915:
499:
33:
976:
1472:
1227:
1205:, and many smaller families. These often have remarkable life cycles. They can be classified as either endoparasitic or ectoparasitic according to where they lay their eggs. Endoparasitic wasps insert their eggs inside their host, usually as koinobionts, allowing the host to continue to grow (thus providing more food to the wasp larvae), moult, and evade predators. Ectoparasitic wasps deposit theirs outside the host's body, usually as idiobionts, immediately paralysing the host to prevent it from escaping or throwing off the parasite. They often carry the host to a nest where it will remain undisturbed for the wasp larva to feed on. Most species of wasps attack the eggs or larvae of their host, but some attack adults.
1627:
1089:
1406:'death bite'. This approach is so fine-tuned it causes the ant to bite down on the part of the leaf most optimal for the fungus to fruit; the adaxial leaf midrib. In fact, it has been found that in specific circumstances, the time of the death bite is synchronised to solar noon. As much as 40% of the ant's biomass is fungal hyphae at the moment of the death bite. After the ant dies, the fungus produces a large stalk, growing from the back of the ant's head which subsequently releases ascospores. These spores are too large to be wind dispersed and instead fall directly to the ground where they produce secondary spores that infect ants as they walk over them.
781:
1151:
1560:
439:
892:
490:. Gregarious species lay multiple eggs or polyembryonic eggs which lead to multiple larvae in a single host. The end result of gregarious superparasitism can be a single surviving parasitoid individual or multiple surviving individuals, depending on the species. If superparasitism occurs accidentally in normally solitary species the larvae often fight among themselves until only one is left.
1496:
enemies is similarly far higher than for screening chemicals: 1:30 against 1:5 respectively, since the search for suitable natural enemies can be guided accurately with ecological knowledge. Natural enemies are more difficult to produce and to distribute than chemicals, as they have a shelf life of weeks at most; and they face a commercial obstacle, namely that they cannot be patented.
807:
1435:). Preference for the dominant local host species was not explained by DNA analysis. In fact, populations across the southern U.S. were inexplicably closely related, considering rate of range expansion from a presumed Central American origin. A captive population of lab-reared flies were raised on two different host songs (
1551:. Commercially, there are two types of rearing systems: short-term seasonal daily output with high production of parasitoids per day, and long-term year-round low daily output with a range in production of 4โ1000 million female parasitoids per week, to meet demand for suitable biological control agents for different crops.
1681:
from Earth to illustrate how close to reality the biology of these aliens is and to discuss this exceptional instance of science inspiring artists". Sercel notes that the way the
Xenomorph grasps a human's face to implant its embryo is comparable to the way a parasitoid wasp lays its eggs in a living
1209:
depends on finding the host and on evading host defences; the ovipositor is a tube-like organ used to inject eggs into hosts, sometimes much longer than the wasp's body. Hosts such as ants often behave as if aware of the wasps' presence, making violent movements to prevent oviposition. Wasps may wait
2147:
Predation, herbivory, and parasitism exist along a continuum of severity in terms of the extent to which they negatively affect an organism's fitness. ... In most situations, parasites do not kill their hosts. An exception, however, occurs with parasitoids, which blur the line between parasitism and
1213:
Parasitoid wasps face a range of obstacles to oviposition, including behavioural, morphological, physiological and immunological defences of their hosts. To thwart this, some wasps inundate their host with their eggs so as to overload its immune system's ability to encapsulate foreign bodies; others
468:
developmental strategies. Endoparasitoids live within their host's body, while ectoparasitoids feed on the host from outside. Idiobiont parasitoids prevent further development of the host after initially immobilising it, whereas koinobiont parasitoids allow the host to continue its development while
1405:
which infects carpenter ants by breaching the ant's exoskeletons via their spores and growing in the ant's hemocoel as free living yeast cells. Eventually the yeast cells progress to producing nerve toxins to alter the behaviour of the ant causing it to climb and bite onto vegetation, known as the
485:
systems, there can be up to five levels of parasitism. Cases in which two or more species of parasitoids simultaneously attack the same host without parasitizing each other are called multi- or multiple parasitism. In many cases, multiple parasitism still leads to the death of one or more of the
1495:
using natural enemies of pests (parasitoids or predators) is extremely cost effective, the cost/benefit ratio for classic control being 1:250, but the technique is more variable in its effects than pesticides; it reduces rather than eliminates pests. The cost/benefit ratio for screening natural
1447:
allows such a highly specialized parasitoid to avoid overspecialization disasters. Interestingly, when receptive females only heard silence the night before testing for preference, they chose the host songs equally, 50/50. This capacity for learning and use of search images paired with a highly
259:
of a parasite's hosts; the number of hosts they have per life stage; whether the host is prevented from reproducing; and whether the effect depends on intensity (number of parasites per host). From this analysis, proposed by K. D. Lafferty and A. M. Kunis, the major evolutionary strategies of
1744:
Trophically transmitted parasites are transmitted to their definitive host, a predator, when their intermediate host is eaten. These parasites often modify the behaviour of their intermediate hosts, causing them to behave in a way that makes them likely to be eaten, such as by climbing to a
480:
are parasitoids of parasitoids; secondary parasitoids have a primary parasitoid as their host, so there are three organisms involved. Hyperparasitoids are either facultative (can be a primary parasitoid or a hyperparasitoid depending on the situation) or obligate (always develop as a
1692:, writes that there are multiple parallels with parasitoids, though there are in his view more disturbing life cycles in real biology. In his view, the parallels include the placing of an embryo in the host; its growth in the host; the resulting death of the host; and
1378:
are ectoparasitoids of insect eggs. Unlike the insect parasitoids, it is the adult stage in
Acarophenacidae that acts as a parasitoid. Specifically, adult female mites feed on insect eggs and their body swells up with offspring, which eventually emerge as adults.
2993:
The length of the ovipositor compared with the body of the parasitic wasp varies enormously between taxa, from being a fraction of the length of the metasoma to more than 14 times longer than the head and body. (Townes 1975; Achterberg 1986; Compton & Nefdt
2612:
Niehuis, O.; Hartig, G.; Grath, S.; Pohl, H.; Lehmann, J.; Tafer, H.; Donath, A.; Krauss, V.; Eisenhardt, C.; Hertel, J.; Petersen, M.; Mayer, C.; Meusemann, K.; Peters, R.S.; Stadler, P.F.; Beutel, R.G.; Bornberg-Bauer, E.; McKenna, D.D.; Misof, B. (2012).
242:. Reuter used it to describe the strategy where the parasite develops in or on the body of a single host individual, eventually killing that host, while the adult is free-living. Since that time, the concept has been generalised and widely applied.
427:
Parasitoids feed on a living host which they eventually kill, typically before it can produce offspring, whereas conventional parasites usually do not kill their hosts, and predators typically kill their prey immediately.
1596:: "I cannot persuade myself that a beneficent and omnipotent God would have designedly created parasitic wasps with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of Caterpillars." The palaeontologist
1712:
science fiction. The battle of culture against nature is depicted as an unending combat between humanity and insect-like extraterrestrial species that tend to parasitise human beings in order to reproduce."
1806:
Wilson, C. G.; Swincer, D. E.; Walden, K. J. (1982). "The
Introduction of Trioxys Complanatus Quilis (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae), an Internal Parasite of the Spotted Alfalfa Aphid, into South Australia".
2798:
Hochberg, M.; Elmes, G. W.; Thomas, J. A.; Clarke, R. T. (1996). "Mechanisms of local persistence in coupled host-parasitoid associations: the case model of
Maculinea rebeli and Ichneumon eumerus".
615:
many times: once each in
Hymenoptera, Strepsiptera, Neuroptera, and Trichoptera, twice in the Lepidoptera, 10 times or more in Coleoptera, and no less than 21 times among the Diptera. These are all
3005:
Van
Achterberg Cornelius; Argaman Q. "Kollasmosoma gen. nov. and a key to the genera of the subfamily Neoneurinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)". Zoologische Mededelingen Leiden. 67. (1993):63-74.
2372:
Grosman, Amir H.; Janssen, Arne; Brito, Elaine F. de; Cordeiro, Eduardo G.; Colares, Felipe; Fonseca, Juliana
Oliveira; Lima, Eraldo R.; Pallini, Angelo; Sabelis, Maurice W. (4 June 2008).
