537:
effective cure will require a sequential, integrated approach that combines adequate and safe immune interventions with beta cell regenerative approaches. It has also been demonstrated that alpha cells can spontaneously switch fate and transdifferentiate into beta cells in both healthy and diabetic human and mouse pancreatic islets, a possible future source for beta cell regeneration. In fact, it has been found that islet morphology and endocrine differentiation are directly related. Endocrine progenitor cells differentiate by migrating in cohesion and forming bud-like islet precursors, or "peninsulas", in which alpha cells constitute the peninsular outer layer and beta cells form later beneath them. Cryopreservation has shown promise to improve the supply chain of pancreatic islets for better transplantation outcomes.
584:
347:
335:
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47:
323:
66:
407:
419:
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583:
478:. Islet transplantation emerged as a viable option for the treatment of insulin requiring diabetes in the early 1970s with steady progress over the following three decades. Clinical trials as of 2008 have shown that insulin independence and improved metabolic control can be reproducibly obtained after transplantation of cadaveric donor islets into patients with
301:
The proportion of beta cells in islets varies depending on the species, in humans it is about 40–50%. In addition to endocrine cells, there are stromal cells (fibroblasts), vascular cells (endothelial cells, pericytes), immune cells (granulocytes, lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells,) and
520:
produced by islets and vascular endothelial cells. However, intraportal transplantation has some other shortcomings, and so other alternative sites that would provide better microenvironment for islets implantation are being examined. Islet transplant research also focuses on islet encapsulation,
492:
Islet transplantation only involves the transfer of tissue consisting of beta cells that are necessary as a treatment of this disease. It thus represents an advantage over whole pancreas transplantation, which is more technically demanding and poses a risk of, for example, pancreatitis leading to
536:
would contribute to overcoming the shortage of donor organs for transplantation. The field of regenerative medicine is rapidly evolving and offers great hope for the nearest future. However, type 1 diabetes is the result of the autoimmune destruction of beta cells in the pancreas. Therefore, an
297:
of pancreatic islets differs between species. In particular, while rodent islets are characterized by a predominant proportion of insulin-producing beta cells in the core of the cluster and by scarce alpha, delta and PP cells in the periphery, human islets display alpha and beta cells in close
515:
and the low value of islet survival a few minutes after transplantation, because the vascular density at this site is after the surgery several months lower than in endogenous islets. Thus, neovascularization is key to islet survival, that is supported, for example, by
489:(BMI) are unsuitable pancreatic donors due to greater technical complications during transplantation. However, it is possible to isolate a larger number of islets because of their larger pancreas, and therefore they are more suitable donors of islets.
221:
There are about 1 million islets distributed throughout the pancreas of a healthy adult human. While islets vary in size, the average diameter is about 0.2 mm. Each islet is separated from the surrounding pancreatic tissue by a thin, fibrous,
945:
Ichii H, Inverardi L, Pileggi A, Molano RD, Cabrera O, Caicedo A, Messinger S, Kuroda Y, Berggren PO, Ricordi C (2005). "A novel method for the assessment of cellular composition and beta-cell viability in human islet preparations".
209:. The pancreatic islets constitute 1â2% of the pancreas volume and receive 10â15% of its blood flow. The pancreatic islets are arranged in density routes throughout the human pancreas, and are important in the metabolism of
388:(GPCRs) regulate the secretion of insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin from pancreatic islets, and some of these GPCRs are the targets of drugs used to treat type-2 diabetes (ref GLP-1 receptor agonists, DPPIV inhibitors).
1881:
BermĂșdez-Silva, F. J.; SuĂĄrez, J.; Baixeras, E.; Cobo, N.; Bautista, D.; Cuesta-Muñoz, A. L.; Fuentes, E.; Juan-Pico, P.; Castro, M. J.; Milman, G.; Mechoulam, R.; Nadal, A.; RodrĂguez de
Fonseca, F. (2008-03-01).
1868:
Zhan, L., Rao, J.S., Sethia, N. et al. Pancreatic islet cryopreservation by vitrification achieves high viability, function, recovery and clinical scalability for transplantation. Nat Med (2022).
