Composition of the Torah - Knowledge (XXG)

1202:. Davies points out that the Persian empire had a general policy of establishing national law codes and consciously creating an ethnic identity among its conquered peoples in order to legitimate its rule, and concludes that this is the most likely historical context in which the Torah could have been published. Franz Greifenhagen concurs with this view, and notes that most recent studies support a Persian date for the final redaction of the Pentateuch. Since the Elephantine papyri seem to show that the Torah was not yet fully entrenched in Jewish culture by 400 BCE, Greifenhagen proposes that the late Persian period (450–350 BCE) is most likely. 2551:, p. xxiii, "So far as we learn from these texts Moses might never have existed, there might have been no bondage in Egypt, no exodus, no monarchy, no prophets. There is no mention of other tribes and no claim to any heritage in the land of Judah. Among the numerous names of colonists, Abraham, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Samuel, David, so common in later times, never occur (nor in Nehemiah), nor any other name derived from their past history as recorded in the Pentateuch and early literature. It is almost incredible, but it is true." 951: 1990: 1066:(597–539 BCE), while Late Biblical Hebrew is generally dated to the exilic and post-exilic periods. However, it is difficult to determine precisely when Classical Hebrew ceased being used, since there are no extant Hebrew inscriptions of substantial length dating from the relevant period (c. 550–200 BCE). Scholars also disagree about the variety of Hebrew to which the various strata should be assigned. For example, Hurvitz classifies the Priestly material as belonging to Classical Hebrew, while 3312:, p. 101-103, "In short, the belief of most biblical scholars that a scroll depriving the monarch of all real powers (and in effect destroying the institution of monarchy) is a plausible product of seventh-century Judah is astonishing and can only be explained by assuming that such scholarship is taking the fact for granted and thus either ignoring the absurdity or fabricating an implausible rationalization for it... the fifth century BCE provides a plausible context..." 1698: 1082:, written during the Babylonian exile, contains many features of Late Biblical Hebrew. Summing up these problems, Young has argued that "none of the linguistic criteria used to date texts either early or late is strong enough to compel scholars to reconsider an argument made on non-linguistic grounds." However, this position has been rejected by other scholars, such as Ronald Hendel and Jan Joosten, who criticize that Young and others exclusively use the 2648:-29: "...Several points argue against the amulets quoting from an already-existing Pentateuchal written source. First, Num 6:24—26 contains additional text and may be considered an expansion of a simpler, earlier benediction such as that in the amulets of ca. 600 BCE.25 Second, in both amulets, text before and after the three lines in question do not appear to quote from the Pentateuch and bear no relation to the immediate context of Num 6:24—26..." 1178:. These critics stress that the historicity of the Josiah and Ezra narratives cannot be independently established outside the Hebrew Bible, and that archaeological evidence generally does not support the occurrence of a radical centralizing religious reform in the 7th century as described in 2 Kings. They conclude that dating Pentateuchal sources on the basis of historically dubious or uncertain events is inherently speculative and inadvisable. 50: 1796:

and the development of an ethical outlook, which he felt represented the pinnacle of Jewish religion; and the Priestly source reflected the rigid, ritualistic world of the priest-dominated post-exilic period. His work, notable for its detailed and wide-ranging scholarship and close argument, entrenched the "new documentary hypothesis" as the dominant explanation of Pentateuchal origins from the late 19th to the late 20th centuries.

1378:, his relationship with them is governed by the covenants, and P's God is concerned that Israel should preserve its identity by avoiding intermarriage with non-Israelites. P is deeply concerned with "holiness", meaning the ritual purity of the people and the land: Israel is to be "a priestly kingdom and a holy nation" (Exodus 19:6), and P's elaborate rules and rituals are aimed at creating and preserving holiness. 693: 1017: 1638:

account for its structural consistency, particularly regarding chronology. The supplementary hypothesis was better able to explain this unity: it maintained that the Torah was made up of a central core document, the Elohist, supplemented by fragments taken from many sources. The supplementary approach was dominant by the early 1860s, but it was challenged by an important book published by

1661: 3059:, p. 212, "All references to the stories of Genesis or Exodus in the rest of the Hebrew Bible, such as the numerous allusions in Second Isaiah to creation, to the flood story, to the patriarchs, to the exodus and sea crossing, to the wilderness journey, are disqualified as unreliable for dating the Pentateuch and are therefore not even considered." 1423:, and therefore pre-dates both of them. These scholars often claim that the late-dating of P is due in large part to a Protestant bias in biblical studies which assumes that "priestly" and "ritualistic" material must represent a late degeneration of an earlier, "purer" faith. Such arguments however have not convinced the majority of scholars. 1592: 1484:. The law is to be supreme over all other sources of authority, including kings and royal officials, and the prophets are the guardians of the law: prophecy is instruction in the law as given through Moses, the law given through Moses is the complete and sufficient revelation of the Will of God, and nothing further is needed. 2590:, p. xx, "There is no hint of any suspicion that the temple could be considered heretical, and they would surely not have appealed to the High Priest at Jerusalem if they had felt any doubt about it. On the contrary they give the impression of being proud of having a temple of their own, and as pious devotees of Ya'u 2398:, p. 679, "Instead of a compilation of discrete sources collected and combined by a final redactor, the Pentateuch is seen as a sophisticated scribal composition in which diverse earlier traditions have been shaped into a coherent narrative presenting a creation-to-wilderness story of origins for the entity 'Israel.'" 1351:, to name a few. In general, the Priestly work is concerned with priestly matters—ritual law, the origins of shrines and rituals, and genealogies—all expressed in a formal, repetitive style. It stresses the rules and rituals of worship, and the crucial role of priests, expanding considerably on the role given to 1686:, did not appear until 1894 and remains untranslated.) Crucially, this historical portrait was based upon two earlier works of his technical analysis: "Die Composition des Hexateuchs" ("The Composition of the Hexateuch") of 1876/77 and sections on the "historical books" (Judges–Kings) in his 1878 edition of 1845:

Some scholars, following Rendtorff, have come to espouse a fragmentary hypothesis, in which the Pentateuch is seen as a compilation of short, independent narratives, which were gradually brought together into larger units in two editorial phases: the Deuteronomic and the Priestly phases. By contrast,

1795:

Wellhausen's explanation of the formation of the Torah was also an explanation of the religious history of Israel. The Yahwist and Elohist described a primitive, spontaneous and personal world, in keeping with the earliest stage of Israel's history; in Deuteronomy he saw the influence of the prophets

1285:

provided the biblical authors with a basic blueprint for how to transform Jewish society: by creating an authoritative canon of laws and associated literature, drawing on earlier traditions, and presenting them as being divinely inspired and very ancient. Philippe Wajdenbaum has recently argued for a

1974:

