380:
27:
283:"The patricians then added a most opportune gift for the plebs: the Senate decreed, with no prior mention of it to plebs or tribunes, that soldiers should receive a stipend drawn from the State coffers. Until that time each person fulfilled military service at his own expense. (60) As far as we know, no measure was greeted with such joy by the plebs."
124:
332:), for the period they were under arms. In addition, each infantryman was entitled to a share of the spoils of war (prisoners were sold as slaves, as well as animals, treasure, weapons, and other goods), which were auctioned off and the proceeds distributed to officers and men according to various criteria.
443:
was forced to take on the burden of equipping and supplying legionary troops, allowing everyone, including have-nots, to enlist. The minimum age for volunteers (no longer forced to serve) was now set at 17, and the maximum at 46. This was the first example of a professional army where conscription by
415:
were full of enthusiasm. Without wasting any time he loaded the ships with weapons, stipendium for the soldiers and anything else useful, ordering
Manlius to embark. He, meanwhile, enlisted soldiers, not as was the custom at that time, by social classes, but rather by accepting all volunteers, for
2103:
to 215). This was mainly due to the
Antonine plague, which epidemiological historians have estimated to have reduced the empire's population by 15% to 30%. However, even in 215, the Romans were spending a similar percentage on GDP as the defense of the only global superpower, the United States of
796:
caused by the
Emperor's continued hesitation. Thus they planned the killing of Alexander and the elevation to the imperial purple of Maximinus, to whom they apparently threw the purple mantle as he passed for inspection. While at first he refused, he later decided to accept, although he felt that
304:
The consequences were obvious: acknowledgements from the plebeians, controversy from the
Tribunes who saw some of their weapons blunted, protests from those who had to pay. The immediate benefit was that a law declaring war on Veius was passed, and the new Tribunes with military power led an army
492:
He, unlike many of his predecessors who provided troops with occasional donations, deemed it necessary to give continuity to the service the soldiers provided, instituting the right to a reward in land for discharge, in accordance with the custom that until then had been at the total discretion
2098:
This was because the population of the empire, and thus the total GDP, increased significantly (+35 percent approx.). Subsequently, the percentage of army spending toward GDP increased by almost half, although the increase in army personnel was only about 15% (from
819:
Below is a table that attempts to summarize, based on calculations made by some modern scholars and the little literary evidence of the time, as well as limited archaeological-epigraphic documentation that has come down to us, the annual pay of Roman soldiers:
2127:) and subsidies to Italic families (similar to modern family allowances), to encourage them to beget more children. Augustus instituted this policy, distributing 250 denarii for every child born. Further subsidies were later introduced for Italic families (
2104:
America, spends today (amounting to 3.5 percent of GDP in 2003). However, the actual burden on taxpayers, in a quasi-agricultural economy with truly limited surplus production (80 percent of the imperial population depended on
468:
had to be clear about the ultimate goal of the campaign, and his actions were not to affect the commander's operational plans. Aware of the misery of his soldiers, Caesar, on his own initiative, doubled the pay in
363:), on the other hand, were given one medimnos and a third of wheat free of charge, as well as five of barley per month. To the allies all this was given as a gift. In the case of the Romans, on the other hand, the
2087:
The cost of the entire army grew moderately as a % of GDP between AD 14 and 150, despite an increase in manpower of about 50%, from about 255,000 armed men in AD 23 to 383,000 under
2115:
Military expenditures thus constituted about 75 percent of the total state budget, since "social" spending was little, whereas all the rest was spent on prestigious building projects in
736:
favored legionaries in several ways, increasing their pay and granting them the right to marry while in service, as well as allowing them to live with their families outside the camp (
788:
origin, who were very devoted to
Maximinus, felt that Alexander was depending too much on his mother's power and was behaving cowardly in conducting the Germanic war against the
448:, who drew daily sustenance (food and lodging, as well as equipment) from the army, received a pension in the form of land allotments in the colonies and, later on, of
3428:
3352:
3329:
3306:
3283:
3260:
3228:
3195:
3172:
3149:
3116:
3093:
3070:
3038:
3005:
2982:
2959:
2936:
2913:
2882:
784:
According to
Herodian's version, the revolt of the soldiers that led to the death of Alexander Severus was mainly due to the fact that many of the soldiers of
740:). This reform entailed a "regionalization" of the legions, which in this way became tied not only to their commander but also to a specific territory.