1761:
van der Meulen, T.; Mawla, A.M.; DiGruccio, M.R.; Adams, M.W.; Nies, V.; Dolleman, S.; Liu, S.; Ackermann, A.M.; Caceres, E.; Hunter, A.E.; Kaestner, K.H.; Donaldson, C.J.; Huising, M.O. (2017).
548:
1074:
Jansson, Leif; Barbu, Andreea; Bodin, Birgitta; Drott, Carl Johan; Espes, Daniel; Gao, Xiang; Grapensparr, Liza; KĂ€llskog, Ărjan; Lau, Joey; LiljebĂ€ck, Hanna; Palm, Fredrik (2016-04-02).
234:
Hormones produced in the pancreatic islets are secreted directly into the blood flow by (at least) five types of cells. In rat islets, endocrine cell types are distributed as follows:
1812:
Sharon, N.; Chawla, R.; Mueller, J.; Vanderhooft, J.; Whitehorn, L.J.; Rosenthal, B.; GĂŒrtler, M.; Estanboulieh, R.R.; Shvartsman, D.; Gifford, D.K.; Trapnell, C.; Melton, D. (2019).
2035:"Effects of oral, smoked, and vaporized cannabis on endocrine pathways related to appetite and metabolism: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, human laboratory study"
470:, clinicians and researchers are actively pursuing islet transplantation as a means of restoring physiological beta cell function, which would offer an alternative to a complete
2115:
1931:
Flores, Luis E.; Alzugaray, MarĂa E.; Cubilla, Marisa A.; Raschia, MarĂa A.; Del Zotto, HĂ©ctor H.; RomĂĄn, Carolina L.; Suburo, Ăngela M.; Gagliardino, Juan J. (October 2013).
2459:
850:
1986:
Juan-PicĂł, Pablo; Fuentes, Esther; Javier BermĂșdez-Silva, F.; Javier DĂaz-Molina, F.; Ripoll, Cristina; RodrĂguez de
Fonseca, Fernando; Nadal, Angel (2006-02-01).
1253:
Amisten, S; Salehi, A; Rorsman, P; Jones, PM; Persaud, SJ (2013). "An atlas and functional analysis of G-protein coupled receptors in human islets of
Langerhans".
305:
A large amount of blood flows through the islets, 5–6 mL/min per 1 g of islet. It is up to 15 times more than in exocrine tissue of the pancreas.
161:
1700:
Pileggi A, Cobianchi L, Inverardi L, Ricordi C (2006). "Overcoming the challenges now limiting islet transplantation: a sequential, integrated approach".
2856:
1932:
1702:
346:
334:
482:. Alternatively, daily insulin injections are an effective treatment for type 1 diabetes patients who are not candidates for islet transplantation.
2108:
682:
394:
1490:
Niclauss, Nadja; Meier, Raphael; BĂ©dat, BenoĂźt; Berishvili, Ekaterine; Berney, Thierry (2016-01-27), Stettler, C.; Christ, E.; Diem, P. (eds.),
2452:
1515:
1181:
821:
739:
137:
2851:
2101:
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techniques. It has turned out that the behavior of cells in intact islets differs significantly from the behavior of dispersed cells.
2445:
2238:
1222:
1649:
Chang, Charles A.; Lawrence, Michael C.; Naziruddin, Bashoo (October 2017). "Current issues in allogeneic islet transplantation".
1403:"Transplantation: current developments and future directions; the future of clinical islet transplantation as a cure for diabetes"
622:
are found widely expressed in islets of
Langerhans, and several studies have investigated specific distribution and mechanisms of
168:
1606:
676:
322:
156:
2780:
2388:
598:
226:
capsule which is continuous with the fibrous connective tissue that is interwoven throughout the rest of the pancreas.
766:
Pour, Parviz M.; Standop, Jens; Batra, Surinder K. (January 2002). "Are islet cells the gatekeepers of the pancreas?".
627:
623:
316:
communication, and beta cells are coupled electrically to six to seven other beta cells, but not to other cell types.
