552:
UNITA pressure. The regular army's 91,500 troops were organized into brigades ranging in size from 750 to 1,200 men each, deployed throughout the ten military regions. Most regions were commanded by lieutenant colonels, with majors as deputy commanders, but some regions were commanded by majors. Each region consisted of one to four provinces, with one or more infantry brigades assigned to it. The brigades were generally dispersed in battalion or smaller subunits to protect strategic terrain, urban centers, settlements, and critical infrastructure such as bridges and factories. Counterintelligence agents were assigned to all field units to thwart UNITA infiltration.
609:. No official information on the other fronts was available in late 1988, but presumably the southern front included Cuando Cubango, HuĂla, and Namibe provinces, and the central front may have comprised BiĂ©, Huambo, Benguela, and Cuanza Sul provinces. There was no information on the status of Cabinda and Luanda provinces, but perhaps they remained separate regions because of their strategic importance and small size. Because of the uncertain boundaries of these fronts, most news accounts referred to the military regions when describing FAPLA's operational areas.
479:
514:. Although they suffered heavy losses and perhaps relied too heavily on Soviet military doctrine, the FAPLA and the Angolan Air Force (FAPA/DAA) in the late 1980s showed increased strength, put greater pressure on UNITA, and raised the costs of South Africa's support for UNITA. Luanda's resolve and the improved capabilities and performance of its armed forces were among the essential conditions under which South Africa agreed to negotiate its withdrawal from Angola.
45:
395:
565:
877:
487:
counterinsurgency war in the most remote and inaccessible parts of the country over extended lines of communications, without the requisite air or ground transport or logistical infrastructure. UNITA also enjoyed the advantages of operating in thinly populated areas along porous borders with Zambia and
486:
On the other hand, it could be argued that FAPLA had substantially improved its capabilities and performance. In the first place, FAPLA had begun to develop and acquire the organisation, doctrine, and equipment of a conventional army only during the civil war of 1975-76. It was then forced to fight a
466:
encampments. UNITA reported low morale among captured FAPLA conscripts, lack of discipline among troops, heavy losses of personnel and equipment in battle, countless ambushes and attacks on FAPLA forces, successful sabotage operations, and desertions by battalion-size FAPLA units. In the late 1980s,
366:
Beginning in 1978, periodic South
African incursions into southern Angola, coupled with UNITA's northward expansion in the east, forced the Angolan government to increase expenditures on Soviet military aid. Dependence also increased on military personnel from the Soviet Union, the German Democratic
327:
regime and proclaimed its intention of granting independence to Angola, the MPLA announced the formation of FAPLA, which replaced the EPLA. The FAPLA started with a strength of some 1,500, but by late 1976 grew staggeringly, to over 95,000. In 1974-75, '..after a period of six months, Moscow started
461:
said in 1988 that 'FAPLA's military performance was difficult to gauge,' particularly due to opposing propaganda from the different warring parties. On the one hand, UNITA had extended its range of operations from the remote south-eastern extremities throughout the entire country within a few years
453:
estimated that ".. in spite of intensive Soviet training and infusions of Soviet equipment, we believe the
Angolan Army is still only a marginally capable fighting force and could not survive against any military threat--internal or external -- without Soviet backing and a Cuban military presence."
551:
In 1988, the strength of the
Angolan armed forces was estimated at 100,000 active-duty and 50,000 reserve personnel, organized into a regular army and a supporting militia, air and air defense force, and navy. The active-duty forces had expanded greatly since independence in the face of SADF and
491:, with extensive SADF combat and logistic support, making it impossible for FAPLA to isolate or outflank UNITA. Moreover, military experts believe that counterinsurgency troops must outnumber guerrillas by ten to one in order to win such wars, a ratio FAPLA could never approximate. The
588:
enclave. The Fifth and Sixth
Military Regions faced Namibia in the south. In early 1988, however, calling this structure inadequate, the Ministry of Defence announced the formation of northern, eastern, southern, and central fronts. The northern front encompassed
462:
of
Portugal's withdrawal. The SADF had occupied parts of southern Angola for extended periods, virtually without contest, for the purposes of resupplying UNITA, intervening on its behalf, conducting reconnaissance flights and patrols, and attacking
328:
to arm Neto's faction exclusively. The Soviet Union supplied the MPLA with $ 300 million worth of materiel as compared to $ 54 million over the previous fourteen years. The weapons that went to MPLA included
1077:
467:
Angola's minister of defence publicly called for greater discipline in FAPLA, citing reports of theft, assaults, and drunken military drivers. As late as 1988, in the wake of reports of increased
499:
were even further behind and had required years to acquire the assets and the expertise needed for effective operations. Although the navy was of marginal use in the war, air power was critical.