255:, when the Roman army was divided into three parts and sent to plunder the enemies' territory under the command of three of the four military Tribunes (
552:. He brought order to the financial administration of the Roman state, awarding a salary and leave bonus to all soldiers in the imperial army (both
2389:
797:
such acclamation should be followed by the immediate killing of
Alexander before he organized his legions. And so after promising to double their
399:, in which, because of the lack of appeal of any kind, it was almost impossible to find new recruits. From this premise the consul of that year,
793:
3212:
3133:
2747:
355:
that if the pay distributed to Roman horsemen was one drachma a day, three times what an infantryman earned, the monthly rations were seven
2564:
477:
from 5 to 10 aces per day (equal to 225 denarii per year), so that the legionary's pay remained unchanged until the period of
Emperor
3446:
3022:
256:
191:. It constituted the main part of the Roman soldier's income, who from the end of the Republic began to receive, in addition to the
110:
271:, leaving the prey to the soldiers of all three armies), the stipend for the soldiers was established, perhaps at the direction of
48:
41:
3451:
1538:
1162:
709:
607:
587:
452:
as well. To them, Marius and then subsequent commanders also granted to share the spoils plundered during military campaigns.
2386:
91:
2176:
Constant values as of 14 AD expressed in denarii, untied by increases in military pay to compensate for currency devaluation
63:
973:
2560:
573:
Augustus offered them a four-monthly pay and uniform equipment, equal to about 1/3 of what a legionary (who received 225
2123:; this was supplemented by a grain subsidy for those found to be unemployed, as well as aid to the proletariat of Rome (
2108:
and an additional 10 percent on subsistence income), was certainly much heavier. Indeed, a study of imperial taxes in
70:
601:
505:, was ensured by a system of food collection, including through forced requisitions (against reimbursement), called
650:
a day, and with these one must pay for clothing, weapons, tents, as well as to save oneself from the abuse of the
305:
there consisting mostly of volunteers. And perhaps, also under this circumstance, the legion may have assumed the
37:
2200:
Duncan-Jones: costs of years 14–84, inflated by army increase, also assuming bonuses paid to auxiliaries after 84
807:, and cancel all punishments, he marched decisively against Alexander's camp (which was located at Mogontiacum).
2819:
77:
264:
2105:
1301:
750:
445:
306:
59:
646:"Military service is, in its essence, strenuous and yields nothing: one's soul and body are valued at ten
272:
246:
2809:
768:. The aim was to increase tax revenues in the treasury's coffers to attempt to meet the rising costs of
294:
1335:
1267:
773:
617:
549:
533:
502:
199:. The latter grew to such an extent in the following centuries that by the 4th century, the ancient
3422:
3392:
3346:
3323:
3300:
3277:
3254:
3222:
3189:
3166:
3143:
3110:
3087:
3064:
3032:
2999:
2976:
2953:
2930:
2907:
2876:
2783:
1867:
188:
2188:
Under the assumption of negligible growth in GDP per capita (normal for an agricultural economy)
3208:
3129:
3018:
2743:
2092:
1828:
1665:
1399:
851:
759:
733:
672:
623:
562:
449:
148:
3382:
2834:
1908:
1732:
1698:
663:
84:
2210:
2000:
1848:
1685:
1419:
871:
647:
341:
321:
164:
144:
2112:, by far the best-documented province, established that the burden was relatively heavy.
344:
a day. As for the food ration, infantrymen were distributed about two-thirds of an Attic
2120:
1949:
440:
392:
231:
184:
136:
3440:
3396:
1990:
1533:
1497:
1126:
1233:
826:
537:
418:
400:
384:
2003:) on the economy of the Roman Empire can be measured, albeit roughly, as follows:
379:
403:, decided to open the legions to anyone, whether or not they were landowners, as
2109:
1943:
1902:
1861:
1045:
1039:
967:
638:
describes military service and soldier pay in the time of
Augustus (in the year
461:
337:
317:
156:
26:
3387:
3370:
2124:
1803:
1033:
769:
313:
216:
174:
160:
132:
3371:"The Size of the Economy and the Distribution of Income in the Roman Empire"
2855:
2843:
2703:
2437:
2149:
1838:
1675:
1409:
1229:
1194:
1158:
1021:
883:
861:
803:
764:
755:
696:
651:
592:
553:
510:
465:
333:
268:
220:
204:
196:
152:
140:
2948:. Vol. III – Dal III secolo alla fine dell'Impero d'Occidente. Rimini.
687:
The first increase in a soldier's pay in imperial times was in the time of
611:(Ala knights) were the highest paid: after them were the infantrymen of a
391:
Toward the end of the 2nd century BC Rome had found itself embroiled in a
2792:
2766:
2154:
2144:
2128:
1996:
1852:
1842:
1832:
1822:
1818:
1812:
1808:
1689:
1679:
1669:
1659:
1655:
1649:
1645:
1423:
1413:
1403:
1393:
1389:
1383:
1379:
1091:
1027:
961:
875:
865:
855:
845:
841:
835:
831:
789:
785:
718:
704:
688:
676:
628:
596:
578:
574:
529:
478:
371:
the price set for wheat, clothing, and any weapons that they might need.
364:
356:
352:
345:
325:
128:
679:
for legionaries, while praetorians were given as much as 5,000 denarii.