406:
2641:
2183:
812:
Sleisenger, edited by Mark
Feldman, Lawrence S. Friedman, Lawrence J. Brandt; consulting editor, Marvin H. (2015).
418:
385:
1814:"A Peninsular Structure Coordinates Asynchronous Differentiation with Morphogenesis to Generate Pancreatic Islets"
2877:
2404:
754:
571:
2424:
471:
120:
70:
A pancreatic islet from a mouse in a typical position, close to a blood vessel; insulin in red, nuclei in blue.
2613:
2524:
2282:
2267:
2161:
2636:
2176:
2141:
2125:
955:
377:
266:
144:
132:
1198:
906:"Assessment of human pancreatic islet architecture and composition by laser scanning confocal microscopy"
2228:
2171:
1290:"Biophysical properties of gap junctions between freshly dispersed pairs of mouse pancreatic beta cells"
605:. Different cell types are colour-coded. Rodent islets, unlike the human ones, show the characteristic
1987:
466:
Because the beta cells in the pancreatic islets are selectively destroyed by an autoimmune process in
2839:
2829:
2188:
1711:
1303:
1015:
814:
Sleisenger & Fordtran's gastrointestinal and liver disease pathophysiology, diagnosis, management
671:
646:
619:
501:
960:
2618:
2571:
2563:
2299:
2088:
1294:
1197:
Marques, Joana
Moreira; Nunes, Rute; Florindo, Helena; Ferreira, Domingos; Sarmento, Bruno (2021).
475:
2093:
2536:
2504:
2486:
2294:
2151:
1968:
1743:
1682:
1228:
1004:"The unique cytoarchitecture of human pancreatic islets has implications for islet cell function"
981:
831:
791:
654:
46:
731:
2628:
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2514:
2419:
2332:
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2015:
2007:
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1952:
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223:
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2198:
2054:
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1999:
1944:
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1784:
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1615:
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1311:
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1210:
1144:
1103:
1087:
1041:
1023:
965:
917:
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775:
723:
634:
479:
294:
96:
2696:
2688:
2581:
2576:
2494:
2477:
2399:
1604:
Chatenoud L (2008). "Chemical immunosuppression in islet transplantationâfriend or foe?".
843:
533:
529:
486:
467:
206:
31:
1988:"Cannabinoid receptors regulate Ca2+ signals and insulin secretion in pancreatic ÎČ-cell"
1763:"Virgin Beta Cells Persist throughout Life at a Neogenic Niche within Pancreatic Islets"
1715:
1307:
1019:
2745:
2660:
2591:
2509:
2499:
2342:
2193:
2166:
2059:
2034:
1846:
1813:
1789:
1581:
1548:
1460:
1375:
1348:
1324:
1289:
1214:
1133:"Role of islet structure and cellular interactions in the control of insulin secretion"
1108:
1075:
1046:
1003:
878:
865:
688:
65:
2084:
1547:
Gamble, Anissa; Pepper, Andrew R.; Bruni, Antonio; Shapiro, A. M. James (2018-03-04).
1315:
904:
Brissova M, Fowler MJ, Nicholson WE, Chu A, Hirshberg B, Harlan DM, Powers AC (2005).
707:
Langerhans P (1869). "Beitrage zur mikroscopischen anatomie der bauchspeichel druse".
2871:
2750:
2740:
2651:
2531:
2250:
2215:
2156:
1266:
1232:
969:
724:
1972:
1747:
1686:
795:
373:
Glycogen/Glucagon: activates alpha cells which activates beta cells and delta cells.
2834:
2800:
2790:
2728:
2233:
2205:
2146:
282:
276:
91:
17:
2437:
1564:
1091:
985:
493:
organ loss. Another advantage is that patients do not require general anesthesia.