A revised neo-documentary hypothesis still has adherents, especially in North America and Israel. This distinguishes sources by means of plot and continuity rather than stylistic and linguistic concerns, and does not tie them to stages in the evolution of Israel's religious history. Its resurrection

1263:

in 273–272 BCE, by the same group of Jewish scholars who translated the Torah into Greek around the same time. While Gmirkin accepts the conventional stratification of the Pentateuch into sources such as J, D, and P, he believes that they are best understood as reflecting the different social strata

1118:

Many scholars assign dates to the Pentateuchal sources by comparing the theology and priorities of each author to a theoretical reconstruction of the history of Israelite religion. This method often involves provisionally accepting some narrative in the Hebrew Bible as attesting to a real historical

1105:

saga corresponds to the Classical Hebrew of the pre-exilic period, which is supported by the linguistic correspondence with the Hebrew inscriptions of that period (mainly from the 8th and 7th centuries BC), so that they consequently date the composition of the main sources of the Torah to the period

1073:

Another methodological difficulty with linguistic dating is that it is known that the biblical authors often intentionally used archaisms for stylistic effects, sometimes mixing them with words and constructions from later periods. This means that the presence of archaic language in a text cannot be

2086:

The fragmentary or block-composition approach views the Torah as a compilation of a large number of short, originally independent narratives. On this view, broad categories such as the Yahwist, Priestly, and Deuteronomist sources are insufficient to account for the diversity found in the Torah, and

1853:

Scholars frequently use these newer hypotheses in combination with each other and with a documentary model, making it difficult to classify contemporary theories as strictly one or another. The majority of scholars today continue to recognise Deuteronomy as a source, with its origin in the law-code

1637:

These documentary approaches were in competition with two other models, the fragmentary and the supplementary. The fragmentary hypothesis argued that fragments of varying lengths, rather than continuous documents, lay behind the Torah; this approach accounted for the Torah's diversity but could not

1414:

While most scholars consider P to be one of the latest strata of the Pentateuch, post-dating both J and D, since the 1970s a number of Jewish scholars have challenged this assumption, arguing for an early dating of the Priestly material. Avi Hurvitz, for example, has forcefully argued on linguistic

2068:

The supplementary hypothesis denies the existence of an extensive Elohist (E) source, one of the four independent sources described in the documentary hypothesis. Instead, it describes the Yahwist as having borrowed from an array of written and oral traditions, combining them into the J source. It

816:

Scholars frequently use these newer hypotheses in combination with each other, making it difficult to classify contemporary theories as strictly one or another. The general trend in recent scholarship is to recognize the final form of the Torah as a literary and ideological unity, based on earlier

1306:

points to parallels between Genesis and Berossus, and Exodus and Manetho, while ignoring major dissimilarities between the accounts. Finally, Van Seters points out that Gmirkin does not seriously consider the numerous allusions to the Genesis and Exodus narratives in the rest of the Hebrew Bible,

1405:

While the classical documentary hypothesis posited that the Priestly material constituted an independent document which was compiled into the Pentateuch by a later redactor, most contemporary scholars now view P as a redactional layer, or commentary, on the Yahwistic and Deuteronomistic sources.

1858:

as described by De Wette, subsequently given a frame during the exile (the speeches and descriptions at the front and back of the code) to identify it as the words of Moses. Most scholars also agree that some form of Priestly source existed, although its extent, especially its end-point, is

1576:

The Yahwist is perhaps the most controversial source in contemporary Pentateuchal studies, with a number of scholars, especially in Europe, denying its existence altogether. A growing number of scholars have concluded that Genesis, a book traditionally assigned primarily to the Yahwist, was

1044:

period. These scrolls cannot be accepted as evidence that the Pentateuch as a whole was composed before the 6th century, as it is widely accepted that the Torah draws on earlier oral and written sources and traditions, and there is no reference to a written Torah in the scrolls themselves.

1330:

The Priestly source is perhaps the most widely accepted source category in Pentateuchal studies, because it is both stylistically and theologically distinct from other material in the Torah. It includes a set of claims that are contradicted by non-Priestly passages and therefore uniquely

1917:

Explains both the unity of the Torah (due to the unity of the constituent documents) and its diversity (due to disagreements/repetitions between them). Difficulty distinguishing J from E outside Genesis. Greatest weakness is the role of the redactors (editors), who seem to function as a

977:

law, which stipulates that no temple may be constructed outside of Jerusalem. Furthermore, the papyri show that the Jews at Elephantine sent letters to the high priest in Jerusalem asking for his support in rebuilding their local temple, which seems to suggest that the priests of the

1401:

is also divided between the Yahwist and P, and the usual understanding is that the Priestly writers were adding to an already-existing Yahwist narrative. P was responsible for chapters 25–31 and 35–40, the instructions for making the Tabernacle and the story of its fabrication.

1651:

linked the four to an evolutionary framework, the Yahwist and Elohist to a time of primitive nature and fertility cults, the Deuteronomist to the ethical religion of the Hebrew prophets, and the Priestly source to a form of religion dominated by ritual, sacrifice and law.

1842:(597–539 BCE), or the late monarchic period at the earliest. Van Seters also sharply criticized the idea of a substantial Elohist source, arguing that E extends at most to two short passages in Genesis. This view has now been accepted by the vast majority of scholars. 1577:

originally composed separately from Exodus and Numbers, and was joined to these books later by a Priestly redactor. Nevertheless, the existence and integrity of the Yahwist material still has many defenders; especially fervent among them is John Van Seters.

928:, an ancient encyclopedia compiled from a variety of quotations from older documents, there is a passage that refers to a written Jewish law passed down from Moses. Scholars have traditionally attributed the passage to the late 4th-century Greek historian 932:, which, if correct, would imply that the Torah must have been composed in some form before 315 BCE. However, the attribution of this passage to Hecataeus has been challenged recently. Russell Gmirkin has argued that the passage is in fact a quote from 3285:, pp. 79–82, "Scholars generally designate these strata as 'deuteronomic' (dt) for the material belonging to the core document of the Josiah reform and 'Deuteronomistic' (dtr) for one or more subsequent strata that belong to later redactions..." 1307:

including in texts that are generally dated much earlier than his proposed dating of the Pentateuch. Gmirkin, by contrast, holds that those parts of the Hebrew Bible that allude to Genesis and Exodus must be dated later than is commonly assumed.