3205:
Armi e guerrieri di Roma antica. Da
Diocleziano alla caduta dell'impero
2829:
2778:
2654:
2088:
1766:
1373:
921:
700:
671:
The final reward upon discharge, almost as if it were a form of modern
659:
635:
570:
557:
541:
514:
427:
404:
396:
192:
517:
all costs associated with their maintenance were, then, deducted. The
2132:
2100:
737:
545:
436:
329:
260:
252:
621:. According to some recent calculations, the annual outlay that the
3406:
Famine and Pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine Empire
1015:
639:
627:
had to spend to maintain this massive army was between 31,000,000
501:
During the High Empire, supply to the troops, stationed along the
486:
482:
474:
470:
412:
378:
360:
122:
2902:. Vol. I – Dalle origini alla fine della repubblica. Rimini.
2804:
2116:
2007:
COST OF THE MILITARY AS A % OF THE GDP OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
1640:
464:, deprive his soldiers of the opportunity to loot, but the mere
288:
276:
2893:. Vol. XI The High Empire (2nd ed.). pp. 70–192.
183:
received by a Roman soldier, of whatever rank he was, from the
3236:
MacMullen, R. (1980). "How Big was the Roman imperial Army?".
631:
according to some and 65,000,000 denarii according to others.
123:
20:
521:
was, therefore, composed of a pay in coin and one "in kind."
762:
was granted to all inhabitants of the empire except the
435:
Permanent active duty thus underwent a major change in
2209:
Assuming a 22.5% decline in the population due to the
3182:
L'esercito romano da Augusto alla fine del III secolo
3159:
The Making of the Roman Army, from Republic to Empire
2869:
La vita dei legionari ai tempi della guerra di Gallia
1799:
1635:
1368:
822:
259:
headed for Anzio, Gnaeus Cornelius Cossus headed for
1995:The impact of the costs of such a large army (from
1985:
Army costs in the first two centuries of the Empire
336:received twice the pay of their men, that is, four
3080:Esercito e società nella tarda Repubblica romana
2738:Marcellinus, Ammianus (2007). Salem, A. (ed.).
2605:
703:, thus bringing the annual compensation to 333
644:
409:
281:
2925:. Vol. II – Da Augusto ai Severi. Rimini.
2641:
2946:L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione
2923:L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione
2900:L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione
2213:of the years 165–180 (average between 15–30%)
772:salaries needed to maintain armies along the
691:, who increased it by a quarter not only the
8:
2969:The Auxilia during the first two century A.D
2720:
2691:
2617:
3270:Le forze armate nella storia di Roma Antica
2021:Cost of the military (millions of denarii)
605:ranged around 200 denarii. In essence, the
591:knight, however, was higher than that of a
3427:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3369:Scheidel, Walter; Friesen, Steven (2009).
3351:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3328:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3305:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3282:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3259:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3227:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3194:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3171:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3148:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3115:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3092:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3069:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3037:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3004:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2981:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2958:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2935:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2912:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2881:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
729:In the time of Septimius Severus (193–211)
3386:
2679:
2532:
2400:
654:or to buy some exemption from some toil."
111:Learn how and when to remove this message
3048:Money and Government in the Roman Empire
2944:Cascarino, G.; Sansilvestri, C. (2009).
2544:
2412:
2362:
2350:
2323:
2311:
2299:
2005:
615:with 150 denarii and finally those of a
2226:
2166:
577:annually) received, that is, around 75
525:In the time of Augustus (30 BC – 14 AD)
411:Marius noticed that the spirits of the
375:The reform of Gaius Marius (107–101 BC)
3420:
3344:
3321:
3298:
3275:
3252:
3220:
3187:
3164:
3141:
3108:
3085:
3062:
3030:
2997:
2974:
2951:
2928:
2905:
2874:
2454:
534:system of the imperial border defenses
47:Please improve this article by adding
2577:
2575:
2573:
2555:
2553:
2516:
2514:
2465:
2463:
2424:
2346:
2344:
2335:
2196:
2194:
2184:
2182:
2172:
2170:
460:Caesar did not, in the course of the
203:constituted only 10–15% of the Roman
7:
3362:Quando l'Italia era una superpotenza
3126:Storia completa dell'esercito romano
3103:The Roman Army at War, 100 BC-AD 200
2520:
2505:
2493:
2481:
2469:
2287:
2275:
2263:
2259:
2257:
2248:
2244:
2242:
713:knight, 266 denarii for a knight of
359:of barley and two of wheat. Allies (
2867:Abranson, E.; Colbus, J.P. (1979).
2581:
2374:
2091:, to about 442,000 by the death of
2629:
2593:
815:: from Augustus to Maximinus Thrax
744:In the time of Caracalla (211–217)
14:
2740:Le Storie (testo latino a fronte)
2018:Empire GDP (millions of denarii)
3339:Historia de las legiones Romanas
2233:
2024:Cost of the military (% of GDP)
309:system as its battle formation.
131:, annual pay of soldiers in the
25:
3337:Rodríguez González, J. (2003).