548:
parasitoids of ants mature, they cause the hosts to climb high on grass stalks, positions that are risky, but favour the emergence of the strepsipterans. Among pathogens of mammals, the
4608:
2906:"Oviposition behaviour of four ant parasitoids (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Euphorinae, Neoneurini and Ichneumonidae, Hybrizontinae), with the description of three new European species"
2836:
Apostolos, Kapranas; Tena, Alejandro; Luck, Robert F. (2012). "Dynamic virulence in a parasitoid wasp: the influence of clutch size and sequential oviposition on egg encapsulation".
2431:
Core, Andrew; Runcke, Charles; Ivers, Jonathan; Quock, Christopher; Siapno, Travis; DeNault, Seraphina; Brown, Brian; DeRisi, Joseph; Smith, Christopher D.; Hafernik, John (2012).
1673:, which runs rapidly through its lifecycle from violently entering a human host's mouth to bursting fatally from the host's chest. The molecular biologist Alex Sercel, writing in
3409:
Lawrence, J. F.; Falin, Z. H.; ลlipiลski, A. (2010). "Ripiphoridae
Gemminger and Harold, 1870 (Gerstaecker, 1855)". In Leschen, R. A. B.; Beutel, R. G.; Lawrence, J. F. (eds.).
1218:
which interferes with the host's immune system. Some parasitoid wasps locate hosts by detecting the chemicals that plants release to defend against insect herbivores.
540:, which causes host ants to die clinging to grass stalks, where grazers or birds may be expected to eat them and complete the parasitoidal fluke's life cycle in its
498:
32:
2959:
Quicke, D. L. J.; Fitton, M. G. (22 July 1995). "Ovipositor
Steering Mechanisms in Parasitic Wasps of the Families Gasteruptiidae and Aulacidae (Hymenoptera)".
4601:
1226:
520:
4046:"Behavioural specialization among populations of the acoustically orienting parasitoid fly Ormia ochracea utilizing different cricket species as hosts"
1889:
Wheeler, William Morton (9 January 1914). "Scientific Books | Lebensgewohnheiten und
Instinkte der Insekten bis zum Erwachen der sozialen Instinkte".
1471:
4516:
3376:
Falin, Z. H. (2002). "102. Ripiphoridae. Gemminger and Harold 1870 (1853)". In Arnett, R.H. Jr; Thomas, M. C.; Skelley, P. E.; Frank, J. H. (eds.).
2345:
Taylor, P. J. (December 1993). "A systematic and population genetic approach to the rabies problem in the yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata)".
3226:"Phorid Fly (Diptera: Phoridae) Oviposition Behavior and Fire Ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Reaction to Attack Differ According to Phorid Species"
4208:
575:, causing them to abandon their nest, flying from it at night and soon dying, allowing the next generation of flies to emerge outside the hive.
4594:
231:
3891:
Pontoppidan, Maj-Britt; Himaman, Winanda; Hywel-Jones, Nigel L.; Boomsma, Jacobus J.; Hughes, David P. (12 March 2009). Dornhaus, Anna (ed.).
3822:
Pontoppidan, Maj-Britt; Himaman, Winanda; Hywel-Jones, Nigel L.; Boomsma, Jacobus J.; Hughes, David P. (12 March 2009). Dornhaus, Anna (ed.).
1448:
specialized morphology and lifestyle (eg. tympana tuned to host sound cues, larviparous) supports the extraordinarily fast range expansion of
4360:
3592:
3502:
3426:
3393:
2888:
2774:
2570:
2260:
2212:
2081:
1961:
3544:
Wells, Alice (2005). "Parasitism by hydroptilid caddisflies (Trichoptera) and seven new species of Hydroptilidae from northern Queensland".
1626:
2586:
469:
feeding upon it. Most ectoparasitoids are idiobiont, as the host could damage or dislodge the external parasitoid if allowed to move and
4576:
1715:
1660:
1639:
1621:
209:
3257:
Feener, Donald H. Jr.; Jacobs, Lucia F.; Schmidt, Justin O. (January 1996). "Specialized parasitoid attracted to a pheromone of ants".
1580:(1647โ1717) was one of the first naturalists to study and depict parasitoids and their insect hosts in her closely-observed paintings.
3300:
Kรถhler, U.; Lakes-Harlan, R. (October 2001). "Auditory behaviour of a parasitoid fly (Emblemasoma auditrix, Sarcophagidae, Diptera)".
2749:
2540:
627:), and it is always the larvae that are parasitoidal. The metamorphosis from active larva to an adult with a different body structure
3806:
3360:
914:
556:, eventually killing it, but perhaps helping to disseminate the virus by modifying the host's behaviour. Among the parasitic wasps,
4186:
1443:). Responsive adult females overwhelmingly chose their familiar song, indicating the use of a learned, auditory search image. This
562:
modifies the behaviour of its host caterpillar to defend the pupae of the wasps after they emerge from the caterpillar's body. The
975:
4792:
4403:
2126:
643:. The approximate number (estimates can vary widely) of parasitoid species out of the total is shown in square brackets, e.g. .
473:. Most endoparasitoids are koinobionts, giving them the advantage of a host that continues to grow larger and avoid predators.
1088:
4557:
4316:
3683:
3198:
1161:
with paralysed insects, on which she will lay her eggs; she will then seal the nest and provide no further care for her young
88:
4695:
4378:"An explanation emerges for how the 12th century Paisley Abbey in Scotland could feature a gargoyle out of the film "Alien""
536:
in ways that favour the propagation of the parasitoid, often at the cost of the host's life. A spectacular example is the
1412:, is a parasitoid as well, parasitising ghost moth larvae, killing them within 15-25 days, a similar process to that of
4542:
3728:
Hughes, David P; Andersen, Sandra B; Hywel-Jones, Nigel L; Himaman, Winanda; Billen, Johan; Boomsma, Jacobus J (2011).
4284:
Todd, Kim (2011). "Maria Sibylla Merian (1647-1717): an early investigator of parasitoids and phenotypic plasticity".
1709:
1401:
1150:
1688:
which grows to fill its host's body cavity before bursting out and killing it. Alistair Dove, on the science website
1325:
Although nearly all Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are herbivorous, a few species are parasitic. The larvae of
476:
Primary parasitoids have the simplest parasitic relationship, involving two organisms, the host and the parasitoid.
4685:
1922:
Social life among the insects: being a series of lectures delivered at the Lowell Institute in Boston in March 1922
533:
527:
127:
481:
hyperparasitoid). Levels of parasitoids beyond secondary also occur, especially among facultative parasitoids. In
2664:"Wing Base Structural Data Support the Sister Relationship of Megaloptera and Neuroptera (Insecta: Neuropterida)"
2059:
2007:
1684:
1604:, including Darwin, were horrified by this instance of evident cruelty in nature, particularly noticeable in the
393:
3519:
3242:
3225:
3160:
Kessler, Andre; Baldwin, Ian T. (2002). "Plant Responses to Insect Herbivory: The Emerging Molecular Analysis".
780:
4311:
1843:"Spotted Alfalfa Aphid / Alfalfa / Agriculture: Pest Management Guidelines / UC Statewide IPM Program (UC IPM)"
1782:
1311:; in all, some 400 staphylinids are parasitoidal. Some 1,600 species of the large and mainly freeliving family
537:
4234:
Smith, S. M. (1996). "Biological control with Trichogramma: advances, successes, and potential of their use".
3411:
Coleoptera, beetles. Volume 2: Morphology and systematics (Elateroidea, Bostrichiformia, Cucujiformia partim)
4506:
4469:
2160:
Mรธller, A. P. (1990). "Effects of parasitism by a haematophagous mite on reproduction in the barn swallow".
1559:
1492:
1466:
1408:
631:
the dual lifestyle of parasitic larva, freeliving adult in this group. These relationships are shown on the
397:
186:
65:
4675:
4670:
4635:
4620:
1916:
611:. The majority are wasps within the Hymenoptera; most of the others are Dipteran flies. Parasitoidism has
553:
239:
3679:: A keystone species for unraveling ecosystem functioning and biodiversity of fungi in tropical forests?"
486:
parasitoids involved. If multiple parasitoids of the same species coexist in a single host, it is called
255:
A perspective on the evolutionary options can be gained by considering four questions: the effect on the
4782:
4645:
1444:
413:
87:
at the host's expense, eventually resulting in the death of the host. Parasitoidism is one of six major
4044:
Gray, David A.; Banuelos, Christina; Walker, Sean E.; Cade, William H.; Zuk, Marlene (1 January 2007).