1780:, Graf, and others, who in turn had built on earlier scholarship. He accepted Hupfeld's four sources and, in agreement with Graf, placed the Priestly work last. J was the earliest document, a product of the 10th century BCE and the court of 1002:). By contrast, most scholars explain this data by theorizing that the Elephantine Jews represented an isolated remnant of Jewish religious practices from earlier centuries, or that the Torah had only recently been promulgated at that time. 1642:

in 1853, who argued that the Pentateuch was made up of four documentary sources, the Priestly, Yahwist, and Elohist intertwined in Genesis-Exodus-Leviticus-Numbers, and the stand-alone source of Deuteronomy. At around the same period

1397:, and the genealogy of Shem (i.e., Abraham's ancestry). Most of the remainder of Genesis is from the Yahwist, but P provides the covenant with Abraham (chapter 17) and a few other stories concerning Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. The 1943:

Accounts for the structural consistency of the Pentateuch better than the fragmentary approach, the central core explaining its unity of theme and structure, the fragments embedded in this its diversity of language and style.

1804:

The consensus around the documentary hypothesis collapsed in the last decades of the 20th century. Three major publications of the 1970s caused scholars to seriously question the assumptions of the documentary hypothesis:

1061:

that is used. It is generally agreed that Classical Hebrew and Late Biblical Hebrew had distinctive, identifiable features and that Classical Hebrew was earlier. Classical Hebrew is usually dated to the period before the

3075:

are mostly very late, but there is some early material in them as well. We know that they're late because for one thing, most of the prophets refer to writings from the books of Moses, and so they have to come after 270

1975:

of an E source is probably the element most often criticised by other scholars, as it is rarely distinguishable from the classical J source, and European scholars have largely rejected it as fragmentary or non-existent.

1315:

Virtually all scholars agree that the Torah is composed of material from multiple different authors, or sources. The three most commonly recognized are the Priestly (P), Deuteronomist (D), and Yahwist (J) sources.

2091:

is used to trace the origin of the various traditions found in the Pentateuch. Fragmentarians differ, however, in how they believe these traditions were transmitted over time. Mid-twentieth century scholars like

1525:, the story of mankind prior to Abraham, and J and P provide roughly equal amounts of material. The Yahwist provides the bulk of the remainder of Genesis, including the patriarchal narratives concerning Abraham, 2077:

Notably, in contrast to the traditional documentary hypothesis, the supplementary hypothesis proposes that the Deuteronomist (D) was the earliest Pentateuchal author, writing at the end of the seventh century.

1792:; P (what Wellhausen first named "Q") was a product of the priest-and-temple dominated world of the 6th century; and the final redaction, when P was combined with JED to produce the Torah as we now know it. 1150:

by Hilkiah at that time. Authors such as John Van Seters therefore date the D source to the late 7th century. Similarly, many scholars associate the Priestly source with the Book of the Law brought to the

781:, espouse a fragmentary hypothesis, in which the Pentateuch is seen as a compilation of short, independent narratives, which were gradually brought together into larger units in two editorial phases: the 993:

have argued that the Elephantine papyri demonstrate that monotheism and the Torah could not have been established in Jewish culture before 400 BCE, and that the Torah was therefore likely written in the

2073:

the Elohist (E). Instead, the supplementary hypothesis proposes that what documentarians considered J and E are in fact a single source (some use J, some use JE), likely written in the 6th century BCE.

1074:

considered definitive proof that the text dates to an early period. Ian Young and Martin Ehrensvärd maintain that even some texts that were certainly written during the post-exilic period, such as the

843:) on the basis of external attestation of the text's existence, as well as the internal features of the text itself. On the basis of a variety of arguments, modern scholars generally see the completed 1487:

Importantly, unlike the Yahwist source, Deuteronomy insists on the centralization of worship "in the place that the Lord your God will choose." Deuteronomy never says where this place will be, but

376: 3401:, p. 9, "Even scholars still holding to this model, such as Horst Seebass, for instance, must concede: 'Among all source critical-theories about the Pentateuch, J is the most unstable one.'" 1603:

In the mid-18th century, some scholars started a critical study of doublets (parallel accounts of the same incidents), inconsistencies, and changes in style and vocabulary in the Torah. In 1780

1445:, and its composition is generally dated between the 7th and 5th centuries BCE. More specifically, most scholars believe that D was composed during the late monarchic period, around the time of 1513:. This is followed by the Garden of Eden story, Cain and Abel, Cain's descendants (but Adam's descendants are from P), a Flood story (tightly intertwined with a parallel account from P), 2930:

Jonker, Louis C. (2 January 2019). "Achaemenid Understanding of Law and Justice in Darius I's Tomb Inscriptions: Are There Any Connections with Hebrew Bible Pentateuchal Conceptions?".

4383: 1862:

The general trend in recent scholarship is to recognize the final form of the Torah as a literary and ideological unity, based on earlier sources, likely completed during the

1788:, and had been combined by a redactor (editor) with J to form a document JE; D, the third source, was a product of the 7th century BCE, by 620 BCE, during the reign of 895:. The earliest extant manuscript fragments of the Pentateuch date to the late third or early second centuries BCE. In addition, early non-biblical sources, such as the 809:, holding that the Torah was composed by using four different sources—Yahwist, Elohist, Priestly and Deuteronomist—that were combined into one in the Persian period in 879:, have convinced the vast majority of scholars that the Torah does not give an accurate account of the origins of Israel. This indicates that the Jewish tradition of 2069:

proposes that because J is compiled from many earlier traditions and stories, documentarians mistook the compilation as having multiple authors: the Yahwist (J)

969:

colony in Egypt who show no knowledge of a written Torah or the narratives described therein. The papyri also document the existence of a small Jewish temple at

3828: 3890:

Barkay, Gabriel; et al. (2003). "The Challenges of Ketef Hinnom: Using Advanced Technologies to Recover the Earliest Biblical Texts and their Context".

354: 4381:

Hurvitz, Avi (2000). "Once Again: The Linguistic Profile of the Priestly Material in the Pentateuch and its Historical Age. A Response to J. Blenkinsopp".

1831:. These three authors shared many of the same criticisms of the documentary hypothesis, but were not in agreement about what paradigm ought to replace it. 401: 1614:'s "Conjectures" and others, formulated the "older documentary hypothesis": the idea that Genesis was composed by combining two identifiable sources, the 1879:

The table is based on that in Walter Houston's "The Pentateuch", with expansions as indicated. Note that the three hypotheses are not mutually exclusive.

1271:, in which he argued that the law code found in the Torah was heavily influenced by Greek laws, and especially the theoretical law code espoused by 2156:

The two-source hypothesis of Eichorn was the "older" documentary hypothesis, and the four-source hypothesis adopted by Wellhausen was the "newer".