2891:Cambridge Ancient History (CAH)
683:In the time of Domitian (81–96)
3404:Stathakopoulos, D.Ch. (2007).
3046:Duncan-Jones, Richard (1994).
1:
2535:, pp. 48–54 & 84–86)
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
981:
947:
942:
937:
932:
927:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
748:With the introduction of the
509:. Basically, from the pay of
49:secondary or tertiary sources
3375:The Journal of Roman Studies
2759:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
2670:CAH XI 320 estimates 380,000
2606:Scheidel & Friesen (2009
599:, while that of a knight of
444:census was abolished, while
430:, Bellum Iugurthinum, LXXXVI
416:the most part destitute of (
3101:Goldsworthy, A. K. (1998).
957:(= pay equal to 1.5 times)
955:principalis sesquiplicarius
792:. They recalled the recent
320:per day, or one-third of a
3468:
3388:10.3815/007543509789745223
3124:Goldsworthy, A.K. (2007).
3057:Roman Auxiliary Cavalryman
1988:
811:Summary table of military
634:Here is how the historian
560:) with the creation of an
244:
241:in the late 5th century BC
229:
214:
177:was defined by the annual
3360:Ruffolo, Giorgio (2004).
2023:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2011:
1847:
1837:
1827:
1817:
1807:
1802:
1684:
1674:
1664:
1654:
1644:
1638:
1418:
1408:
1398:
1388:
1378:
1371:
1087:(= pay equal to 3 times)
1011:(= pay equal to 2 times)
870:
860:
850:
840:
830:
825:
536:, permanently quartering
493:solely of the commander.
3447:Military of ancient Rome
2967:Cheesman, G. L. (1914).
1085:principalis triplicarius
265:Numerius Fabius Ambustus
3452:Employment compensation
3415:The Roman Imperial Army
2106:subsistence agriculture
1302:Tribunus angusticlavius
1009:principalis duplicarius
751:Constitutio Antoniniana
532:reorganized the entire
267:attacked and conquered
257:Lucius Valerius Potitus
135:. Top: approx. 157 BC.
3245:Mazzarino, S. (1973).
3015:Greece and Rome at war
2921:Cascarino, G. (2008).
2898:Cascarino, G. (2007).
2129:Institutio Alimentaria
721:for a foot soldier of
669:
595:, hovering around 250
569:With reference to the
433:
388:
351:It is also known from
302:
275:himself. Below is how
247:Marcus Furius Camillus
167:
151:; bottom: approx. 199
36:relies excessively on
3203:Le Bohec, Y. (2008).
3180:Le Bohec, Y. (1992).
3013:Connolly, P. (1998).
2990:Connolly, P. (1976).
2810:Ab urbe condita libri
794:disasters in the East
780:Maximinus Thrax (235)
382:
298:, IV, 59–60, op. cit.
295:Ab Urbe condita libri
195:, prize money called
126:
60:"Pay" Roman army
16:Pay in the Roman army
3417:. London – Oklahoma.
3413:Webster, G. (1998).
2642:Stathakopoulos (2007
1950:Classis provincialis
1336:Tribunus laticlavius
1268:Praefectus castrorum
455:
348:of grain per month.
3291:Parker, H. (1958).
3157:Keppie, L. (1998).
3055:Fields, N. (2006).
2692:Duncan-Jones (1994)
2547:, pp. 280–284)
2008:
1572:Praefectus cohortis
1040:Vexillarius equitum
699:, but also that of
340:or two-thirds of a
316:, pay was set at 2
312:At the time of the
3314:Reddé, M. (1986).
3268:Milan, A. (1993).
3078:Gabba, E. (1973).
2784:Bellum Iugurthinum
2721:Duncan-Jones (1994
2618:Duncan-Jones (1994
2015:Empire population
2006:
1909:Classis Ravennatis
1868:Classis Misenensis
544:in fortresses and
389:
367:deducted from the
207:'s entire income.
189:Later Roman Empire
168:
3293:The Roman Legions
3214:978-88-430-4677-5
3135:978-88-7940-306-1
2992:L'esercito romano
2749:978-88-02-07712-3
2093:Septimius Severus
2085:
2084:
1982:
1981:
1829:Septimius Severus
1798:
1797:
1666:Septimius Severus
1634:
1633:
1400:Septimius Severus
1367:
1366:
852:Septimius Severus
760:Roman citizenship
734:Septimius Severus
673:severance package
624:aerarium militare
563:aerarium militare
450:Roman citizenship
299:
149:Septimius Severus
139:, approx. 73 AD.