1318:
A few Neuroptera are parasitoidal; they have larvae that actively search for hosts. The larvae of some
420:, with many possible intermediate strategies, but organisms in many different groups have consistently
196:
closely observed parasitoids and their hosts in her paintings. The biology of parasitoidism influenced
4212:
4094:
4045:
4735:
4710:
4650:
3910:
3837:
3743:
3114:
3058:
Salt, George (1968). "The resistance of insect parasitoids to the defense reactions of their hosts".
3015:
Schmidt, O.; Theopold, U.; Strand, M.R. (2001). "Innate immunity and evasion by insect parasitoids".
2968:
2913:
2807:
2675:
2626:
2505:
2450:
2385:
2169:
1704:
argues that "The parasitical and swarming aspects of insect reproduction make these animals favoured
1656:
1617:
1577:
1571:
612:
567:
507:
421:
193:
72:
4787:
4665:
4586:
1842:
1745:
conspicuous point: this gets the parasites transmitted at the cost of the intermediate host's life.
1532:
405:
4749:
4442:
3325:
3282:
3083:
3040:
2984:
2853:
2327:
2185:
2099:
1824:
4571:
3572:
3352:
2590:
1181:
wasps that have secondarily lost the parasitoid habit. The parasitoid wasps include some 25,000
4399:
3966:"Ophiocordyceps sinensis, the flagship fungus of China: terminology, life strategy and ecology"
3824:"Graveyards on the Move: The Spatio-Temporal Distribution of Dead Ophiocordyceps-Infected Ants"
3494:
2880:
1762:
is a solitary predator, hunting alone. Neither strategy is conventionally considered parasitic.
4356:
4251:
4163:
4114:
4075:
4026:
3987:
3946:
3928:
3873:
3855:
3802:
3779:
3761:
3710:
3655:
3637:
3588:
3498:
3467:
3422:
3389:
3356:
3317:
3274:
3177:
3142:
3075:
3032:
2941:
2884:
2780:
2770:
2745:
2737:
2703:
2644:
2566:
2560:
2536:
2478:
2413:
2354:
2256:
2208:
2087:
2077:
2041:
1957:
1567:
1357:
1287:(twisted-wing parasites) consist entirely of parasitoids; they usually sterilise their hosts.
1158:
632:
256:
4350:
3730:"Behavioral mechanisms and morphological symptoms of zombie ants dying from fungal infection"
3173:
2063:
4705:
4690:
4428:
4377:
4293:
4243:
4153:
4145:
4106:
4065:
4057:
4018:
4006:
3977:
3936:
3918:
3863:
3845:
3769:
3751:
3700:
3692:
3645:
3627:
3580:
3553:
3459:
3414:
3381:
3344:
3309:
3266:
3237:
3169:
3132:
3122:
3067:
3024:
2976:
2931:
2921:
2872:
2845:
2815:
2693:
2683:
2634:
2513:
2468:
2458:
2403:
2393:
2319:
2310:
Wojcik, Daniel P. (March 1989). "Behavioral Interactions between Ants and Their Parasites".
2292:
2177:
2069:
2031:
2023:
1989:
1980:
Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M. (2002). "Trophic strategies, animal diversity and body size".
1898:
1816:
1701:
1499:
From the point of view of the farmer or horticulturalist, the most important groups are the
1476:
438:
1165:
Within the Hymenoptera, parasitoidism evolved just once, and the many described species of
4454:
2111:
1652:
1597:
1375:
1234:
protruding (lower right) from the abdomen of its wasp host; the male (not shown) has wings
1194:
1166:
1145:
487:
477:
443:
201:
178:
169:
are highly specialised for a parasitoidal way of life. There are parasitoids, too, in the
166:
119:
37:
4247:
4182:
3914:
3841:
3747:
3118:
2972:
2917:
2811:
2679:
2630:
2509:
2454:
2389:
2173:
1322:, subfamily Symphrasinae, are parasitoids of other arthropods including bees and wasps.
4158:
4133:
3941:
3892:
3868:
3823:
3774:
3729:
3705:
3674:
3650:
3615:
3487:
3071:
2936:
2905:
2698:
2663:
2473:
2432:
2408:
2373:
2073:
2036:
2011:
1950:
1820:
1589:
1563:
1500:
1426:
1395:
1182:
616:
558:
541:
417:
197:
84:
4484:
3964:
Zhang, Yongjie; Li, Erwei; Wang, Chengshu; Li, Yuling; Liu, Xingzhong (1 March 2012).
2230:"On the biology of the inhabitants of oak galls of Cynipidae (Hymenoptera) in Britain"
1993:
4776:
4700:
3557:
3345:
3137:
3102:
2873:
2277:
2229:
1920:
1635:
1605:
1601:
1516:
1364:
1334:
1308:
1273:
681:
650:
620:
450:
182:
162:
146:
142:
3329:
3286:
3087:
3044:
2988:
2857:
1828:
1543:, which parasitise a wide range of insects including caterpillars, adult and larval
4640:
4511:
3632:
2615:"Genomic and Morphological Evidence Converge to Resolve the Enigma of Strepsiptera"
1678:
1669:
1664:
1644:
1536:
1524:
1333:
such as leafhoppers and cicadas, and sometimes on other Lepidoptera. The larvae of
1326:
1299:
1295:
1284:
1251:
1231:
1215:
1198:
1186:
1016:
800:
757:
667:
639:, with the number of times parasitoidism evolved in the group in parentheses, e.g.
604:
549:
545:
446:
218:
213:
205:
61:
4110:
4061:
4022:
3202:
2849:
2496:
Eggleton, P.; Belshaw, R. (1992). "Insect parasitoids: an evolutionary overview".
1735:
The species has been introduced to Australia to control the spotted alfalfa aphid.
4095:"Individual consistency, learning and memory in a parasitoid fly, Ormia ochracea"
3982:
3965:
3923:
3850:
3201:. Department of Entomology at the University of WisconsinโMadison. Archived from
2688:
2463:
2398:
2374:"Parasitoid Increases Survival of Its Pupae by Inducing Hosts to Fight Predators"
4655:
4432:
3734:
1508:
1504:
1481:
1319:
1260:
1247:
1206:
1154:
1079:
1058:
891:
844:
705:
608:
600:
584:
512:
454:
208:
to create numerous parasitoidal aliens that kill their human hosts, such as the
158:
150:
49:
3103:"Polydnavirus-facilitated endoparasite protection against host immune defenses"
1363:
Parasitism is rare in the Trichoptera (caddisflies), but it is found among the
4756:
4680:
3584:
3463:
3418:
3385:
2639:
2614:
2027:
1902:
1867:
1693:
1682:
host. He further compares the Xenomorph life cycle to that of the nematomorph
1540:
1491:
Parasitoids are among the most widely used biological control agents. Classic
1485:
1431:
a parasitoid tachinid fly that locates their field cricket host acoustically (
1291:
1243:
1202:
885:
771:
722:
628:
596:
592:
563:
401:
235:
174:
92:
45:
4297:
4118:
4079:
4030:
3991:
3932:
3859:
3765:
3641:
3278:
2926:
1169:
represent the great majority of species in the order, barring those like the
4743:
4728:
4722:
4328:
3756:
3343:
Whiting, M. F. (2003). "Strepsiptera". In Resh, V. H.; Cardรฉ, R. T. (eds.).
2784:
1548:
1389:
1346:
1342:
1330:
1312:
1304:
1265:
1255:
1190:
999:
945:
572:
516:
111:
100:
96:
4255:
4167:
4149:
3950:
3877:
3783:
3714:
3659:
3471:
3378:
American beetles. Volume 2. Polyphaga: Scarabaeoidea through Curculionoidea
3321:
3270:
3181:
3036:
2980:
2945:
2819:
2707:
2648:
2517:
2482:
2417:
2091:
2045:
1876:
Habits and instincts of the insects up to the awakening of social instincts
17:
4070:
3313:
3146:
3079:
2358:
2012:"Evolution of parasitism along convergent lines: from ecology to genomics"
1897:(993). American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 69โ71.