1259:(285–280 BCE) and therefore must have been composed subsequently to both of them. Gmirkin further argued that the Torah was likely written at the 721: 517: 423: 1682:("Prolegomena to the History of Israel"), in 1883, and the work is better known under that name. (The second volume, a synthetic history titled 1302:

by attacking the documentary hypothesis without seriously addressing more recent theories of Pentateuchal origins. He also alleges that Gmirkin

2034:. Van Seters' summation of the hypothesis accepts "three sources or literary strata within the Pentateuch," which have come to be known as the 1622:("E"). These sources were subsequently found to run through the first four books of the Torah, and the number was later expanded to three when 323: 204: 199: 907:(285–247 BCE). These lines of evidence indicate that the Torah must have been composed in its final form no later than c. 250 BCE, before its 4934: 4911: 4888: 4867: 4779: 4758: 4714: 4691: 4668: 4647: 4626: 4540: 4492: 4426: 4362: 4341: 4316: 4278: 4257: 4236: 4137: 4113: 4068: 4047: 3982: 3961: 3940: 2328: 2301: 191: 5008: 1777: 891:

Concrete archaeological evidence bearing on the dating of the Torah is found in early manuscript fragments, such as those found among the

1194:

argued that the Torah was likely promulgated in its final form during the Persian period, when the Judean people were governed under the

830: 777:

was composed, the number of authors involved, and the date of each author remain hotly contested among scholars. Some scholars, such as

452: 1086:

of the Hebrew Bible to carry out their linguistic analysis of the biblical texts, apart from undertaking other errors in the fields of

973:, which possessed altars for incense offerings and animal sacrifices, as late as 411 BCE. Such a temple would be in clear violation of 3880: 3838: 1859:

uncertain. The remainder is called collectively non-Priestly, a grouping which includes both pre-Priestly and post-Priestly material.

1834:

Van Seters and Schmid both forcefully argued, to the satisfaction of most scholars, that the Yahwist source could not be dated to the

1678: 227: 222: 4821: 4751:

Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. III: From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Part II: The Twentieth Century – From Modernism to Post-Modernism

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Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. III: From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Part II: The Twentieth Century – From Modernism to Post-Modernism

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Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. III: From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Part II: The Twentieth Century – From Modernism to Post-Modernism

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Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. III: From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Part II: The Twentieth Century – From Modernism to Post-Modernism

3859: 1355:(all Levites are priests, but according to P only the descendants of Aaron were to be allowed to officiate in the inner sanctuary). 370: 235: 2596:(no other god is mentioned in the petition) seriously distressed at the loss of religious opportunities caused by its destruction." 1358:

P's God is majestic, and transcendent, and all things happen because of his power and will. He reveals himself in stages, first as

4089: 1807: 646: 127: 5018: 686: 556: 318: 4187:

Fried, Lisebeth S. (2002). "The High Places (Bāmôt) and the Reforms of Hezekiah and Josiah: An Archaeological Investigation".

1122:

For example, the Deuteronomist source is widely associated with the staunchly monotheistic, centralizing religious reforms of

766:

holds that all five books were originally written by Moses sometime in the 2nd millennium BCE, leading scholars have rejected

5028: 4800: 395: 4374:

A linguistic study of the relationship between the Priestly source and the book of Ezekiel: a new approach to an old problem

522: 4057:

Carr, David M. (2014). "Changes in Pentateuchal Criticism". In Saeboe, Magne; Ska, Jean Louis; Machinist, Peter (eds.).

1850:, which posits that the Torah is the result of two major additions—Yahwist and Priestly—to an existing corpus of work. 5013: 1785: 1406:

Unlike J and D, the Priestly material does not seem to amount to an independent narrative when considered on its own.

936:, a first-century BCE Roman biographer cited earlier in Book 40, who in turn used Hecataeus along with other sources. 714: 561: 1568:– which then brings on the wrath of Yahweh, who condemns them to wander in the wilderness for the next forty years. 1386: 1362:(a Hebrew word meaning simply "god", taken from the earlier Canaanite word meaning "the gods"), then to Abraham as 1604: 1469: 641: 49: 1033: 1024:

In 1979, two silver scrolls were uncovered at Ketef Hinnom, an archaeological site southwest of the Old City of

950: 1984: 1847: 802: 794: 586: 407: 365: 1989: 1264:

and beliefs of the Alexandrian authors, rather than as independent writers separated by long periods of time.

1160: 2117: 1630:

as an additional source found only in Deuteronomy ("D"). Later still the Elohist was split into Elohist and

904: 611: 596: 546: 381: 181: 169: 150: 2108:

and especially Erhardt Blum, has replaced the model of oral transmission with one of literary composition.

1505:

John Van Seters characterizes the Yahwist writer as a "historian of Israelite origins," writing during the

1932:

Produced by the successive addition of layers of supplementary material to a core text or group of texts.

1776:

Wellhausen's documentary hypothesis owed little to Wellhausen himself but was mainly the work of Hupfeld,

1586: 1091: 933: 806: 707: 670: 662: 606: 576: 413: 386: 114: 1544:

belongs in large part to the Yahwist, although it also contains significant Priestly interpolations. The

4333: 1906:

A small number of continuous documents (traditionally four) combined to form one continuous final text.

1647:

argued that the Yahwist and Elohist were the earliest sources and the Priestly source the latest, while

1260: 924: 601: 591: 490: 1963:

Has difficulty accounting for the structural consistency of the Pentateuch, especially its chronology.

1139: 2061: 2054: 2031: 1839: 1820: 1454: 1336: 1213: 1209: 1063: 1011: 541: 527: 442: 349: 276: 1057:

below), have attempted to date the various strata of the Pentateuch on the basis of the form of the

1938: 1465: 1438: 1420: 1241: 1229: 1171: 1143: 1107: 1041: 974: 929: 759: 571: 566: 551: 532: 467: 462: 255: 1370:. P divides history into four epochs from Creation to Moses by means of covenants between God and 954:

A letter from the Elephantine papyri, requesting the rebuilding of a Jewish temple at Elephantine.

4986: 4957: 4457: 4400: 4204: 3915: 3907: 2955: 2127: 2122: 2026:

The modern supplementary hypothesis came to a head in the 1970s with the publication of works by

1867: 1838:(c. 950 BCE) as posited by the documentary hypothesis. They instead dated J to the period of the 1644: 1233: 1225: 1175: 1067: 995: 990: 986: 959: 945: 896: 852: 839: 675: 657: 616: 432: 251: 145: 135: 1170:

This method has been criticized by some scholars, however, especially those associated with the

4833:

Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic Histories and the Date of the Pentateuch.

4684:

A Farewell to the Yahwist?: The Composition of the Pentateuch in Recent European Interpretation

4532: 914:

There is one external reference to the Torah which, depending on its attribution, may push the

4930: 4907: 4884: 4863: 4817: 4810:

Van Seters, John (1998). "The Pentateuch". In Steven L. McKenzie; Matt Patrick Graham (eds.).