376:
Somatostatin: inhibits alpha cells and beta cells. Also inhibits the secretion of
1948:
1662:
1491:
125:
2808:
2723:
2317:
2309:
666:
642:
638:
522:
511:, which is then implanted in the liver. There is a risk of portal venous branch
508:
435:
2003:
1829:
1779:
1762:
1008:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
528:
An alternative source of beta cells, such insulin-producing cells derived from
2785:
2770:
2223:
2050:
1900:
1883:
512:
272:
238:
2011:
1956:
1909:
1869:
1837:
1731:
1670:
1627:
1572:
1099:
1037:
149:
2775:
2586:
2259:
1933:"Islet Cannabinoid Receptors: Cellular Distribution and Biological Function"
1723:
1619:
1028:
922:
905:
452:
363:
313:
309:
248:
198:
2068:
2019:
1964:
1917:
1855:
1798:
1739:
1678:
1635:
1590:
1525:
1469:
1428:
1384:
1274:
1158:
1117:
1055:
1002:
Cabrera O, Berman DM, Kenyon NS, Ricordi C, Berggren PO, Caicedo A (2006).
977:
931:
866:"An immunocytochemical and morphometric study of the rat pancreatic islets"
787:
1884:"Presence of functional cannabinoid receptors in human endocrine pancreas"
1333:
1149:
1132:
887:
525:) immunosuppression, biomarkers of islet damage or islet donor shortage.
2846:
2718:
2358:
631:
602:
562:
460:
242:
194:
84:
52:
1365:
2605:
650:
606:
496:
Islet transplantation for type 1 diabetes (as of 2008) requires potent
456:
286:
262:
252:
210:
202:
56:
1507:
779:
366:
feedback system of the pancreatic islets has the following structure:
174:
594:
555:
256:
1443:
2735:
2710:
2133:
1549:"The journey of islet cell transplantation and future development"
1176:. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 391.
1131:
Kelly, Catriona; McClenaghan, Neville H.; Flatt, Peter R. (2011).
559:
108:
1419:
1402:
1492:"Beta-Cell Replacement: Pancreas and Islet Cell Transplantation"
816:(10th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
517:
434:
Electrical activity of pancreatic islets has been studied using
2441:
2097:
370:
Glucose/Insulin: activates beta cells and inhibits alpha cells.
30:"Islets of Langerhans" redirects here. Not to be confused with
1444:"25 Years of the Ricordi Automated Method for Islet Isolation"
1199:"A demanding path from iPSCs toward pancreatic ÎČ- and α-cells"
590:
463:. It is thought that they are destroyed by immune assaults.
1172:
Wang, Michael B.; Bullock, John; Boyle, Joseph R. (2001).
722:
Barrett KE, Boitano S, Barman SM, Brooks HL (2009-07-22).
864:
Elayat AA; el-Naggar MM; Tahir M; Bassam dahrouj (1995).
1288:
PĂ©rez-Armendariz M, Roy C, Spray DC, Bennett MV (1991).
554:
Pancreatic islets, the lighter tissue among the darker,
51:
Pancreatic islets are groups of cells found within the
1349:"Transplantation for the treatment of type 1 diabetes"
298:
relationship with each other throughout the cluster.
400:
Mouse islet immunostained for pancreatic polypeptide
2822:
2799:
2761:
2709:
2687:
2659:
2650:
2627:
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2562:
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2249:
2132:
155:
143:
131:
119:
107:
102:
90:
80:
75:
39:
649:function, proliferation, and survival, as well as
1076:"Pancreatic islet blood flow and its measurement"
201:(hormone-producing) cells, discovered in 1869 by
807:
805:
1396:
1394:
601:part (left) and the dorsal part (right) of the
997:
995:
899:
897:
2453:
2109:
8:
755:Functional Anatomy of the Endocrine Pancreas
730:(23 ed.). McGraw Hill Medical. p.
709:Inaugural-dissertation. Berlin: Gustav Lange
910:Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry
2857:List of human endocrine organs and actions
2656:
2482:
2460:
2446:
2438:
2255:
2116:
2102:
2094:
1870:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01718-1
1703:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1203:Recent Advances in IPSC-Derived Cell Types
64:
45:
2058:
1899:
1845:
1788:
1778:
1580:
1459:
1418:
1374:
1364:
1323:
1148:
1107:
1045:
1027:
959:
921:
877:
849:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1651:Current Opinion in Organ Transplantation
683:Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans
637:functions, where they play an important
308:Islets can influence each other through
699:
544:
390:
352:A pancreatic islet, showing beta cells.