127:Some examples of
121:
120:
113:
95:
3459:
3432:
3426:
3418:
3409:
3400:
3390:
3365:
3356:
3350:
3342:
3333:
3327:
3319:
3310:
3304:
3296:
3287:
3281:
3273:
3264:
3258:
3250:
3241:
3232:
3226:
3218:
3199:
3193:
3185:
3176:
3170:
3162:
3153:
3147:
3139:
3120:
3114:
3106:
3097:
3091:
3083:
3074:
3068:
3060:
3051:
3042:
3036:
3028:
3009:
3003:
2995:
2986:
2980:
2972:
2963:
2957:
2949:
2940:
2934:
2926:
2917:
2911:
2903:
2894:
2886:
2880:
2872:
2863:
2851:
2839:
2825:
2814:
2800:
2788:
2774:
2762:
2753:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2700:
2694:
2689:
2683:
2677:
2671:
2668:
2662:
2651:
2645:
2639:
2633:
2627:
2621:
2615:
2609:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2585:
2579:
2568:
2557:
2548:
2542:
2536:
2530:
2524:
2518:
2509:
2503:
2497:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2458:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2434:
2428:
2422:
2416:
2410:
2404:
2398:
2392:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2366:
2360:
2354:
2348:
2339:
2333:
2327:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2303:
2297:
2291:
2285:
2279:
2273:
2267:
2261:
2252:
2246:
2237:
2231:
2214:
2207:
2201:
2198:
2189:
2186:
2177:
2174:
2070:50 million
2051:61 million
2032:46 million
2009:
1800:
1636:
1374:Auxiliary troops
1369:
1127:Legionary knight
823:
667:
571:auxiliary troops
507:annona militaris
503:imperial borders
462:conquest of Gaul
456:In Caesar's time
446:veteran soldiers
431:
300:
292:
116:
109:
105:
102:
96:
94:
53:
29:
21:
3467:
3466:
3462:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3419:
3412:
3403:
3368:
3359:
3343:
3336:
3320:
3313:
3297:
3290:
3274:
3267:
3251:
3247:L'impero romano
3244:
3235:
3219:
3215:
3202:
3186:
3179:
3163:
3156:
3140:
3136:
3123:
3107:
3105:. Oxford – N.Y.
3100:
3084:
3077:
3061:
3054:
3045:
3029:
3025:
3012:
2996:
2989:
2973:
2966:
2950:
2943:
2927:
2920:
2904:
2897:
2889:
2873:
2866:
2854:
2842:
2828:
2824:. Vol. VI.
2817:
2803:
2791:
2777:
2765:
2756:
2750:
2737:
2733:
2728:
2727:
2719:
2715:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2690:
2686:
2680:MacMullen (1980
2678:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2652:
2648:
2640:
2636:
2628:
2624:
2616:
2612:
2604:
2600:
2592:
2588:
2580:
2571:
2558:
2551:
2543:
2539:
2533:Cascarino (2008
2531:
2527:
2519:
2512:
2504:
2500:
2492:
2488:
2480:
2476:
2468:
2461:
2453:
2449:
2436:
2435:
2431:
2423:
2419:
2411:
2407:
2401:Cascarino (2008
2399:
2395:
2385:
2381:
2373:
2369:
2361:
2357:
2349:
2342:
2334:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2310:
2306:
2298:
2294:
2286:
2282:
2274:
2270:
2262:
2255:
2247:
2240:
2232:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2217:
2211:Antonine Plague
2208:
2204:
2199:
2192:
2187:
2180:
2175:
2168:
2163:
2141:
1993:
1987:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1849:Maximinus Thrax
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1686:Maximinus Thrax
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1604:Praefectus alae
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1502:cohors equitata
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1466:cohors equitata
1464:Infantryman of
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1433:cohors peditata
1431:Infantryman of
1420:Maximinus Thrax
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1101:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
983:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
872:Maximinus Thrax
817:
782:
746:
731:
723:cohors equitata
715:cohors equitata
701:auxiliary units
685:
668:
658:
618:cohors peditata
613:cohors equitata
602:cohors equitata
593:Roman legionary
527:
499:
458:
432:
426:
383:Marble bust of
377:
301:
287:
273:Furius Camillus
249:
243:
234:
228:
223:
213:
165:Maximinus Thrax
145:Marcus Aurelius
117:
106:
100:
97:
54:
52:
46:
42:primary sources
30:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3465:
3463:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3439:
3438:
3434:
3433:
3410:
3401:
3366:
3357:
3334:
3311:
3288:
3265:
3242:
3233:
3213:
3200:
3177:
3154:
3134:
3121:
3098:
3075:
3052:
3043:
3023:
3010:
2987:
2964:
2941:
2918:
2895:
2887:
2864:
2852:
2840:
2826:
2815:
2801:
2797:De re militari
2789:
2775:
2763:
2754:
2748:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2713:
2695:
2684:
2682:, p. 454)
2672:
2663:
2646:
2634:
2632:, p. 814)
2622:
2610:
2598:
2596:, p. 812)
2586:
2569:
2549:
2545:Le Bohec (1992
2537:
2525:
2510:
2498:
2486:
2474:
2459:
2457:, p. 148)
2447:
2429:
2427:, p. 119)
2417:
2415:, p. 284)
2413:Le Bohec (1992
2405:
2393:
2379:
2367:
2363:Cheesman (1914
2355:
2353:, p. 283)
2351:Le Bohec (1992
2340:
2328:
2326:, p. 214)
2324:Connolly (1998
2316:
2314:, p. 213)
2312:Connolly (1998
2304:
2300:Connolly (1976
2292:
2280:
2268:
2253:
2238:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2202:
2190:
2178:
2165:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2140:
2137:
2131:), by Emperor
2083:
2082:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2064:
2063:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2026:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2013:
1986:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1898:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1857:
1856:
1846:
1836:
1826:
1816:
1806:
1796:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1728:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1694:
1693:
1683:
1673:
1663:
1653:
1643:
1632:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1494:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1428:
1427:
1417:
1407:
1397:
1387:
1377:
1365:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1331:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1297:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1226:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1155:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1005:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