4796: 4775: 4754: 4746: 4731: 4725: 4710: 4702: 4687: 4664: 4643: 4622: 4614: 4599: 4578: 4557: 4536: 4509: 4488: 4443: 4422: 4358: 4337: 4312: 4306: 4274: 4253: 4232: 4226: 4173: 4154: 4133: 4109: 4085: 4064: 4043: 4035: 4020: 3999: 3978: 3972: 3957: 3936: 3928: 3876: 3855: 3834: 2947: 2324: 2297: 2137: 1669: 1450: 1442: 1382: 1199: 1131: 1087: 1029: 880: 848: 767: 751: 508: 447: 214: 4922: 4899: 4878: 4658: 4637: 4572: 4503: 4437: 4352: 4247: 4148: 3951: 3870: 2645: 4978: 4844: 4790: 4551: 4469: 4392: 4196: 4123: 4099: 3899: 2939: 2518: 2132: 1912: 1697: 1623: 1534: 1522: 1506: 1415:

grounds that P represents an earlier form of the Hebrew language than what is found in both

1394: 1371: 1191: 919: 892: 763: 418: 359: 337: 266: 186: 140: 2093: 2043: 2027: 1920: 1812: 1762: 1734: 1687: 1639: 1631: 1557: 1545: 1416: 1325: 1277: 1205: 1098: 1079: 1058: 790: 786: 755: 743: 4289: 1134:, many scholars have identified the "Book of the Law" discovered by Josiah's high priest 4168:

Frei, Peter (2001). "Persian Imperial Authorization: A Summary". In Watts, James (ed.).

5023: 4525: 4412: 2105: 2101: 2088: 1958: 1863: 1828: 1766: 1758: 1754: 1541: 1518: 1488: 1458: 1398: 1303: 1195: 1164: 1127: 1083: 1075: 818: 810: 778: 747: 581: 457: 271: 62: 33: 1909:

Combined by editors who altered as little as possible of the texts available to them.

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narrative, and the evidence pointing to anachronisms in the patriarchal narratives of

762:) was a process that involved multiple authors over an extended period of time. While 17: 5002: 4990: 4946:

The Pentateuch as Torah: New Models for Understanding Its Promulgation and Acceptance

4904:

To Each Its Own Meaning: An Introduction to Biblical Criticisms and Their Application

4404: 3919: 2959: 2035: 1750: 1741: 1727: 1720: 1648: 1627: 1565: 1432: 1390: 1375: 979: 782: 105: 100: 4792:

Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources

1660: 1097:

For their part, Ronald Hendel and Jan Joosten hold that the Hebrew contained in the

2100:

argued that the transmission of Pentateuchal narratives occurred primarily through

1596: 1476:

as his people, and requires Israel to live according to his law. Israel is to be a

1251:, in which he argued that the Pentateuch relied on the Greek-language histories of 1016: 697: 313: 308: 297: 119: 74: 2943: 1866:(539-333 BCE). Some scholars would place its final compilation much later, in the 1449:, although some scholars have argued for other dates, such as during the reign of 1247:

Notably, in 2006, the independent scholar Russell Gmirkin published a book titled

4857: 4811: 4769: 4679: 4593: 4482: 4416: 4327: 4268: 4127: 4103: 4079: 4058: 4014: 3993: 3849: 2318: 2291: 1366:(usually translated as "God Almighty"), and finally to Moses by his unique name, 1244:, have put forward various arguments for a Hellenistic origin of the Pentateuch. 4396: 2097: 1789: 1611: 1037: 970: 2525: 1240:

Since then, a growing number of scholars, especially those associated with the

4473: 3072: 1509:(597–539 BCE). The Yahwist narrative begins with the second creation story at 1481: 1473: 1363: 1344: 1294:

John Van Seters criticized Gmirkin's work in a 2007 book review, arguing that

1152: 963: 908: 900: 864: 636: 286: 84: 2951: 1549: 1510: 4290:"Interview with Russell Gmirkin: What Does Plato Have To Do With the Bible?" 2015: 1477: 1299: 1025: 4929:. Changing Perspectives. Vol. 7. New York: Routledge. pp. 76–90. 4982: 4038:. In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.). 1935:

Editors are also authors, creating original narrative and interpretation.

4848: 4595:

The Self as Symbolic Space: Constructing Identity and Community at Qumran

4329:

How Old Is the Hebrew Bible?: A Linguistic, Textual, and Historical Study

4040:

The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books

1553: 1437:

The Deuteronomist source is responsible for the core chapters (12–26) of

1252: 1119:

event, and situating the composition of a source relative to that event.

1040:

to the late 7th or early 6th century BCE, placing them at the end of the

851:(probably 450–350 BCE), although some would place its composition in the 291: 4961: 4170:

Persia and Torah: The Theory of Imperial Authorization of the Pentateuch

3929:"Biblical Scholarship on the European Continent, in the UK, and Ireland" 4208: 4016:

Reverberations of faith: a theological handbook of Old Testament themes

3911: 2039: 1835: 1781: 1713: 1706: 1619: 1615: 1608: 1500: 1256: 1135: 1102: 868: 798: 503: 303: 89: 3830:

The Composition of the Pentateuch: Renewing the Documentary Hypothesis

1548:

also contains a substantial amount of Yahwist material, starting with

918:

for the composition of the Torah down to about 315 BCE. In Book 40 of

833:

seeks to determine the date of a text by establishing an upper limit (

3992:

Block, Daniel I. (2005). "Deuteronomy". In Kevin J. Vanhoozer (ed.).

2592: 1855: 1561: 1446: 1367: 1359: 1332: 1123: 1078:, lack features distinctive of Late Biblical Hebrew. Conversely, the 498: 281: 4969:

Young, Ian (2005). "Biblical Texts Cannot be Dated Linguistically".

4200: 3903: 2418: 2416: 1159:

upon his return from exile in Babylonia in 458 BCE, as described in

801:

and Priestly—to an existing corpus of work. Other scholars, such as

1331:

characteristic: no sacrifice before the institution is ordained by

797:, which posits that the Torah is the result of two major additions— 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 1696: 1659: 1591: 1590: 1530: 1526: 1352: 1348: 1340: 1272: 1232:, was first seriously proposed in 1993, when the biblical scholar 966: 876: 872: 844: 774: 79: 41: 4376:. Cahiers de la Révue Biblique. Vol. 20. Paris: J. Gabalda. 1514: 1156: 4615:"The Study of Law and Ethics in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament" 3459: 3457: 3455: 1676:("History of Israel, Vol 1"); the second edition he printed as 1146:, or an early version thereof, and posited that it was in fact 4749:. In Saeboe, Magne; Ska, Jean Louis; Machinist, Peter (eds.). 4617:. In Saeboe, Magne; Ska, Jean Louis; Machinist, Peter (eds.). 3931:. In Saeboe, Magne; Ska, Jean Louis; Machinist, Peter (eds.). 3872:

Reading the Old Testament: an introduction to the Hebrew Bible

2104:. More recent work in the fragmentary school, such as that of 3322: 3320: 3318: 3206: 3204: 3191: 3189: 2629: 2060:

the Priestly source (P) was likely written c. 400 BCE in the

1163:. P is therefore widely dated to the 5th century, during the 899:, indicate that the Torah was first translated into Greek in 4084:

Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers. pp. xx–xxiii.