806:
409:
3901:
3828:
3127:
2441:
2296:
1631:
1593:
1528:
1352:
1269:
1178:
908:
858:
503:
482:
123:
80:
3673:
Evans, Harry C.; Elliot, Simon L.; Hughes, David P. (1 September 2011).
3442:
Yamamoto, Shรปhei; Maruyama, Munetoshi (2016). "Revision of the subgenus
1519:, which attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including
4660:
4624:
4617:
4183:"Economic Gains & Analysis Of Successes In Biological Pest Control"
3571:
Gerson, Uri; Smiley, Robert L.; Ochoa, Ronald, eds. (23 January 2003),
2331:
2189:
1759:
1705:
1697:
1242:) include several families of parasitoids, the largest of which is the
1239:
966:
588:
170:
4329:"Letter 2814 โ Darwin, C. R. to Gray, Asa, 22 May [1860]"
4138:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3696:
3028:
2800:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2278:"A Study in Insect Multiparasitism: I. Host Selection and Oviposition"
1719:
lists many instances of "parasitism", often causing the host's death.
460:
Parasitoids can be classified as either endo- or ectoparasitoids with
1544:
138:
4007:"Acoustically Orienting Parasitoids: Fly Phonotaxis to Cricket Song"
2662:
Colgan, Donald J.; Zhao, Chenjing; Liu, Xingyue; Yang, Ding (2014).
2323:
2181:
2767:
Hymenoptera of the world : an identification guide to families
1771:
There may be far more species of parasitoid wasp not yet described.
1677:, compares "the biology of the Xenomorphs to parasitoid wasps and
1367:(purse-case caddisflies), probably including all 10 species in the
110:), allowing it to continue growing before emerging as an adult, to
3893:"Graveyards on the Move: The Spatio-Temporal Distribution of Dead
3614:
Qu, Shuai-Ling; Li, Su-Su; Li, Dong; Zhao, Pei-Ji (24 July 2022).
3520:"Predatory and Parasitic Lepidoptera: Carnivores Living on Plants"
1625:
1558:
1520:
1512:
1470:
1432:
1225:
1149:
624:
497:
470:
437:
154:
134:
53:
31:
3450:
Gravenhorst of Japan (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Aleocharinae)".
1399:
are endoparasitic. One of the most notable fungal parasitoids is
126:, up to five levels of parasitism are possible. Some parasitoids
106:
Among parasitoids, strategies range from living inside the host (
1755:
4590:
3616:"Metabolites and Their Bioactivities from the Genus Cordyceps"
1452:
as well as the presence and power of learning in parasitoids.
1338:
1174:
1170:
583:
About 10% of described insects are parasitoids, in the orders
635:; groups containing parasitoids are shown in boldface, e.g.
4434:
Aliens as an Invasive Reproductive Power in Science Fiction
3243:
10.1603/0013-8746(2002)095[0257:pfdpob]2.0.co;2
238:, and adopted in English by his reviewer, the entomologist
1659:
that kill their human hosts. One of the best-known is the
4558:"This is clearly an important species we're dealing with"
4132:
Bale, J.S; van Lenteren, J.C; Bigler, F (February 2008).
3060:
Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
1592:, who wrote in an 1860 letter to the American naturalist
1371:
group; they parasitise the pupae of other trichopterans.
185:. Some of these, usually but not only wasps, are used in
1280:
is parasitoidal on cicadas, locating its host by sound.
2961:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1210:
for the host to stop moving, and then attack suddenly.
130:
in ways that favour the propagation of the parasitoid.
2433:"A new threat to honey bees, the parasitic phorid fly
4470:"5 Alien Parasites and Their Real-World Counterparts"
2904:
Gomez, Jose-Maria; van Achterberg, Cornelius (2011).
2769:. Centre for Land and Biological Resources Research.
118:). Hosts can include other parasitoids, resulting in
4134:"Biological control and sustainable food production"
416:-transmitted parasite, and micropredator. These are
4483:Williams, Robyn; Field, Scott (27 September 1997).
2065:
The Many Roads to Parasitism: A Tale of Convergence
1975:
1973:
571:oviposits into the abdomen of its hosts, including
264:
Evolutionary strategies in parasitism and predation
4352:Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters
3486:
2533:Insect Biodiversity: Science and Society, Volume 1
2234:Transactions of the Society for British Entomology
1949:
4093:Paur, Jennifer; Gray, David A. (1 October 2011).
3413:. New York: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 538โ548.
2498:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
1588:Parasitoids influenced the religious thinking of
4423:
4421:
3489:Parasitoids: Behavioral and Evolutionary Ecology
3446:Gravenhorst of the parasitoid rove beetle genus
2068:. Vol. 74. Academic Press. pp. 27โ28.
1952:Parasitoids: Behavioral and Evolutionary Ecology
1527:, which parasitise eggs and larvae of greenfly,
1350:has been used in biological control of the wasp
230:The term "parasitoid" was coined in 1913 by the
99:for the host, which makes the strategy close to
4485:"Behaviour, Evolutionary Games and .... Aliens"
2831:
2829:
2554:
2552:
1655:authors and screenwriters to create terrifying
1484:wasp, bred commercially to control whitefly in
3230:Annals of the Entomological Society of America
1157:, an idiobiont, building a mud nest; she will
29:Organism that lives with its host and kills it
4602:
4536:
4534:
4355:. Columbia University Press. pp. 84โ86.
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1872:Lebensgewohnheiten und Instinkte der Insekten
1258:, which includes parasitoidal genera such as
8:
2765:Goulet, Henri; Huber, John Theodore (1993).
2744:(2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 748โ750.
2731:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2719:
2717:
1758:is a social predator, hunting in packs; the
1600:notes that religiously minded people of the
153:them for a split lifestyle, with parasitoid
4400:"'Alien' gargoyle on ancient Paisley Abbey"
1878:] (in German). R. Friedlรคnder und Sohn.
366:Trophically transmitted parasitic castrator
4609:
4595:
4587:
4507:"The Making of Alien's Chestburster Scene"
2062:(2011). Rollinson, D.; Hay, S. I. (eds.).
4157:
4069:
3981:
3940:
3922:
3867:
3849:
3773:
3755:
3704:
3649:
3631:
3241:
3136:
3126:
2935:
2925:
2697:
2687:
2638:
2472:
2462:
2407:
2397:
2255:(5th ed.). Wiley. pp. 365โ369.
2207:(5th ed.). Wiley. pp. 362โ370.
2035:
83:that lives in close association with its
4211:. University of Maryland. Archived from
3174:10.1146/annurev.arplant.53.100301.135207
2562:Insect Biodiversity: Science and Society
1700:(trematodes). The social anthropologist
1264:. Other families of flies include some
262:
260:parasitism emerge, alongside predation.
157:and free-living adults. Most are in the
4271:Biological Control with Egg Parasitoids
4185:. University of California, Riverside.
3684:Communicative & Integrative Biology
2871:Gullan, P. J.; Cranston, P. S. (2010).
2589:. University of Alberta. Archived from
2251:Gullan, P. J.; Cranston, P. S. (2014).
2203:Gullan, P. J.; Cranston, P. S. (2014).
2010:; Randhawa, Haseeb S. (February 2015).
1798:
1728:
396:and H. S. Randhawa, is one of six main
4450:
4440:
3527:Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society
3493:. Princeton University Press. p.
3193:
3191:
2565:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 606.
2127:"Predation, Herbivory, and Parasitism"
2107:
2097:
1246:(some 9,200 species), followed by the
532:In another strategy, some parasitoids
275:intensity-independent: purple, italics
133:Parasitoids are found in a variety of
4487:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
3579:(1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 74โ77,
3224:Wuellner, C. T.; et al. (2002).
2875:The Insects: An Outline of Entomology
2740:. In V. H. Resh; R. T. Cardรฉ (eds.).
2531:Foottit, R. G.; Adler, P. H. (2009).
2253:The Insects: An Outline of Entomology
2205:The Insects: An Outline of Entomology
1780:Darwin mentions "parasitic" wasps in
1337:parasitise first Homoptera and later
1250:(some 4,500 species), along with the
272:
7:
4144:(1492). The Royal Society: 761โ776.
453:, itself a koinobiont parasitoid of
4577:The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction
4376:Budanovic, Nikola (10 March 2018).
4269:Wajnberg, E.; Hassan, S.A. (1994).
4248:10.1146/annurev.en.41.010196.002111
2967:(1360). The Royal Society: 99โ103.