340:A pancreatic islet, showing alpha cells
318:
1401:Hogan A, Pileggi A, Ricordi C (2008).
839:
829:
424:Mouse islet immunostained for glucagon
172:
36:
1542:
1540:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1069:
1067:
1065:
726:Ganong's review of medical physiology
412:Mouse islet immunostained for insulin
7:
459:, and so play a significant role in
948:American Journal of Transplantation
577:Illustration of dog pancreas. 250x.
507:The islets are transplanted into a
265:(gamma cells or F cells) producing
1215:10.1016/B978-0-12-822230-0.00002-8
1080:Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences
25:
2239:Liver sinusoidal endothelial cell
1353:World Journal of Gastroenterology
1205:. Advances in Stem Cell Biology.
455:of the pancreatic islets secrete
2126:liver, pancreas and biliary tree
1267:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.05.004
970:10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.00913.x
582:
570:
547:
417:
405:
393:
345:
333:
321:
293:It has been recognized that the
169:Anatomical terms of microanatomy
2033:Farokhnia, Mehdi (2020-02-19).
1607:New England Journal of Medicine
677:Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor
597:islets (bottom) as well as the
589:Structural differences between
1442:Piemonti L, Pileggi A (2013).
872:. 186. (Pt 3) (Pt 3): 629â37.
1:
1565:10.1080/19382014.2018.1428511
1316:10.1016/S0006-3495(91)82200-7
1092:10.3109/03009734.2016.1164769
1949:10.1097/MPA.0b013e31828fd32d
1663:10.1097/MOT.0000000000000448
328:A pancreatic islet, stained.
653:production, secretion, and
558:pancreatic tissue, hemalum-
386:G protein-coupled receptors
2894:
2184:Fibrous capsule of Glisson
2004:10.1016/j.ceca.2005.10.005
1830:10.1016/j.cell.2018.12.003
1780:10.1016/j.cmet.2017.03.017
245:(20% of total islet cells)
29:
2051:10.1038/s41398-020-0756-3
1901:10.1007/s00125-007-0890-y
1502:, S. Karger AG: 146â162,
167:
63:
44:
480:unstable type 1 diabetes
2525:Somatomammotrophic cell
2268:Intrahepatic bile ducts
1724:10.1196/annals.1375.059
1620:10.1056/NEJMcibr0708067
1407:Frontiers in Bioscience
1029:10.1073/pnas.0510790103
923:10.1369/jhc.5C6684.2005
205:pathological anatomist
193:are the regions of the
27:Regions of the pancreas
378:pancreatic polypeptide
267:pancreatic polypeptide
2229:Hepatic stellate cell
1496:Endocrine Development
1150:10.4161/isl.3.2.14805
620:Cannabinoid receptors
523:calcineurin-inhibitor
442:Clinical significance
2840:Organ of Zuckerkandl
2830:Enteroendocrine cell
2189:Perisinusoidal space
672:Neuroendocrine tumor
191:islets of Langerhans
114:insulae pancreaticae
2619:Parafollicular cell
2300:Common hepatic duct
2089:Human Protein Atlas
1716:2006NYASA1079..383P
1366:10.3748/wjg.13.6347
1347:Meloche RM (2007).
1308:1991BpJ....59...76P
1295:Biophysical Journal
1020:2006PNAS..103.2334C
476:artificial pancreas
472:pancreas transplant
430:Electrical activity
18:Pancreatic hormones
2763:Islets of pancreas
2537:Corticotropic cell
2295:Right hepatic duct
2152:Ligamentum venosum
1824:(4): 790â804.e13.