3796: 3794: 2053:

the Yahwist source (J) was likely written c. 540 BCE in the

2046:(P). Van Seters ordered the sources chronologically as DJP. 4132:. Changing Perspectives. Vol. 4. New York: Routledge. 2829: 2827: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2391: 2389: 2342: 2340: 2050:

the Deuteronomist source (D) was likely written c. 620 BCE.

4813:

The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues

4105:

In Search of 'Ancient Israel': A Study in Biblical Origins

3293: 3291: 2261: 2259: 2087:

are rejected. In place of source criticism, the method of

1827:("The Tradition-Historical Problem of the Pentateuch") by 1188:

In Search of 'Ancient Israel': A Study in Biblical Origins

4747:"Questions of the 'History of Israel' in Recent Research" 4418:

How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now

3757: 3755: 3718: 3716: 3595: 3593: 3541: 3539: 1560:, the story of the spies who are afraid of the giants in 1224:

The idea that the Torah may have been written during the

4774:. Anchor Yale Reference Library. Yale University Press. 3833:. Anchor Yale Reference Library. Yale University Press. 3556: 3554: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3111: 3109: 2814: 2812: 2656: 2654: 2559: 2557: 2246: 2244: 999: 4923:"From Plato to Moses: Genesis-Kings as a Platonic Epic" 2671: 2669: 2376: 2374: 2231: 2229: 2216: 2214: 2212: 2175: 2173: 1825:

Das überlieferungsgeschichtliche Problem des Pentateuch

3995:

Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible

2686: 2684: 4902:. In Haynes, Stephen R.; McKenzie, Steven L. (eds.). 4705:. In Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey (eds.). 3084: 3082: 1468:

between the Israelites and their god Yahweh, who has

962:

show clear evidence of the existence c. 400 BCE of a

4108:(2nd ed.). New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark. 1701:

Diagram of the 20th century documentary hypothesis.

1343:

and the priesthood, and the use of the divine title

4460:(1993). "The Old Testament – a Hellenistic Book?". 805:or Joel S. Baden, support a revised version of the 4680:"The Elusive Yahwist: A Short History of Research" 4524: 4384:Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 1952:The combination of a large number of short texts. 1381:The Priestly source is responsible for the entire 982:were not enforcing Deuteronomic law at that time. 1564:, and the refusal of the Israelites to enter the 1028:, which were found to contain a variation of the 4925:. In Hjelm, Ingrid; Thompson, Thomas L. (eds.). 4682:. In Dozeman, Thomas B.; Schmid, Konrad (eds.). 4657:Patzia, Arthur G.; Petrotta, Anthony J. (2010). 3974:Poetics and Interpretation of Biblical Narrative 1607:, building on the work of the French doctor and 1054: 883:is anachronistic to the second millennium BCE. 4273:. Copenhagen International Seminar. Routledge. 3820:Etched in Stone: The Emergence of the Decalogue 1389:(Genesis 1), for Adam's genealogy, part of the 3572: 3506: 3463: 2290:Friedman, Richard Elliott (25 November 2003). 1634:("P") sources, increasing the number to four. 1374:, Abraham and Moses. The Israelites are God's 4859:The Yahwist: A Historian of Israelite Origins 2791: 2779: 2767: 1784:; E was from the 9th century in the northern 1656:Wellhausen and the new documentary hypothesis 1126:in the late 7th century BCE, as described in 715: 8: 4571:Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). 4527:Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel 3386: 3234: 3222: 3210: 3195: 3144: 2917: 2905: 2702: 2617: 2494: 2482: 2422: 2365: 2203: 1846:scholars such as John Van Seters advocate a 998:, in the third or fourth centuries BCE (see 989:, Philippe Wajdenbaum, Russell Gmirkin, and 4948:by Gary N. Knoppers, Bernard M. Levinson". 4880:The Pentateuch: A Social-Science Commentary 3338: 3180: 863:The absence of archaeological evidence for 4927:Biblical Interpretation Beyond Historicity 4270:Plato and the Creation of the Hebrew Bible 3800: 3746: 3659: 3647: 3635: 3422: 3374: 3362: 3326: 3282: 3056: 3044: 3032: 2833: 2719: 2605: 2458: 2346: 2265: 1269:Plato and the Creation of the Hebrew Bible 1267:In 2016, Gmirkin published a second book, 1000:§ Possibility of a Hellenistic origin 722: 708: 342: 28: 4462:Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 4308:Egypt on the Pentateuch's Ideological Map 3851:J, E, and the redaction of the Pentateuch 2932:Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 2395: 817:sources, was likely completed during the 4950:Journal of the American Oriental Society 4436:Kugler, Robert; Hartin, Patrick (2009). 4249:Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus 4189:Journal of the American Oriental Society 4081:Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B.C. 3518: 3297: 3168: 3156: 3068: 2235: 1988: 1882: 1290:Criticism of Hellenistic origin theories 1249:Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus 1053:Some scholars, such as Avi Hurvitz (see 1015: 949: 847:as a product of the time of the Persian 4531:. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 3734: 3722: 3611: 3584: 3560: 3545: 3494: 3475: 3446: 3434: 3270: 3132: 3115: 3020: 3008: 2996: 2869: 2857: 2818: 2803: 2690: 2660: 2641: 2575: 2563: 2536: 2506: 2470: 2407: 2220: 2169: 2149: 1955:Editors also create linking narrative. 1694:("Introduction to the Old Testament"). 1618:("J"; also called the Yahwist) and the 1521:. These chapters make up the so-called 1238:The Old Testament – A Hellenistic Book? 1208:argues a connection between Darius I's 887:Manuscripts and non-biblical references 431: 40: 4727:Introduction to reading the Pentateuch 3773: 3761: 3599: 3309: 2972: 2893: 2881: 2587: 2548: 2446: 2434: 2380: 2179: 1572:Criticism of the Yahwist as a category 789:phases. By contrast, scholars such as 4660:Pocket Dictionary of Biblical Studies 4326:Hendel, Ronald; Joosten, Jan (2018). 4288:Gmirkin, Russell (11 December 2016). 4172:. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press. p. 6. 3950:Barton, John; Muddiman, John (2010). 3785: 3530: 3410: 3398: 3350: 3100: 2845: 2755: 2743: 2731: 2675: 2277: 2191: 1800:Collapse of the documentary consensus 1684:Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte 1491:makes it clear that it is Jerusalem. 1212:and the Pentateuch, particularly the 742:, the first five books of the Bible— 7: 4150:A Complete Introduction to the Bible 3707: 3695: 3683: 3671: 3623: 3258: 2317:Friedman, Richard (1 January 2019). 1464:The Deuteronomist conceives of as a 4292:(Interview). Signs of the Times.net 3246: 3088: 2984: 2250: 1892:Agency (redactor/collector/author) 1220:Possibility of a Hellenistic origin 4837:The Journal of Theological Studies 4574:Biblical History and Israel's Past 4216:Friedman, Richard Elliott (1997). 2000:Independent document, c. 620 BCE. 1679:Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels 1070:and most other scholars disagree. 1055:§ Date of the Priestly source 25: 1281:. He further argued that Plato's 773:The precise process by which the 4678:Römer, Thomas Christian (2006). 1808:Abraham in History and Tradition 1692:Einleitung in das Alte Testament 1311:Nature and extent of the sources 691: 48: 4816:. Westminster John Knox Press. 4305:Greifenhagen, Franz V. (2003). 4129:Rethinking Biblical Scholarship 2293:The Bible with Sources Revealed 1595:11th century manuscript of the 1347:before God reveals his name to 985:A minority of scholars such as 687:Outline of Bible-related topics 4771:Deuteronomy and the Pentateuch 4753:. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 4707:Mercer Dictionary of the Bible 4621:. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 4556:. Cambridge University Press. 4063:. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 3935:. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 1924:to explain away difficulties. 1726:Dtr2: later (6th century BCE) 1719:Dtr1: early (7th century BCE) 1182:Arguments for a Persian origin 396:Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia 1: 4921:Wajdenbaum, Philippe (2016). 4147:Gilbert, Christopher (2009). 2944:10.1080/09018328.2019.1599625 1819:("The So-Called Yahwist") by 523:Historical-grammatical method 4944:Whisenant, Jessica (2010). " 4898:Viviano, Pauline A. (1999). 4883:. Bloomsbury T&T Clark. 4862:. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. 4789:Thompson, Thomas L. (2000). 4502:McKenzie, Steven L. (2000). 4439:An Introduction to the Bible 4013:Brueggemann, Walter (2002). 1453:(687–643 BCE) or during the 1236:published an article titled 5009:Biblical authorship debates 4709:. Mercer University Press. 4397:10.1515/zatw.2000.112.2.180 4225:Gaines, Jason M.H. (2015). 4042:. Oxford University Press. 3956:. Oxford University Press. 2007:Response to D, c. 540 BCE. 1552:. It includes, among other 1410:Date of the Priestly source 1387:creation stories in Genesis 1385:, for the first of the two 5045: 4831:Van Seters, John (2007). " 4768:Stackert, Jeffrey (2022). 4701:Ruddick, Eddie L. (1990). 4592:Newsom, Carol Ann (2004). 4228:The Poetic Priestly Source 3869:Bandstra, Barry L (2009). 3822:. New York: T&T clark. 3573:Barton & Muddiman 2010 3507:Barton & Muddiman 2010 3464:Barton & Muddiman 2010 2010: 2003: 1982: 1970:Neo-documentary hypothesis 1584: 1498: 1480:with Yahweh as the divine 1430: 1323: 1020:The two scrolls on display 1009: 943: 518:Allegorical interpretation 4906:. Westminster John Knox. 4877:Van Seters, John (2015). 4856:Van Seters, John (2013). 4523:McNutt, Paula M. (1999). 4484:Re-Reading the Scriptures 4481:Levin, Christoph (2013). 