984:
979:
951:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
917:
916:
911:
906:
901:
896:
891:
880:
879:
869:
859:
849:
839:
829:
816:
809:
781:
778:
745:
742:
730:
727:
684:
681:
656:
608:equites alares
581:annually. The
526:
523:
498:
495:
457:
454:
441:Roman Republic
424:
376:
373:
285:
242:
235:
232:Roman Republic
230:Main article:
227:
226:Republican Era
224:
212:
209:
185:Republican era
163:, approx. 236
159:, approx. 219
155:, approx. 200
147:, approx. 194
143:, approx. 161
137:Roman Republic
119:
118:
33:
31:
24:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3464:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3430:
3424:
3416:
3411:
3407:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3367:
3363:
3358:
3354:
3348:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3325:
3317:
3312:
3308:
3302:
3294:
3289:
3285:
3279:
3271:
3266:
3262:
3256:
3248:
3243:
3239:
3234:
3230:
3224:
3216:
3210:
3206:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3183:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3160:
3155:
3151:
3145:
3137:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3118:
3112:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3066:
3058:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3026:
3024:1-85367-303-X
3020:
3016:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2993:
2988:
2984:
2978:
2970:
2965:
2961:
2955:
2947:
2942:
2938:
2932:
2924:
2919:
2915:
2909:
2901:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2878:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2836:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2821:Roman history
2816:
2812:
2811:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2785:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2755:
2751:
2745:
2741:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2723:, p. 35)
2722:
2717:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2688:
2685:
2681:
2676:
2673:
2667:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2653:Implied from
2650:
2647:
2644:, p. 95)
2643:
2638:
2635:
2631:
2626:
2623:
2620:, p. 36)
2619:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2587:
2583:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2529:
2526:
2522:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2490:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2475:
2471:
2466:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2451:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2421:
2418:
2414:
2409:
2406:
2403:, p. 12)
2402:
2397:
2394:
2391:
2388:
2383:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2368:
2365:, p. 35)
2364:
2359:
2356:
2352:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2338:, p. 95)
2337:
2332:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2317:
2313:
2308:
2305:
2302:, p. 26)
2301:
2296:
2293:
2289:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2269:
2265:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2227:
2220:
2212:
2206:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2185:
2183:
2179:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2010:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1992:
1991:Roman economy
1984:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1940:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1899:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1864:
1863:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1830:
1824:
1820:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1763:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1729:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1639:Garrisons of
1637:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1569:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1541:
1540:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1467:
1463:
1462:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1375:
1370:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1332:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1298:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1093:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1047:
1046:Cornicularius
1042:
1041:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1017:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
980:
978:
976:
975:
974:Beneficiarius
970:
969:
964:
963:
956:
953:
952:
946:
941:
936:
931:
926:
924:
923:
919:
918:
912:
907:
902:
897:
892:
889:
885:
882:
881:
877:
873:
867:
863:
857:
853:
847:
843:
837:
833:
828:
824:
821:
814:
810:
808:
806:
805:
800:
795:
791:
787:
779:
777:
775:
771:
767:
766:
761:
757:
753:
752:
743:
741:
739:
735:
728:
726:
724:
720:
716:
712:
711:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
682:
680:
678:
674:
665:
661:
655:
653:
649:
643:
641:
637:
632:
630:
626:
625:
620:
619:
614:
610:
609:
604:
603:
598:
594:
590:
589:
584:
580:
576:
572:
567:
565:
564:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
524:
522:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
496:
494:
490:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
467:
463:
453:
451:
447:
442:
438:
429:
423:
421:
420:
414:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
386:
381:
374:
372:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
349:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
310:
308:
297:
296:
290:
284:
280:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
248:
240:
236:
233:
225:
222:
218:
210:
208:
206:
202:
198:
194:
193:spoils of war
190:
186:
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115:
112:
104:
93:
90:
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83:
79:
76:
72:
69:
65:
62: –
61:
57:
56:Find sources:
50:
44:
43:
39:
34:This article
32:
28:
23:
22:
19:
3414:
3405:
3378:
3374:
3361:
3338:
3316:Mare nostrum
3315:
3292:
3269:
3246:
3237:
3204:
3181:
3158:
3125:
3102:
3079:
3056:
3047:
3014:
2991:
2968:
2945:
2922:
2899:
2890:
2868:
2859:
2847:
2833:
2820:
2808:
2796:
2782:
2773:. VI, 19-42.
