— 1655:— 1625:Russians 1572:include 1505:and the 1435:61 Cygni 1431:parallax 1401:Several 1323:rotates. 1311:or full. 1305:crescent 1296:epicycle 1292:deferent 1253:and not 1241:In 1610 1129:Epicurus 1032:may not 963:epicycle 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