870:Journal of Anatomy
842:has generic name (
647:pancreatic ÎČ-cells
384:A large number of
2865:
2864:
2705:
2704:
2629:Parathyroid gland
2600:
2599:
2542:Gonadotropic cell
2515:Somatotropic cell
2435:
2434:
2420:Centroacinar cell
2415:Pancreatic islets
2353:
2352:
2333:Sphincter of Oddi
2290:Left hepatic duct
2039:Transl Psychiatry
1517:978-3-318-05638-9
1508:10.1159/000439412
1183:978-0-683-30603-3
823:978-1-4557-4989-8
780:10.1159/000064718
741:978-0-07-160568-7
593:islets (top) and
541:Additional images
504:of donor islets.
498:immunosuppression
485:People with high
224:connective tissue
197:that contain its
187:pancreatic islets
183:
182:
178:
40:Pancreatic islets
16:(Redirected from
2885:
2878:Pancreas anatomy
2814:Corpora arenacea
2679:Zona reticularis
2674:Zona fasciculata
2669:Zona glomerulosa
2657:
2554:Chromophobe cell
2547:Thyrotropic cell
2483:
2470:endocrine system
2462:
2455:
2448:
2439:
2389:Uncinate process
2328:Ampulla of Vater
2323:Common bile duct
2278:Canals of Hering
2273:Bile canaliculus
2256:
2211:Lobules of liver
2199:Periportal space
2118:
2111:
2104:
2095:
2073:
2072:
2062:
2030:
2024:
2023:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1943:(7): 1085â1092.
1928:
1922:
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1903:
1878:
1872:
1866:
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1809:
1803:
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1487:
1474:
1473:
1463:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1422:
1413:(13): 1192â205.
1398:
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1388:
1378:
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837:
835:
827:
809:
800:
799:
763:
757:
752:
746:
745:
729:
719:
713:
712:
704:
643:endocannabinoids
586:
574:
551:
534:progenitor cells
530:adult stem cells
500:to prevent host
421:
409:
397:
349:
337:
325:
295:cytoarchitecture
175:edit on Wikidata
68:
49:
37:
21:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2868:
2867:
2866:
2861:
2818:
2795:
2757:
2701:
2697:Chromaffin cell
2683:
2646:
2623:
2614:Follicular cell
2596:
2577:Median eminence
2558:
2495:Pars intermedia
2478:Pituitary gland
2472:
2468:Anatomy of the
2466:
2436:
2431:
2349:
2304:
2245:
2128:
2124:Anatomy of the
2122:
2081:
2076:
2032:
2031:
2027:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1880:
1879:
1875:
1867:
1863:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1767:Cell Metabolism
1760:
1759:
1755:
1699:
1698:
1694:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1546:
1545:
1538:
1530:
1528:
1518:
1489:
1488:
1477:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1400:
1399:
1392:
1359:(47): 6347â55.
1346:
1345:
1341:
1287:
1286:
1282:
1252:
1251:
1247:
1237:
1235:
1225:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1184:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1073:
1072:
1063:
1001:
1000:
993:
961:10.1.1.578.5893
944:
943:
939:
903:
902:
895:
863:
862:
858:
848:
838:
828:
824:
811:
810:
803:
765:
764:
760:
753:
749:
742:
721:
720:
716:
706:
705:
701:
697:
687:a novelette by
663:
630:in relation to
617:
610:
587:
578:
575:
566:
552:
543:
487:body mass index
468:type 1 diabetes
449:
444:
432:
425:
422:
413:
410:
401:
398:
360:
353:
350:
341:
338:
329:
326:
232:
219:
207:Paul Langerhans
179:
71:
59:
35:
32:Langerhans cell
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2891:
2889:
2881:
2880:
2870:
2869:
2863:
2862:
2860:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2832:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2805:
2803:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2767:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2746:Granulosa cell
2743:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2715:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2693:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2665:
2663:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2639:
2633:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2610:
2608:
2602:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2594:
2592:Herring bodies
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2568:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2529:
2528:
2527:
2522:
2520:Prolactin cell
2517:
2510:Acidophil cell
2507:
2502:
2500:Pars tuberalis
2497:
2491:
2489:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2467:
2465:
2464:
2457:
2450:
2442:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2402:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2363:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2347:
2346:
2345:
2343:Cholecystocyte
2337:
2336:
2335:
2325:
2320:
2314:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2264:
2262:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2194:Liver sinusoid
2191:
2186:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2174:
2167:Lobes of liver
2164:
2162:Round ligament
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2138:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2113:
2106:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2080:
2079:External links
2077:
2075:
2074:
2025:
1998:(2): 155â162.