2770:
2758:
2739:
2731:Bibliography
2716:
2707:
2698:
2687:
2675:
2666:
2658:
2649:
2637:
2625:
2613:
2608:, p. 7)
2601:
2589:
2559:
2540:
2528:
2501:
2489:
2477:
2455:Keppie (1998
2450:
2441:
2432:
2420:
2408:
2396:
2390:VIII, 18042.
2382:
2370:
2358:
2331:
2319:
2307:
2295:
2283:
2271:
2229:
2205:
2114:
2097:
2086:
2079:
2060:
2041:
1994:
1948:
1942:
1907:
1901:
1866:
1860:
1765:
1733:urbanicianus
1731:
1699:praetorianus
1697:
1603:
1571:
1537:
1501:
1465:
1432:
1372:
1334:
1300:
1266:
1234:primus pilus
1232:
1197:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1050:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1020:
1014:
1012:
1008:
972:
966:
960:
958:
954:
920:
887:
827:Roman legion
818:
812:
802:
798:
783:
763:
749:
747:
732:
722:
714:
708:
692:
686:
675:, was 3,000
670:
645:
633:
622:
616:
612:
606:
600:
586:
582:
568:
561:
528:
518:
506:
500:
491:
459:
434:
419:capite censi
417:
410:
401:Gaius Marius
390:
385:Gaius Marius
368:
350:
311:
303:
293:
282:
250:
238:
200:
179:
178:
170:
169:
107:
98:
88:
81:
74:
67:
55:
35:
18:
2425:Milan (1993
2336:Milan (1993
2278:, 39.13–14)
1944:classiarius
1903:classiarius
1862:classiarius
1051:Campidoctor
968:Tesserarius
754:by Emperor
697:legionaries
558:auxiliaries
554:legionaries
515:auxiliaries
511:legionaries
497:High Empire
157:Julia Domna
3441:Categories
3364:. Einaudi.
3128:. Modena.
3082:. Firenze.
3017:. London.
2818:Herodian.
2523:, VI, 8.8)
2508:, VI, 8.7)
2496:, VI, 8.5)
2484:, VI, 8.4)
2472:, VI, 8.3)
2221:References
1989:See also:
1198:primo ordo
1034:Imaginifer
799:stipendium
717:, and 200
693:stipendium
652:centurions
583:stipendium
548:along the
519:stipendium
407:tells it:
369:stipendium
334:Centurions
314:Punic Wars
279:tells it:
245:See also:
239:stipendium
237:The first
217:Roman army
215:See also:
201:stipendium
187:until the
180:stipendium
175:Roman army
161:Elagabalus
133:Roman army
101:April 2023
71:newspapers
38:references
3423:cite book
3397:202968244
3381:: 61–91.
3347:cite book
3341:. Madrid.
3324:cite book
3301:cite book
3278:cite book
3255:cite book
3223:cite book
3190:cite book
3167:cite book
3161:. London.
3144:cite book
3111:cite book
3088:cite book
3065:cite book
3059:. Oxford.
3033:cite book
3000:cite book
2977:cite book
2971:. Oxford.
2954:cite book
2931:cite book
2908:cite book
2877:cite book
2856:Suetonius
2844:Suetonius
2787:. LXXXVI.
2771:Histories
2704:Suetonius
2565:1976, 495
2438:Suetonius
2377:, IV, 19)
2150:Donativum
2125:congiaria
2121:provinces
1839:Caracalla
1676:Caracalla
1410:Caracalla
1230:Centurion
1195:Centurion
1159:Centurion
1022:Aquilifer
884:legionary
862:Caracalla
813:stipendia
786:Pannonian
774:frontiers
765:dediticii
756:Caracalla
466:legionary
307:manipular
221:donativum
205:legionary
153:Caracalla
141:Vespasian
3318:. Paris.
3207:. Rome.
2994:. Milan.
2871:. Milan.
2860:Domitian
2848:Augustus
2793:Vegetius
2767:Polybius
2757:Caesar.
2742:. UTET.
2708:Augustus
2584:, I, 17)
2521:Herodian
2506:Herodian
2494:Herodian
2482:Herodian
2470:Herodian
2442:Domitian
2290:, 39.15)
2288:Polybius
2276:Polybius
2266:, 39.13)
2264:Polybius
2249:Polybius
2155:Denarius
2145:Tributum
2139:See also
2119:and the
2095:in 211.
2067:215 AD.
2048:150 AD.