1716:The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction
1622:Alien (creature in Alien franchise)
1050:
991:
958:
951:
877:
850:
840:
763:
697:
673:
663:
656:
646:
192:The 17th-century zoological artist
52:into the body of a spotted alfalfa
4519:from the original on 30 April 2010
3072:10.1111/j.1469-185x.1968.tb00959.x
2074:10.1016/B978-0-12-385897-9.00001-X
1821:10.1111/j.1440-6055.1982.tb01758.x
1424:Host location has been studied in
1302:, are largely parasitoids, as are
25:
4468:Pappas, Stephanie (29 May 2012).
4437:. Polis, Sofia. pp. 239โ257.
4189:from the original on 23 June 2008
3199:"Midwest Biological Control News"
3101:Summers, M. D.; Dib-Hajj (1995).
408:, directly transmitted parasite,
268:intensity-dependent: green, roman
4543:"Parasitism in the Alien Movies"
4404:British Broadcasting Corporation
4209:"Parasitoid Wasps (Hymenoptera)"
3558:10.1111/j.1440-6055.2005.00492.x
3546:Australian Journal of Entomology
2879:(4th ed.). Wiley. pp.
2535:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 656.
1809:Australian Journal of Entomology
1087:
974:
913:
890:
805:
779:
325:Trophically transmitted pathogen
319:Trophically transmitted parasite
128:influence their host's behaviour
114:the host and living outside it (
3380:. CRC Press. pp. 431โ444.
2285:Journal of Experimental Biology
64:), a behaviour that is used in
3633:10.3390/microorganisms10081489
3577:Mites (Acari) for Pest Control
3162:Annual Review of Plant Biology
2125:Stevens, Alison N. P. (2010).
1956:. Princeton University Press.
1387:All known fungi in the genera
1276:are parasitoids: for instance
1272:are parasitoids of ants. Some
534:influence the host's behaviour
449:on the cocoons of its host, a
392:Parasitoidism, in the view of
1:
4556:Dove, Alistair (9 May 2011).
4286:Terrestrial Arthropod Reviews
4111:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.07.017
4062:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.07.005
4023:10.1126/science.190.4221.1312
4005:Cade, W. (26 December 1975).
3801:. Vintage. pp. 107โ119.
2850:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.01.004
2276:Fisher, R. C. (1 June 1961).
1994:10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02615-0
1931:, June 1922 to February 1923.
1230:The head of a sessile female
515:into the abdomen of a worker
95:, distinguished by the fatal
4541:Sercel, Alex (19 May 2017).
4349:Prothero, Donald R. (2017).
3983:10.1080/21501203.2011.654354
3924:10.1371/journal.pone.0004835
3851:10.1371/journal.pone.0004835
2689:10.1371/journal.pone.0114695
2464:10.1371/journal.pone.0029639
2399:10.1371/journal.pone.0002276
200:'s beliefs and has inspired
4545:. Signal to Noise Magazine.
4236:Annual Review of Entomology
3677:Ophiocordyceps unilateralis
3351:. Academic Press. pp.
2559:Foottit, Robert G. (2017).
4809:
4686:Behavior-altering parasite
4572:"Parasitism and Symbiosis"
3797:Sheldrake, Merlin (2021).
3485:Godfray, H. C. J. (1994).
2131:Nature Education Knowledge
1948:Godfray, H. C. J. (1994).
1651:Parasitoids have inspired
1615:
1566:(centre right) with their
1464:
1461:In biological pest control
1143:
804:(twisted-wing parasites)
528:Behavior-altering parasite
525:
494:Influencing host behaviour
4696:Hostโparasite coevolution
4631:
3585:10.1002/9780470750995.ch5
3518:Pierce, Naomi E. (1995).
3464:10.11646/zootaxa.4101.1.1
3419:10.1515/9783110911213.538
3386:10.1201/9781420041231.ch6
2640:10.1016/j.cub.2012.05.018
2587:"Parasites (Parasitoids)"
2347:Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res
2028:10.1017/S0031182013001674
1903:10.1126/science.39.993.69
1685:Paragordius tricuspidatus
1642:parasitoid from the film
1638:, Scotland, resembling a
1076:
1055:
1048:
1013:
996:
989:
963:
956:
949:
905:
882:
875:
855:
848:
838:
797:
768:
761:
719:
702:
695:
678:
671:
661:
654:
4312:On the Origin of Species
4298:10.1163/187498311X567794
2927:10.3897/zookeys.125.1754
2312:The Florida Entomologist
2022:(Supplement 1): S6โS15.
1927:Previously published in
1783:On the Origin of Species
1675:Signal to Noise Magazine
1456:Interactions with humans
912:(wasp-waisted insects)
889:(parasitic wood wasps)
286:Single host, stays alive
4793:Biological pest control
4621:biological interactions
3757:10.1186/1472-6785-11-13
3347:Encyclopedia of Insects
2742:Encyclopedia of Insects
1917:Wheeler, William Morton
1694:alternating generations
1657:parasitic alien species
1503:, which prey mainly on
1493:biological pest control
1467:Biological pest control
1420:Learning in parasitoids
398:evolutionary strategies
187:biological pest control
89:evolutionary strategies
66:biological pest control
4150:10.1098/rstb.2007.2182
3271:10.1006/anbe.1996.0005
2981:10.1098/rspb.1995.0122
2820:10.1098/rstb.1996.0153
2518:10.1098/rstb.1992.0079
1786:, Chapter 7, page 218.
1648:
1574:
1488:
1383:Entomopathogenic fungi
1235:
1162:
623:, which form a single
554:central nervous system
523:
521:altering its behaviour
457:
412:transmitted parasite,
240:William Morton Wheeler
68:
3314:10.1007/s003590100230
2228:Askew, R. R. (1961).
1629:
1616:Further information:
1562:
1474:
1445:phenotypic plasticity
1369:Orthotrichia aberrans
1229:
1153:
1083:(butterflies, moths)
726:(net-winged insects)
613:evolved independently
526:Further information:
501:
441:
307:Conventional parasite
183:endopterygote insects
35:
4711:Parasitic castration
4651:Deception in animals
3128:10.1073/pnas.92.1.29
2435:Apocephalus borealis
2297:10.1242/jeb.38.2.267
1618:Parasites in fiction
1578:Maria Sibylla Merian
1572:Maria Sibylla Merian
1555:Maria Sibylla Merian
1533:cabbage caterpillars
1374:Mites of the family
1278:Emblemasoma auditrix
568:Apocephalus borealis
508:Apocephalus borealis
257:reproductive fitness
251:Evolutionary options
194:Maria Sibylla Merian
73:evolutionary ecology
58:Therioaphis maculata
4515:. 13 October 2009.
4431:(23 January 2014).
4017:(4221): 1312โ1313.
3915:2009PLoSO...4.4835P
3842:2009PLoSO...4.4835P
3748:2011BMCE...11...13H
3119:1995PNAS...92...29S
2973:1995RSPSB.261...99Q
2918:2011ZooK..125U..59V
2812:1996RSPTB.351.1713H
2806:(1348): 1713โ1724.
2680:2014PLoSO...9k4695Z
2631:2012CBio...22.1309N
2510:1992RSPTB.337....1E
2455:2012PLoSO...729639C
2390:2008PLoSO...3.2276G
2174:1990Ecol...71.2345M
1480:, an endoparasitic
552:affects the host's
406:parasitic castrator
404:, the others being
360:Parasitic castrator
279:
42:Trioxys complanatus
4750:Cleaning symbiosis
4580:. 10 January 2016.
4380:. The Vintage News
4273:. CABI Publishing.
2736:Mills, N. (2009).
1929:Scientific Monthly
1925:. Harcourt, Brace.
1649:
1612:In science fiction
1575:
1489:
1298:(450 species) and
1236:
1163:
538:lancet liver fluke
524:
458:
381:
369:
357:
334:
322:
310:
263:
69:
4768:
4767:
4429:Moisseeff, Marika
4362:978-0-231-54316-3
4215:on 27 August 2016
4181:Legner, Erich F.
3697:10.4161/cib.16721
3594:978-0-632-05658-3
3573:"Acarophenacidae"
3504:978-0-691-00047-3
3428:978-3-11-019075-5
3395:978-0-8493-0954-0
3205:on 5 October 2017
3029:10.1002/bies.1049
2890:978-1-118-84615-5
2776:978-0-660-14933-2
2625:(14): 1309โ1313.