374:
state whose army was in retreat. The confluence of civil war, foreign intervention, and large-scale insurgency made Angola's experience unique. After independence, FAPLA had to reorganize for
1072:
987:
Igor
Zhdarkin, We Did Not See It Even in Afghanistan: Memoirs of a Participant of the Angolan War (1986-1988). Moscow: Memories Mockba, 2008. Translated by Tamara Reilly. 399 pp.
386:
and UNITA. Ironically, a guerrilla army that conducted a successful insurgency for more than a decade came to endure the same kind of exhausting struggle for a similar period.
222:
363:
and ensuing UNITA insurgency, when the sudden and large-scale inflow of heavy weapons and accompanying technicians and advisers quickened the pace of institutional change.
399:
531:
forces, into a 50,000-strong unified, neutral military force.. before the
September 1992 election. The FAA was to contain an equal number of FAPLA and FALA personnel.
962:
Miguel Junior, Popular Armed Forces for the
Liberation of Angola; First National Army and the War (1975-1992), Bloomington: Authorhouse, 2015; ISBN 978-1-5049-4126-6.
1037:
517:
Howe writes that Angola's defence minister acknowledged that senior officials profited significantly from weapons purchases; a newspaper sympathetic to the MPLA,
576:
Five military regions were initially established in 1975. Their numbers grew to seven in 1983 and ten by
December 1985. The First Military Region comprised the
827:, Military Intelligence Summary - Africa South of the Sahara, DDB 2680-104-85, ICOD 15 October 1984, Angola p9-10, declassified by letter dated April 29, 2014.
1032:
1027:
463:
308:
against the
Portuguese in eastern Angola. After 1972, however, the EPLA's effectiveness declined following several Portuguese victories, disputes with
1067:
981:Ĺ ubin, Gennadij V., and Andrei Tokarev, eds. Bush War: The Road to Cuito Cuanavale: Soviet Soldiers' Accounts of the Angolan War. Jacana Media, 2011.
370:
Unlike African states that acceded to independence by an orderly and peaceful process of institutional transfer, Angola inherited a disintegrating
458:
1062:
956:
FAPLA: Bastion of Peace in Angola, People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola. Department of Agitation and Propaganda, 1988, 250 pages
992:
930:
121:
1052:
1042:
309:
775:
978:
Spall, John, Manhood, Morality and the Transformation of Angolan Society: MPLA Veterans and Post-war Dynamics. James Currey, 2020.
535:
The FAPLA and UNITA armies began the integration process, but it was halted, as UNITA returned to war following their loss of the
1017:
135:
506:
was able to launch and sustain large offensives in the south. In August 1986, FAPLA repelled UNITA after they had captured
475:
commander dismissed the Angolans as "extremely unprofessional," noting that "50 percent of the threat against us is Cuban."
1057:
536:
959:
Edward George, The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965-1991: From Che Guevara to Cuito Cuanavale. Psychology Press, 2004.
360:
101:
91:
17:
1012:
824:
717:
640:
478:
450:
431:
419:
304:, killing a number of troops. During the mid-1960s and early 1970s, the EPLA operated very successfully from bases in
242:
230:
174:
1047:
114:
892:
439:
250:
511:
427:
238:
178:
472:
643:, Military Intelligence Summary - Africa South of the Sahara, DDB 2680-104-85, ICOD 15 October 1984, Angola
721:
886:
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It was only after sufficient aircraft and air defence systems had been deployed in the mid-1980s that
602:
540:
265:
149:
141:
195:
111:
543:(Portuguese: Forças Armadas Angolanas (FAA)), losing the close nominal association with the MPLA.
127:
975:
Smith, James, "FAPLA – Angola's Marxist Armed Forces," Jane's Intelligence Review. 1 July 1990.