1978:
1923:
1894:(3): 476â487.
1873:
1861:
1804:
1773:(4): 911â926.
1753:
1692:
1657:(5): 437â443.
1641:
1614:(11): 1192â3.
1596:
1536:
1516:
1475:
1434:
1390:
1339:
1280:
1255:Pharmacol Ther
1245:
1223:
1189:
1182:
1164:
1123:
1061:
991:
954:(7): 1635â45.
937:
916:(9): 1087â97.
893:
856:
822:
801:
774:(5): 440â448.
758:
747:
740:
714:
698:
696:
693:
692:
691:
689:Harlan Ellison
679:
674:
669:
662:
659:
616:
613:
612:
611:
588:
581:
579:
576:
569:
567:
553:
546:
542:
539:
448:
445:
443:
440:
431:
428:
427:
426:
423:
416:
414:
411:
404:
402:
399:
392:
382:
381:
374:
371:
359:
356:
355:
354:
351:
344:
342:
339:
332:
330:
327:
320:
302:neural cells.
291:
290:
280:
270:
260:
246:
231:
228:
218:
215:
181:
180:
171:
165:
164:
159:
153:
152:
147:
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135:
129:
128:
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117:
116:
111:
105:
104:
100:
99:
94:
88:
87:
82:
78:
77:
73:
72:
69:
61:
60:
50:
42:
41:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2890:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2798:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2760:
2752:
2751:Corpus luteum
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2741:Theca interna
2739:
2738:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2698:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2662:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2652:Adrenal gland
2649:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2561:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2532:Basophil cell
2530:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:Pars distalis
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2488:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2463:
2458:
2456:
2451:
2449:
2444:
2443:
2440:
2426:
2425:Stellate cell
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2412:
2411:Microanatomy
2410:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2390:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2261:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2251:Biliary tract
2248:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2220:Microanatomy
2219:
2217:
2216:Liver segment
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2157:Porta hepatis
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2119:
2114:
2112:
2107:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2096:
2090:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2029:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1982:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1865:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1757:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1710:(1): 383â98.
1709:
1705:
1704:
1696:
1693:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1645:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1608:
1600:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1296:
1291:
1284:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1261:(3): 359â91.
1260:
1256:
1249:
1246:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1224:9780128222300
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1190:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1168:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1127:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1014:(7): 2334â9.
1013:
1009:
1005:
998:
996:
992:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
962:
957:
953:
949:
941:
938:
933:
929:
924:
919:
915:
911:
907:
900:
898:
894:
889:
885:
880:
875:
871:
867:
860:
857:
852:
845:
833:
825:
819:
815:
808:
806:
802:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
768:Pancreatology
762:
759:
756:
751:
748:
743:
737:
733:
728:
727:
718:
715:
710:
703:
700:
694:
690:
686:
684:
680:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
664:
660:
658:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
633:
629:
628:CB2 receptors
625:
621:
614:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
585:
580:
573:
568:
564:
561:
557:
550:
545:
540:
538:
535:
531:
526:
524:
519:
514:
510:
505:
503:
499:
494:
490:
488:
483:
481:
477:
473:
469:
464:
462:
458:
454:
446:
441:
439:
437:
429:
420:
415:
408:
403:
396:
391:
389:
387:
379:
375:
372:
369:
368:
367:
365:
357:
348:
343:
336:
331:
324:
319:
317:
315:
311:
306:
303:
299:
296:
288:
284:
283:Epsilon cells
281:
278:
274:
271:
268:
264:
261:
258:
254:
250:
247:
244:
240:
237:
236:
235:
229:
227:
225:
216:
214:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
176:
170:
166:
163:
160:
158:
154:
151:
148:
146:
142:
139:
136:
134:
130:
127:
124:
122:
118:
115:
112:
110:
106:
101:
98:
95:
93:
89:
86:
83:
79:
74:
67:
62:
58:
55:that release
54:
48:
43:
38:
33:
19:
2801:Pineal gland
2791:Epsilon cell
2762:
2729:Sertoli cell
2642:Oxyphil cell
2572:Pars nervosa
2414:
2283:Interlobular
2234:Kupffer cell
2206:Portal triad
2147:Cantlie line
2042:
2038:
2028:
1995:
1992:Cell Calcium
1991:
1981:
1940:
1936:
1926:
1891:
1888:Diabetologia
1887:
1876:
1864:
1821:
1817:
1807:
1770:
1766:
1756:
1707:
1701:
1695:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1559:(2): 80â94.