2572:978-1-118-94553-7
2262:978-1-118-84615-5
2214:978-1-118-84615-5
2083:978-0-12-385897-9
1982:Trends Ecol. Evol
1963:978-0-691-00047-3
1679:nematomorph worms
1568:garden tiger moth
1501:ichneumonid wasps
1358:Galapagos Islands
1315:are parasitoids.
1136:
1135:
1127:
1126:
1118:
1117:
1109:
1108:
1100:
1099:
1037:
1036:
1028:
1027:
935:
934:
926:
925:
827:
826:
818:
817:
747:
746:
738:
737:
633:phylogenetic tree
390:
389:
384:Solitary predator
289:Single host, dies
145:, whose complete
122:; in the case of
16:(Redirected from
4800:
4759:
4752:
4738:
4731:
4706:Kleptoparasitism
4691:Brood parasitism
4611:
4604:
4597:
4588:
4582:
4581:
4568:
4562:
4561:
4560:. Deep Sea News.
4553:
4547:
4546:
4538:
4529:
4528:
4526:
4524:
4503:
4497:
4496:
4494:
4492:
4480:
4474:
4473:
4465:
4459:
4458:
4452:
4448:
4446:
4438:
4425:
4416:
4415:
4413:
4411:
4406:. 23 August 2013
4396:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4373:
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4346:
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4339:
4337:
4335:
4325:
4319:
4308:
4302:
4301:
4281:
4275:
4274:
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4259:
4231:
4225:
4224:
4222:
4220:
4205:
4199:
4198:
4196:
4194:
4178:
4172:
4171:
4161:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4099:Animal Behaviour
4090:
4084:
4083:
4073:
4050:Animal Behaviour
4041:
4035:
4034:
4002:
3996:
3995:
3985:
3961:
3955:
3954:
3944:
3926:
3888:
3882:
3881:
3871:
3853:
3819:
3813:
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3794:
3788:
3787:
3777:
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3719:
3718:
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3670:
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3663:
3653:
3635:
3611:
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3604:
3603:
3601:
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3562:
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3541:
3535:
3534:
3524:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3492:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3439:
3433:
3432:
3406:
3400:
3399:
3373:
3367:
3366:
3350:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3302:J Comp Physiol A
3297:
3291:
3290:
3259:Animal Behaviour
3254:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3195:
3186:
3185:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3140:
3130:
3098:
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3091:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3012:
3006:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2939:
2929:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2878:
2868:
2862:
2861:
2838:Animal Behaviour
2833:
2824:
2823:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2733:
2712:
2711:
2701:
2691:
2659:
2653:
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2642:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2556:
2547:
2546:
2528:
2522:
2521:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2476:
2466:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2411:
2401:
2369:
2363:
2362:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2282:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2168:(6): 2345โ2357.
2157:
2151:
2150:
2144:
2142:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2109:
2105:
2103:
2095:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2039:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1977:
1968:
1967:
1955:
1945:
1932:
1926:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1803:
1787:
1778:
1772:
1769:
1763:
1752:
1746:
1742:
1736:
1733:
1702:Marika Moisseeff
1525:chalcidoid wasps
1477:Encarsia formosa
1238:The true flies (
1167:parasitoid wasps
1091:
1051:
992:
978:
959:
952:
917:
894:
878:
851:
841:
809:
783:
764:
698:
674:
664:
657:
647:
544:. Similarly, as
478:Hyperparasitoids
385:
379:
373:
367:
361:
355:
338:
332:
326:
320:
314:
308:
302:(fitness > 0)
280:
276:
269:
167:parasitoid wasps
21:
4808:
4807:
4803:
4802:
4801:
4799:
4798:
4797:
4773:
4772:
4769:
4764:
4755:
4748:
4734:
4727:
4627:
4615:
4585:
4570:
4569:
4565:
4555:
4554:
4550:
4540:
4539:
4532:
4522:
4520:
4505:
4504:
4500:
4490:
4488:
4482:
4481:
4477:
4472:. Live Science.
4467:
4466:
4462:
4449:
4439:
4427:
4426:
4419:
4409:
4407:
4398:
4397:
4393:
4383:
4381:
4375:
4374:
4370:
4363:
4348:
4347:
4343:
4333:
4331:
4327:
4326:
4322:
4309:
4305:
4283:
4282:
4278:
4268:
4267:
4263:
4233:
4232:
4228:
4218:
4216:
4207:
4206:
4202:
4192:
4190:
4180:
4179:
4175:
4131:
4130:
4126:
4092:
4091:
4087:
4043:
4042:
4038:
4004:
4003:
3999:
3963:
3962:
3958:
3897:-Infected Ants"
3890:
3889:
3885:
3821:
3820:
3816:
3809:
3796:
3795:
3791:
3727:
3726:
3722:
3672:
3671:
3667:
3613:
3612:
3608:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3570:
3569:
3565:
3543:
3542:
3538:
3522:
3517:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3484:
3483:
3479:
3441:
3440:
3436:
3429:
3408:
3407:
3403:
3396:
3375:
3374:
3370:
3363:
3342:
3341:
3337:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3256:
3255:
3251:
3223:
3222:
3218:
3208:
3206:
3197:
3196:
3189:
3159:
3158:
3154:
3100:
3099:
3095:
3057:
3056:
3052:
3014:
3013:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2958:
2957:
2953:
2912:(125): 59โ106.
2903:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2870:
2869:
2865:
2835:
2834:
2827:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2777:
2764:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2735:
2734:
2715:
2674:(12): e114695.
2661:
2660:
2656:
2619:Current Biology
2611:
2610:
2606:
2596:
2594:
2593:on 2 March 2018
2585:
2584:
2580:
2573:
2558:
2557:
2550:
2543:
2530:
2529:
2525:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2371:
2370:
2366:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2324:10.2307/3494966
2309:
2308:
2304:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2215:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2182:10.2307/1938645
2159:
2158:
2154:
2140:
2138:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2106:
2096:
2084:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1988:(11): 507โ513.
1979:
1978:
1971:
1964:
1947:
1946:
1935:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1851:
1849:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1805:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1790:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1653:science fiction
1624:
1614:
1598:Donald Prothero
1586:
1564:Parasitic wasps
1557:
1469:
1463:
1458:
1437:Gryllus integer
1422:
1414:O. unilateralis
1402:O. unilateralis
1385:
1376:Acarophenacidae
1224:
1195:Platygastroidea
1148:
1146:Parasitoid wasp
1142:
1137:
1128:
1119:
1110:
1101:
1062:(caddis flies)
1038:
1029:
936:
927:
828:
819:
748:
739:
581:
579:Taxonomic range
542:definitive host
530:
496:
488:superparasitism
447:chalcidoid wasp
444:hyperparasitoid
436:
383:
380:
378:Social predator
377:
371:
368:
365:
359:
356:
353:
348:
346:
336:
333:
330:
324:
321:
318:
312:
309:
306:
301:
299:
292:Multiple hosts
274:
271:
267:
265:
253:
248:
228:
202:science fiction
165:and many other
120:hyperparasitism
38:parasitoid wasp
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4806:
4804:
4796:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4775:
4774:
4766:
4765:
4763:
4762:
4761:
4760:
4753:
4741:
4740:
4739:
4732:
4720:
4719:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4632:
4629:
4628:
4616:
4614:
4613:
4606:
4599:
4591:
4584:
4583:
4563:
4548:
4530:
4498:
4475:
4460:
4451:|website=
4417:
4391:
4368:
4361:
4341:
4320:
4303:
4292:(2): 131โ144.
4276:
4261:
4226:
4200:
4173:
4124:
4105:(4): 825โ830.
4085:
4071:10211.3/195743
4036:
3997:
3956:
3895:Ophiocordyceps
3883:
3814:
3807:
3799:Entangled Life
3789:
3720:
3691:(5): 598โ602.
3665:
3620:Microorganisms
3606:
3593:
3563:
3552:(4): 385โ391.
3536:
3510:
3503:
3477:
3434:
3427:
3401:
3394:
3368:
3361:
3335:
3308:(8): 581โ587.
3292:
3249:
3236:(2): 257โ266.
3216:
3187:
3152:
3093:
3066:(2): 200โ232.
3050:
3023:(4): 344โ351.