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254:
984:
Stephen L. Weigert, Angola: A Modern Military History, 1961-2002. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
606:
594:
507:
261:
73:
233:(SADF). The FAPLA fought the SADF and UNITA/FALA constantly from the 1970s, part of the
590:
577:
351:
By 1976, FAPLA had been transformed from lightly armed guerrilla units into a national
301:
49:
1022:
1006:
881:
870:
206:
was originally the armed wing of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (
996:
922:
The Last Hot Battle of the Cold War: South Africa vs. Cuba in the Angolan Civil War
800:
Angola: Information on the Forças Armadas Populares de Libertaçao de Angola (FAPLA)
784:
568:
383:
356:
215:
159:
86:
81:
722:"SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: A GROWING SOVIET MILITARY PRESENCE | CIA FOIA (foia.cia.gov)"
920:
355:
capable of sustained field operations. This transformation was gradual until the
799:
27:
Former armed wing of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA)
972:(pages 84-87 and 91-102 cover Cuban operations supporting the FAPLA in Angola)
968:
Armies of Sand: The Past, Present, and Future of Arab Military Effectiveness
527:
The Bicesse Accords of May 1991 called for the integration of the FAPLA and
492:
281:
44:
312:(FNLA) forces, and the movement of about 800 guerrillas from Zambia to the
394:
902:
War of Intervention in Angola: Cuban and Angolan Forces at War, 1976-1983
403:
297:
598:
296:. In January 1963, in one of its early operations, the EPLA attacked a
293:
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371:
324:
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211:
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reported that senior officers made US$ 320 million in commissions.
528:
488:
477:
407:
345:
329:
880:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
496:
411:
352:
341:
337:
226:
207:
798:
Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada,
601:, Cuanza Norte, and Bengo provinces. The eastern front covered
92:
People's Air Force of Angola / Anti-Aircraft Defense (FAPA/DAA)
442:(1987-1988) being the largest land battle in Africa since the
382:
simultaneously and immediately to continue the new war with
253:(1987-1988) was the largest land battle in Africa since the
915:'New material in this edition 2011,' original edition 1992.
288:- EPLA). Many of its first cadres had received training in
663:
661:
284:
forces the "People's Army for the Liberation of Angola" (
743:
741:
624:
622:
18:
People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola
911:
A Political History of the Civil War in Angola 1974-90
272:, FAA), by the integration of UNITA and FALA members.
1078:
Military units and formations disestablished in 1993
766:. Boulder, CO., and London: Lynne Rienner. pp.
557:
348:tanks. Independence was set for November 11, 1975.
223:
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola
170:
165:
155:
148:
136:
FAPLA chief of the general staff and army commander
134:
120:
107:
100:
72:
64:
56:
32:
995:. Elaine Windrich reviewed the book at h-net.org,
763:Ambiguous Order: Military Forces In African States
336:, 37-mm and 14.5 mm antiaircraft guns..' and
1073:Military units and formations established in 1974
400:South African National Museum of Military History
398:Line up of captured FAPLA combat vehicles in the
332:assault rifles, 120-mm mortars, 82-mm and 107-mm
82:People's Army for the Liberation of Angola (EPLA)
200:Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola
38:Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola
904:. Africa@War No. 34. Solihill: Helion & Co.
319:In August 1974, a few months after a military
218:when the MPLA took control of the government.
925:(illustrated ed.). Casemate Publishers.
192:People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola
33:People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola
8:
811:
667:
430:, including during their 1975-76 invasion,
264:in 1993, the FAPLA were transformed in the
43:
679:
393:
286:Exército Popular de Libertação de Angola
848:
836:
747:
703:
691:
652:
628:
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464:South-West Africa People's Organisation
459:Federal government of the United States
422:constantly from the 1970s, part of the
280:In the early 1960s, the MPLA named its
50:Flag of the People's Republic of Angola
554:
29:
1038:Military wings of nationalist parties
210:) but later (1975–1991) became
7:
970:. New York: Oxford University Press.
782:citing 'Profits Fuel Angola's War,'
547:Structure and military regions, 1988
482:FAPLA's air defence network in 1987.
227:Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola
1033:Military wings of socialist parties
367:Republic (East Germany), and Cuba.