2001:Severans
1997:Augustus
1819:Domitian
1809:Augustus
1656:Domitian
1646:Augustus
1390:Domitian
1380:Augustus
1163:decurion
1092:Evocatus
1028:Signifer
962:Cornicen
842:Domitian
832:Augustus
804:donativa
790:Alemanni
770:military
689:Domitian
666:, I, 17.
657:—
530:Augustus
479:Domitian
425:—
365:quaestor
357:medimnoi
353:Polybius
346:medimnos
326:denarius
286:—
197:donativa
129:denarius
3272:. Rome.
3249:. Bari.
3184:. Rome.
2835:Annales
2830:Tacitus
2813:. VIII.
2779:Sallust
2659:Annales
2655:Tacitus
2582:Tacitus
2444:. 7, 3.
2375:Tacitus
2251:, 6.39)
2089:Hadrian
2029:14 AD.
1999:to the
1853:denarii
1843:denarii
1833:denarii
1823:denarii
1813:denarii
1690:denarii
1680:denarii
1670:denarii
1660:denarii
1650:denarii
1424:denarii
1414:denarii
1404:denarii
1394:denarii
1384:denarii
1362:180.000
1328:112.500
922:immunis
876:denarii
866:denarii
856:denarii
846:denarii
836:denarii
738:canabae
719:denarii
707:for an
705:denarii
677:denarii
664:Annales
660:Tacitus
636:Tacitus
629:denarii
597:denarii
579:denarii
575:denarii
542:auxilia
538:legions
428:Sallust
405:Sallust
397:Numidia
342:drachma
322:drachma
251:During
211:History
173:in the
85:scholar
3395:
3295:. N.Y.
3240:: 454.
3211:
3132:
3021:
2746:
2630:CAH XI
2594:CAH XI
2236:, 8.3)
2133:Trajan
2073:5.435
2054:6.800
2035:5.000
1629:67.500
1624:33.750
1619:22.500
1614:15.000
1609:11.250
1597:20.250
1592:10.125
1534:Knight
1498:Knight
1357:90.000
1352:60.000
1347:40.000
1342:30.000
1323:56.250
1318:37.500
1313:25.000
1308:18.750
1294:90.000
1289:45.000
1284:30.000
1279:20.000
1274:15.000
1260:81.000
1255:40.500
1250:27.000
1245:18.000
1240:13.500
1223:40.500
1218:20.250
1213:13.500
1188:20.250
1183:10.125
801:, new
585:of an
439:. The
437:107 BC
330:211 BC
328:after
263:, and
261:Ecetra
253:407 BC
87:
80:
73:
66:
58:
3393:S2CID
2710:. 46.
2161:Notes
2110:Egypt
2012:Date
1767:vigil
1759:2.250
1754:1.125
1725:4.500
1720:2.250
1715:1.500
1710:1.000
1587:6.750
1582:4.500
1577:3.375
1565:1.500
1527:1.200
1208:9.000
1203:6.750
1178:6.750
1173:4.500
1168:3.375
1152:1.575
1078:2.700
1073:1.350
1016:Optio
1002:2.025
997:1.012
948:1.350
888:miles
648:assēs
550:limes
546:forts
475:50 BC
413:plebs
361:socii
338:obols
324:(one
318:obols
269:Anxur
92:JSTOR
78:books
3429:link
3353:link
3330:link
3307:link
3284:link
3261:link
3238:KLIO
3229:link
3209:ISBN
3196:link
3173:link
3150:link
3130:ISBN
3117:link
3094:link
3071:link
3039:link
3019:ISBN
3006:link
2983:link
2960:link
2937:link
2914:link
2883:link
2838:. I.
2805:Livy
2744:ISBN
2234:Livy
2117:Rome
2080:4.1%
2076:223
2061:2.9%
2057:194
2042:2.5%
2038:123
1851:(in
1841:(in
1831:(in
1821:(in
1811:(in
1804:Navy
1688:(in
1678:(in
1668:(in
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1648:(in
1641:Rome
1422:(in
1412:(in
1402:(in
1392:(in
1382:(in
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1115:2025
1110:1350
914:1350
874:(in
864:(in
854:(in
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834:(in
556:and
540:and
513:and
289:Livy
277:Livy
219:and
64:news
3383:doi
2387:CIL
2101:150
1977:450
1972:225
1967:150
1962:100
1936:900
1931:450
1926:300
1921:200
1916:150
1895:900
1890:450
1885:300
1880:200
1875:150
1793:900
1788:450
1783:300
1778:200
1773:150
1749:750
1744:500
1739:375
1705:750
1560:750
1555:500
1550:333
1545:250
1539:Ala
1536:of
1522:600
1517:400
1512:267
1507:200
1500:of
1491:900
1486:450
1481:300
1476:200
1471:150
1458:450
1453:225
1448:150
1443:100
1147:787
1142:525
1137:350
1132:262
1105:900
1100:675
1068:900
1063:600
1058:450
992:675
987:450
982:337
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933:300
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909:675
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894:225
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695:of
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489:).
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