3007:
2998:
2951:
2896:
2889:
2863:
2844:(3): 833โ838.
2825:
2790:
2775:
2757:
2751:978-0123741448
2750:
2713:
2654:
2604:
2578:
2571:
2548:
2542:978-1118945537
2541:
2523:
2504:(1279): 1โ20.
2488:
2423:
2364:
2337:
2302:
2291:(2): 267โ275.
2268:
2261:
2243:
2220:
2213:
2195:
2152:
2117:
2108:|journal=
2082:
2060:Poulin, Robert
2051:
2008:Poulin, Robert
1999:
1969:
1962:
1933:
1908:
1881:
1868:Reuter, Odo M.
1859:
1834:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1788:
1773:
1764:
1747:
1737:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1613:
1610:
1590:Charles Darwin
1585:
1584:Charles Darwin
1582:
1556:
1553:
1541:tachinid flies
1517:braconid wasps
1465:Main article:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1441:G. lineaticeps
1427:Ormia ochracea
1421:
1418:
1396:Ophiocordyceps
1384:
1381:
1268:species. Some
1223:
1220:
1183:Ichneumonoidea
1144:Main article:
1141:
1138:
1134:
1133:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1098:
1097:
1094:
1093:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1005:
1004:
995:
990:
988:
985:
984:
981:
980:
962:
957:
955:
950:
948:
942:
941:
938:
937:
933:
932:
929:
928:
924:
923:
920:
919:
904:
901:
900:
897:
896:
881:
876:
874:
872:(1 clade)
868:
867:
864:
863:
854:
849:
847:
839:
837:
834:
833:
830:
829:
825:
824:
821:
820:
816:
815:
812:
811:
796:
794:(1 clade)
790:
789:
786:
785:
767:
762:
760:
754:
753:
750:
749:
745:
744:
741:
740:
736:
735:
732:
731:
718:
715:
714:
711:
710:
701:
696:
694:
691:
690:
687:
686:
677:
672:
670:
662:
660:
655:
653:
645:
617:holometabolous
580:
577:
559:Glyptapanteles
511:(centre left)
495:
492:
435:
434:Basic concepts
432:
424:on these six.
418:adaptive peaks
388:
387:
375:
363:
351:
341:
340:
328:
316:
304:
294:
293:
290:
287:
284:
252:
249:
247:
244:
227:
224:
198:Charles Darwin
116:ectoparasitism
108:endoparasitism
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4805:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4780:
4778:
4771:
4758:
4754:
4751:
4747:
4746:
4745:
4742:
4737:
4733:
4730:
4726:
4725:
4724:
4721:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4701:Hyperparasite
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4683:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4633:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4619:
4618:Inter-species
4612:
4607:
4605:
4600:
4598:
4593:
4592:
4589:
4579:
4578:
4573:
4567:
4564:
4559:
4552:
4549:
4544:
4537:
4535:
4531:
4518:
4514:
4513:
4508:
4502:
4499:
4486:
4479:
4476:
4471:
4464:
4461:
4456:
4444:
4436:
4435:
4430:
4424:
4422:
4418:
4405:
4401:
4395:
4392:
4379:
4372:
4369:
4364:
4358:
4354:
4353:
4345:
4342:
4330:
4324:
4321:
4318:
4315:, Chapter 7,
4314:
4313:
4307:
4304:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4280:
4277:
4272:
4265:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4241:
4237:
4230:
4227:
4214:
4210:
4204:
4201:
4188:
4184:
4177:
4174:
4169:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4128:
4125:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4089:
4086:
4081:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4056:(1): 99โ104.
4055:
4051:
4047:
4040:
4037:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4001:
3998:
3993:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3960:
3957:
3952:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3903:
3898:
3896:
3887:
3884:
3879:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3830:
3825:
3818:
3815:
3810:
3808:9781784708276
3804:
3800:
3793:
3790:
3785:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3736:
3731:
3724:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3685:
3680:
3678:
3669:
3666:
3661:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3610:
3607:
3596:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3564:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3540:
3537:
3533:(4): 412โ453.
3532:
3528:
3521:
3514:
3511:
3506:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3490:
3481:
3478:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3438:
3435:
3430:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3405:
3402:
3397:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3372:
3369:
3364:
3362:9780125869904
3358:
3354:
3349:
3348:
3339:
3336:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3296:
3293:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3253:
3250:
3244:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3220:
3217:
3204:
3200:
3194:
3192:
3188:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3156:
3153:
3148:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3097:
3094:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3054:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3011:
3008:
3002:
2999:
2995:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2955:
2952:
2947:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2897:
2892:
2886:
2882:
2877:
2876:
2867:
2864:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2791:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2772:
2768:
2761:
2758:
2753:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2738:"Parasitoids"
2732:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2608:
2605:
2592:
2588:
2582:
2579:
2574:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2544:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2449:(1): e29639.
2448:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2436:
2427:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2368:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2353:(4): 379โ87.
2352:
2348:
2341:
2338:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2306:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2272:
2269:
2264:
2258:
2254:
2247:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2221:
2216:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2196:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2156:
2153:
2149:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2118:
2113:
2101:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2055:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1959:
1954:
1953:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1918:
1912:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1885:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1863:
1860:
1848:
1847:ipm.ucanr.edu
1844:
1838:
1835:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1802:
1799:
1793:
1785:
1784:
1777:
1774:
1768:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1751:
1748:
1741:
1738:
1732:
1729:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1717:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1690:Deep Sea News
1687:
1686:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1671:
1667:'s 1979 film
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1637:
1636:Paisley Abbey
1633:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1602:Victorian era
1599:
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1573:
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1552:
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1537:scale insects
1534:
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1497:
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1403:
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1391:
1382:
1380:
1377:
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1370:
1366:
1365:Hydroptilidae
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1309:Staphylinidae
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1306:
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1275:
1271:
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1249:
1245:
1241:
1233:
1232:strepsipteran
1228:
1221:
1219:
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1211:
1208:
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1196:
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685:
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676:
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669:
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651:Endopterygota
649:
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638:
634:
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618:
614:
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543:
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350:
349:(fitness = 0)
343:
342:
339:
337:Micropredator
331:Micropredator
329:
327:
317:
315:
305:
303:
296:
295:
291:
288:
285:
282:
281:
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261:
258:
250:
245:
243:
241:
237:
233:
232:Swedo-Finnish
225:
223:
221:
220:
216:'s 1979 film
215:
211:
210:alien species
207:
206:scriptwriters
203:
199:
195:
190:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
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164:
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156:
152:
148:
147:metamorphosis
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143:Endopterygota
140:
136:
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109:
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4783:Parasitology
4770:
4715:
4641:Commensalism
4575:
4566:
4551:
4521:. Retrieved
4512:The Guardian
4510:
4501:
4489:. Retrieved
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4394:
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4371:
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4285:
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4213:the original
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2591:the original
2581:
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2139:. Retrieved
2134:
2130:
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2064:
2054:
2019:
2016:Parasitology
2015:
2002:
1985:
1981:
1951:
1928:
1921:
1911:
1894:
1890:
1884:
1875:
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1862:
1852:22 September
1850:. Retrieved
1846:
1837:
1815:(1): 13โ27.
1812:
1808:
1801:
1781:
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1767:
1750:
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1689:
1683:
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1668:
1665:Ridley Scott
1650:
1643:
1587:
1576:
1505:caterpillars
1498:
1490:
1475:
1450:O. ochracea,
1449:
1440:
1436:
1425:
1423:
1413:
1407:
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1388:
1386:
1373:
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1362:
1351:
1345:
1343:pyralid moth
1327:Epipyropidae
1324:
1317:
1303:
1300:Rhipiceridae
1296:Ripiphoridae
1289:
1285:Strepsiptera
1282:
1277:
1259:
1252:Pipunculidae
1237:
1222:Other orders
1214:introduce a
1212:
1199:Chrysidoidea
1187:Chalcidoidea
1164:
1159:provision it
1084:
1078:
1077:
1063:
1057:
1056:
1017:Siphonaptera
1015:
1014:
998:
997:
971:
965:
964:
907:
906:
884:
883:
871:
857:
856:
801:Strepsiptera
799:
798:
793:
776:
770:
769:
758:Coleopterida
727:
721:
720:
704:
703:
680:
679:
668:Neuropterida
640:
636:
605:Strepsiptera
582:
566:
557:
550:rabies virus
531:
506:
475:
465:
461:
459:
430:
426:
391:
382:
370:
358:
344:
335:
323:
311:
297:
283:Host fitness
273:
254:
229:
217:
214:Ridley Scott
204:authors and
191:
161:, where the
132:
115:
107:
105:
76:
70:
62:Calaphidinae
57:
41:
26:
4676:Synnecrosis
4656:Inquilinism
4646:Competition
4491:30 November
4242:: 375โ406.