310:National Liberation Front of Angola
25:
1028:Communist organizations in Africa
997:A Russian View of the Angolan War
584:, while the Second comprised the
1068:1993 disestablishments in Angola
875:
563:
221:Its major adversaries were the
87:People's Navy of Angola (MGPA)
1:
1063:1974 establishments in Angola
909:James III, W. Martin (2011).
873:: Government Printing Office.
802:, 6 December 2001, AGO37934.E
537:1992 Angolan general election
225:(UNITA), its armed wing, the
900:Fontanellaz, Adrien (2019).
1053:Angolan War of Independence
825:Defense Intelligence Agency
718:Directorate of Intelligence
641:Defense Intelligence Agency
539:. The army was renamed the
451:Directorate of Intelligence
420:South African Defence Force
418:FAPLA fought UNITA and the
231:South African Defence Force
175:Angolan War of Independence
1094:
1043:Military history of Angola
913:. Transaction Publishers.
893:Federal Research Division
760:Howe, Herbert M. (2005).
562:
449:In January 1985, the CIA
440:Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
251:Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
142:António dos Santos França
42:
37:
966:Kenneth Pollack (2019).
865:Collelo, Thomas (1991).
569:Angolan military regions
512:Operation Alpha Centauri
428:South African Border War
270:Forças Armadas de Angola
239:South African Border War
179:South African Border War
867:Angola: A country study
473:South African Air Force
115:José Eduardo dos Santos
1018:Rebel groups in Angola
919:Polack, Peter (2013).
533:
483:
415:
199:
525:
481:
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1058:Separatism in Angola
869:. Vol. 550, no. 59.
541:Angolan Armed Forces
266:Angolan Armed Forces
839:, p. 214, 216.
471:effectiveness, the
323:had overthrown the
241:, including during
140:Lieutenant General
122:Minister of Defence
1013:Military of Angola
484:
432:Operation Savannah
416:
390:Combat performance
361:Cuban intervention
243:Operation Savannah
128:Pedro Tonho Pedale
108:Commander-in-Chief
1048:Angolan Civil War
993:978-5-903116-57-7
932:978-1-61200-195-1
789:, 8–14 July 1999.
605:, Lunda Sul, and
574:
573:
469:Angolan Air Force
438:(1980), with the
436:Operation Sceptic
424:Angolan Civil War
380:counterinsurgency
334:recoilless rifles
314:Republic of Congo
300:military post in
247:Operation Sceptic
235:Angolan Civil War
188:
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183:Angolan Civil War
156:Foreign suppliers
16:(Redirected from
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999:, November 2008.
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720:(January 1985).
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607:Moxico Provinces
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444:Second World War
376:conventional war
255:Second World War
229:(FALA), and the
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729:. Retrieved
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692:Collelo 1991
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670:, p. 6.
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629:Collelo 1991
603:Luanda Norte
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249:(1980). The
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216:armed forces
214:'s official
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191:
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160:Soviet Union
938:25 February
726:www.cia.gov
321:coup d'Ă©tat
144:(1982-1989)
1007:Categories
859:References
731:2022-09-25
298:Portuguese
260:After the
196:Portuguese
102:Leadership
823:See also
520:Angolense
493:air force
282:guerrilla
112:President
65:Disbanded
785:Guardian
426:and the
404:Ural-375
372:colonial
237:and the
150:Industry
126:General
599:Malanje
586:Cabinda
510:during
412:T-34-85
302:Cabinda
294:Algeria
290:Morocco
276:History
171:History
57:Founded
991:
929:
884:.
787:Weekly
774:
504:Luanda
434:, and
410:, and
357:Soviet
344:, and
325:Lisbon
306:Zambia
212:Angola
130:(last)
613:Notes
591:Zaire
578:Zaire
529:UNITA
489:Zaire
414:tank.
408:PT-76
346:PT-76
330:AK-47
204:FAPLA
202:) or
1023:MPLA
989:ISBN
940:2015
927:ISBN
772:ISBN
716:CIA
595:UĂge
580:and
497:navy
495:and
457:The
378:and
353:army
342:T-54
338:T-34
292:and
208:MPLA
190:The
68:1993
60:1974
1009::
891:.
770:.
768:91
740:^
724:.
660:^
621:^
597:,
593:,
446:.
406:,
402::
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