1556:
1552:
1529:, retrieved
1499:
1495:
1451:
1447:
1437:
1420:10.2741/2755
1410:
1406:
1356:
1352:
1342:
1302:(1): 76â92.
1299:
1293:
1283:
1258:
1254:
1248:
1236:. Retrieved
1206:
1202:
1192:
1173:
1167:
1143:(2): 41â47.
1140:
1136:
1126:
1086:(2): 81â95.
1083:
1079:
1011:
1007:
951:
947:
940:
913:
909:
869:
859:
840:|first=
813:
771:
767:
761:
750:
725:
717:
708:
702:
681:
618:
527:
506:
495:
491:
484:
465:
450:
433:
383:
361:
307:
304:
300:
292:
277:somatostatin
233:
230:Microanatomy
220:
190:
186:
184:
138:A05.9.01.019
113:
2852:Development
2835:Paraganglia
2809:Pinealocyte
2724:Leydig cell
2318:Cystic duct
2310:Gallbladder
1454:(1): 8â22.
1209:: 227â256.
667:Betatrophin
639:homeostatic
509:portal vein
436:patch clamp
273:Delta cells
239:Alpha cells
103:Identifiers
2786:Delta cell
2771:Alpha cell
2637:Chief cell
2260:Bile ducts
2224:Hepatocyte
2045:(71): 71.
1531:2020-09-11
1238:18 January
1174:Physiology
695:References
655:resistance
632:pancreatic
521:CNI-free (
513:thrombosis
453:beta cells
285:producing
275:producing
251:producing
249:Beta cells
241:producing
2776:Beta cell
2587:Pituicyte
2564:Posterior
2405:accessory
2142:Bare area
2012:0143-4160
1957:0885-3177
1910:1432-0428
1838:0092-8674
1732:0077-8923
1671:1087-2418
1628:0028-4793
1573:1938-2014
1233:234135648
1100:0300-9734
1038:1091-6490
956:CiteSeerX
832:cite book
645:modulate
641:role, as
635:endocrine
502:rejection
364:paracrine
314:autocrine
310:paracrine
279:(<10%)
217:Structure
199:endocrine
97:Endocrine
2872:Category
2847:Placenta
2719:Testicle
2487:Anterior
2359:Pancreas
2177:Quadrate
2085:Pancreas
2069:32075958
2020:16321437
1973:36905885
1965:24005231
1937:Pancreas
1918:18092149
1856:30661759
1799:28380380
1748:33009393
1740:17130583
1687:37483032
1679:28692442
1636:18337609
1591:29394145
1526:26824893
1470:30505878
1429:17981623
1385:18081223
1275:23694765
1159:21372635
1118:27124642
1056:16461897
978:15943621
932:15923354
796:37257345
788:12378111
661:See also
615:Research
603:pancreas
461:diabetes
447:Diabetes
358:Function
289:(<1%)
269:(<5%)
263:PP cells
243:glucagon
195:pancreas
85:Pancreas
57:hormones
53:pancreas
2781:PP cell
2689:Medulla
2606:Thyroid
2172:Caudate
2087:at the
2060:7031261
1847:6705176
1790:8586897
1712:Bibcode
1582:5895174
1461:6267808
1376:4205453
1334:2015391
1325:1281120
1304:Bibcode
1109:4900068
1047:1413730
1016:Bibcode
888:7559135
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