4193:13 February
3976:(1): 2โ10.
3735:BMC Ecology
3626:(8): 1489.
3458:(1): 1โ68.
3209:19 February
3168:: 299โ328.
2141:12 February
1606:ichneumonid
1509:butterflies
1486:greenhouses
1341:brood. The
1320:Mantispidae
1274:flesh flies
1261:Stylogaster
1248:Bombyliidae
1207:Oviposition
1155:Potter wasp
1140:Hymenoptera
1080:Lepidoptera
1059:Trichoptera
972:(21 clades)
845:Hymenoptera
777:(10 clades)
706:Megaloptera
641:(10 clades)
609:Trichoptera
601:Lepidoptera
585:Hymenoptera
513:ovipositing
455:Lepidoptera
410:trophically
159:Hymenoptera
151:pre-adapted
141:superorder
137:across the
50:ovipositing
18:Parasitoids
4788:Parasitism
4777:Categories
4757:Mycorrhiza
4736:Intraguild
4716:Parasitoid
4681:Parasitism
4671:Neutralism
4636:Amensalism
2240:: 237โ268.
2148:predation.
1794:References
1433:phonotaxis
1409:O. sinesis
1294:families,
1244:Tachinidae
1203:Cynipoidea
1085:(2 clades)
886:Orussoidea
775:(beetles)
772:Coleoptera
723:Neuroptera
637:Coleoptera
597:Neuroptera
593:Coleoptera
573:honey bees
564:phorid fly
504:phorid fly
466:koinobiont
402:parasitism
372:Parasitoid
246:Strategies
236:Odo Reuter
177:and other
175:Coleoptera
163:ichneumons
112:paralysing
93:parasitism
77:parasitoid
46:Aphidiinae
4744:Symbiosis
4729:Carnivore
4723:Predation
4666:Mutualism
4453:ignored (
4443:cite book
4317:page 218.
4119:0003-3472
4080:0003-3472
4031:0036-8075
3992:2150-1203
3933:1932-6203
3860:1932-6203
3766:1472-6785
3742:(1): 13.
3642:2076-2607
3600:28 August
3448:Aleochara
3444:Aleochara
3279:0003-3472
3017:BioEssays
2110:ignored (
2100:cite book
1710:Hollywood
1661:Xenomorph
1640:Xenomorph
1570:host, by
1549:true bugs
1482:aphelinid
1390:Cordyceps
1347:Chalcoela
1331:Homoptera
1313:Carabidae
1305:Aleochara
1266:protelean
1256:Conopidae
1191:Vespoidea
1185:, 22,000
1064:(1 clade)
1000:Mecoptera
946:Panorpida
728:(1 clade)
619:insects (
517:honey bee
462:idiobiont
422:converged
394:R. Poulin
347:reproduce
345:Unable to
300:reproduce
226:Etymology
149:may have
124:oak galls
101:predation
97:prognosis
4517:Archived
4256:15012334
4187:Archived
4168:17827110
3970:Mycology
3951:19279680
3902:PLOS ONE
3878:19279680
3829:PLOS ONE
3784:21554670
3715:22046474
3660:35893547
3472:27394607
3330:23343345
3322:11763956
3287:16627717
3182:12221978
3088:21251615
3045:20850885
3037:11268040
2989:84043987
2946:21998538
2858:54275511
2785:28024976
2708:25502404
2668:PLOS ONE
2649:22704986
2597:10 March
2483:22235317
2442:PLoS ONE
2418:18523578
2378:PLOS ONE
2137:(10): 36
2092:21295676
2046:24229807
1919:(1923).
1870:(1913).
1829:84996305
1706:villains
1632:gargoyle
1630:A 1990s
1594:Asa Gray
1529:whitefly
1521:greenfly
1353:Polistes
1329:feed on
1270:Phoridae
1254:and the
1201:, 2,300
1197:, 3,000
1193:, 4,000
1189:, 5,500
1179:Vespidae
909:Apocrita
859:Symphyta
483:oak gall
313:Pathogen
81:organism
4661:Mimicry
4625:ecology
4410:17 June
4384:17 June
4334:5 April
4159:2610108
4011:Science
3942:2652714
3911:Bibcode
3869:2652714
3838:Bibcode
3775:3118224
3744:Bibcode
3706:3204140
3651:9330831
3452:Zootaxa
3355:โ1096.
3147:7816835
3115:Bibcode
3080:4869949
2969:Bibcode
2937:3185369
2914:Bibcode
2910:ZooKeys
2883:, 367.
2808:Bibcode
2699:4263614
2676:Bibcode
2627:Bibcode
2506:Bibcode
2474:3250467
2451:Bibcode
2409:2386968
2386:Bibcode
2359:7777324
2332:3494966
2190:1938645
2170:Bibcode
2162:Ecology
2037:4413784
1891:Science
1760:cheetah
1698:Digenea
1608:wasps.
1545:beetles
1356:in the
1240:Diptera
967:Diptera
629:permits
589:Diptera
502:Female
400:within
354:—
298:Able to
234:writer
171:Diptera
91:within
4523:29 May
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1827:
1547:, and
1539:; and
1535:, and
1292:beetle
1177:, and
607:, and
414:vector
179:orders
155:larvae
139:insect
79:is an
3523:(PDF)
3326:S2CID
3283:S2CID
3138:42812
3084:S2CID
3041:S2CID
2985:S2CID
2854:S2CID
2328:JSTOR
2281:(PDF)
2186:JSTOR
1874:[
1825:S2CID
1723:Notes
1670:Alien
1645:Alien
1513:moths
1216:virus
625:clade
471:moult
219:Alien
54:aphid
4525:2010
4493:2017
4455:help
4412:2018
4386:2018
4357:ISBN
4336:2011
4252:PMID
4221:2016
4195:2018
4164:PMID
4115:ISSN
4076:ISSN
4027:ISSN
3988:ISSN
3947:PMID
3929:ISSN
3874:PMID
3856:ISSN
3803:ISBN
3780:PMID
3762:ISSN
3711:PMID
3656:PMID
3638:ISSN
3602:2024
3589:ISBN
3499:ISBN
3468:PMID
3456:4101
3423:ISBN
3390:ISBN
3357:ISBN
3353:1094
3318:PMID
3275:ISSN
3211:2018
3178:PMID
3143:PMID
3107:PNAS
3076:PMID
3033:PMID
2942:PMID
2885:ISBN
2781:OCLC
2771:ISBN
2746:ISBN
2704:PMID
2645:PMID
2599:2018
2567:ISBN
2537:ISBN
2479:PMID
2414:PMID
2355:PMID
2257:ISBN
2209:ISBN
2143:2018
2112:help
2088:PMID
2078:ISBN
2042:PMID
1958:ISBN
1854:2023
1756:wolf
1754:The
1620:and
1511:and
1393:and
1290:Two
1283:The
1175:bees
1171:ants
135:taxa
85:host
75:, a
4623:in
4294:doi
4244:doi
4154:PMC
4146:doi
4142:363
4107:doi
4066:hdl
4058:doi
4019:doi
4015:190
3978:doi
3937:PMC
3919:doi
3864:PMC
3846:doi
3770:PMC
3752:doi
3701:PMC
3693:doi
3646:PMC
3628:doi
3581:doi
3554:doi
3460:doi
3415:doi
3382:doi
3310:doi
3306:187
3267:doi
3238:doi
3170:doi
3133:PMC
3123:doi
3068:doi
3025:doi
2977:doi
2965:261
2932:PMC
2922:doi
2881:364
2846:doi
2816:doi
2804:351
2694:PMC
2684:doi
2635:doi
2514:doi
2502:337
2469:PMC
2459:doi
2404:PMC
2394:doi
2320:doi
2293:doi
2178:doi
2070:doi
2032:PMC
2024:doi
2020:142
1990:doi
1899:doi
1817:doi
1708:in
1663:in
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