4474:10.1080/09018329308585016 4267:Gmirkin, Russell (2016). 4246:Gmirkin, Russell (2006). 4019:. Westminster John Knox. 2792:Hendel & Joosten 2018 2780:Hendel & Joosten 2018 2768:Hendel & Joosten 2018 1898:Strengths and weaknesses 1854:produced at the court of 1228:, after the conquests of 1036:. The scrolls were dated 4835:By Russell E. Gmirkin". 4745:Ska, Jean Louis (2014). 4724:Ska, Jean-Louis (2006). 4351:Houston, Walter (2013). 3892:Near Eastern Archaeology 3818:Aaron, David H. (2006). 3387:Kugler & Hartin 2009 3235:Kugler & Hartin 2009 3223:Kugler & Hartin 2009 3211:Kugler & Hartin 2009 3196:Kugler & Hartin 2009 3145:Kugler & Hartin 2009 2920:, pp. 224, 236–244. 2323:. Simon & Schuster. 1985:Supplementary hypothesis 1979:Supplementary hypothesis 1848:supplementary hypothesis 1674:Geschichte Israels, Bd 1 1339:, the exalted status of 1186:In the influential book 1114:Historiographical dating 803:Richard Elliott Friedman 795:supplementary hypothesis 770:since the 17th century. 736:composition of the Torah 408:Novum Testamentum Graece 210:Composition of the Torah 4078:Cowley, Arthur (2005). 4034:Carr, David M. (2007). 3848:Baden, Joel S. (2009). 3827:Baden, Joel S. (2012). 2118:Authorship of the Bible 1751:Deuteronomistic history 1517:'s descendants and the 905:Ptolemy II Philadelphus 5019:Documentary hypothesis 4663:. InterVarsity Press. 4636:Patrick, Dale (2013). 4550:Meyers, Carol (2005). 3971:Berlin, Adele (1994). 2459:Moore & Kelle 2011 2082:Fragmentary hypothesis 2023: 1889:Method of composition 1817:Der sogenannte Jahwist 1773: 1709:(10th–9th century BCE) 1665: 1600: 1587:Documentary hypothesis 1581:History of scholarship 1092:historical linguistics 1021: 955: 934:Theophanes of Mytilene 909:translation into Greek 807:documentary hypothesis 671:Criticism of the Bible 414:Documentary hypothesis 18:Pentateuchal criticism 5029:Library of Alexandria 4983:10.1353/hbr.2005.0038 4613:Otto, Eckart (2014). 4372:Hurvitz, Avi (1982). 4334:Yale University Press 3927:Barton, John (2014). 1992: 1737:(6th–5th century BCE) 1700: 1663: 1594: 1556:, the departure from 1261:Library of Alexandria 1108:Neo-Assyrian hegemony 1019: 953: 837:) and a lower limit ( 424:NT textual categories 4218:Who Wrote the Bible? 2425:, p. 224 n. 49. 2320:Who Wrote the Bible? 2032:Hans Heinrich Schmid 1840:Babylonian captivity 1821:Hans Heinrich Schmid 1296:Berossus and Genesis 1286:similar conclusion. 1214:Holiness Legislation 1064:Babylonian captivity 1012:Ketef Hinnom scrolls 1006:Ketef Hinnom scrolls 371:Internal consistency 277:Samaritan Pentateuch 4458:Lemche, Niels Peter 3261:, pp. 455–456. 3147:, pp. xix, 49. 3047:, pp. 212–213. 2770:, pp. 135–144. 2368:, pp. 206–207. 2253:, pp. 133–135. 1939:Redaction criticism 1874:Contemporary models 1778:Eduard Eugène Reuss 1439:Book of Deuteronomy 1230:Alexander the Great 1144:Book of Deuteronomy 930:Hecataeus of Abdera 903:under the reign of 825:Date of composition 205:New Testament canon 200:Old Testament canon 128:Chapters and verses 5014:Biblical criticism 4900:"Source Criticism" 4849:10.1093/jts/flm136 4231:. Fortress Press. 3998:. Baker Academic. 3249:, p. 146-147. 2734:, p. 342–343. 2630:Barkay et al. 2003 2620:, p. 236-245. 2485:, p. 207-212. 2296:. Harper Collins. 2128:Books of the Bible 2123:Biblical criticism 2024: 2018:of J, c. 400 BCE. 1868:Hellenistic period 1774: 1666: 1645:Karl Heinrich Graf 1601: 1459:postexilic periods 1457:(597–539 BCE) and 1234:Niels Peter Lemche 1226:Hellenistic period 1176:biblical criticism 1068:Joseph Blenkinsopp 1022: 996:Hellenistic period 991:Thomas L. Thompson 987:Niels Peter Lemche 960:Elephantine papyri 956: 946:Elephantine papyri 940:Elephantine papyri 916:terminus ante quem 897:Letter of Aristeas 853:Hellenistic period 840:terminus post quem 835:terminus ante quem 676:Biblical authority 557:Capital punishment 433:Biblical criticism 402:Rahlfs' Septuagint 106:New Testament (NT) 101:Old Testament (OT) 4936:978-1-315-69077-3 4913:978-0-664-25784-2 4890:978-0-567-65880-7 4869:978-1-575-06286-0 4781:978-0-300-16751-1 4760:978-3-525-54022-0 4716:978-0-86554-373-7 4693:978-1-58983-163-6 4670:978-0-8308-6702-8 4649:978-0-8272-0566-6 4642:. Chalice Press. 4628:978-3-525-54022-0 4542:978-0-664-22265-9 4508:. Chalice Press. 4494:978-3-16-152207-9 4428:978-0-7432-3587-7 4364:978-0-334-04385-0 4343:978-0-300-23488-6 4318:978-0-567-39136-0 4280:978-1-138-68498-0 4259:978-0-567-13439-4 4238:978-1-5064-0046-4 4153:. Paulist Press. 4139:978-1-84465-727-8 4124:Davies, Philip R. 4115:978-0-56766-299-6 4100:Davies, Philip R. 4070:978-3-525-54022-0 4049:978-0-19-528880-3 3984:978-1-57506-002-6 3963:978-0-19-958024-8 3942:978-3-525-54022-0 3650:, pp. 41–43. 3365:, pp. 12–17. 3237:, pp. 75–76. 3183:, pp. 98–99. 2918:Greifenhagen 2003 2908:, pp. 222ff. 2906:Greifenhagen 2003 2703:Greifenhagen 2003 2618:Greifenhagen 2003 2539:, pp. 38–60. 2495:Greifenhagen 2003 2483:Greifenhagen 2003 2437:, pp. 41–42. 2423:Greifenhagen 2003 2366:Greifenhagen 2003 2330:978-1-5011-9240-1 2303:978-0-06-053069-3 2204:Greifenhagen 2003 2138:Mosaic authorship 2022: 2021: 1967: 1966: 1895:Mode of analysis 1786:Kingdom of Israel 1716:(9th century BCE) 1670:Julius Wellhausen 1664:Julius Wellhausen 1443:Deuteronomic Code 1441:, containing the 1383:Book of Leviticus 1300:straw man fallacy 1242:Copenhagen School 1200:Achaemenid Empire 1172:minimalist school 1132:Julius Wellhausen 1088:textual criticism 1049:Linguistic dating 1030:Priestly Blessing 881:Mosaic Authorship 859:External evidence 849:Achaemenid Empire 768:Mosaic authorship 732: 731: 547:Conspiracy theory 476: 475: 215:Mosaic authorship 16:(Redirected from 5036: 4994: 4965: 4940: 4917: 4894: 4873: 4852: 4827: 4806: 4785: 4764: 4741: 4720: 4697: 4674: 4653: 4632: 4609: 4588: 4567: 4546: 4530: 4519: 4498: 4487:. Mohr Siebeck. 4477: 4453: 4432: 4408: 4377: 4368: 4347: 4322: 4301: 4299: 4297: 4284: 4263: 4242: 4221: 4212: 4183: 4164: 4143: 4119: 4095: 4074: 4053: 4030: 4009: 3988: 3967: 3946: 3923: 3886: 3865: 3854:. Mohr Siebeck. 3844: 3823: 3804: 3798: 3789: 3783: 3777: 3771: 3765: 3759: 3750: 3744: 3738: 3732: 3726: 3720: 3711: 3705: 3699: 3693: 3687: 3681: 3675: 3669: 3663: 3657: 3651: 3645: 3639: 3633: 3627: 3621: 3615: 3609: 3603: 3597: 3588: 3587:, p. 40–41. 3582: 3576: 3570: 3564: 3558: 3549: 3543: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3521:, p. 24–25. 3516: 3510: 3509:, p. 18–19. 3504: 3498: 3492: 3479: 3478:, p. 38–39. 3473: 3467: 3461: 3450: 3444: 3438: 3432: 3426: 3420: 3414: 3408: 3402: 3396: 3390: 3384: 3378: 3377:, pp. 55ff. 3372: 3366: 3360: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3339:Brueggemann 2002 3336: 3330: 3329:, pp. 18ff. 3324: 3313: 3307: 3301: 3295: 3286: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3262: 3256: 3250: 3244: 3238: 3232: 3226: 3220: 3214: 3208: 3199: 3193: 3184: 3181:Brueggemann 2002 3178: 3172: 3166: 3160: 3154: 3148: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3119: 3113: 3104: 3098: 3092: 3086: 3077: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3048: 3042: 3036: 3035:, pp. 78ff. 3030: 3024: 3018: 3012: 3006: 3000: 2994: 2988: 2982: 2976: 2970: 2964: 2963: 2927: 2921: 2915: 2909: 2903: 2897: 2891: 2885: 2879: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2855: 2849: 2843: 2837: 2831: 2822: 2816: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2747: 2741: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2706: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2679: 2673: 2664: 2658: 2649: 2639: 2633: 2627: 2621: 2615: 2609: 2603: 2597: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2567: 2561: 2552: 2546: 2540: 2534: 2528: 2519:Diodorus Siculus 2516: 2510: 2509:, p. 250ff. 2504: 2498: 2492: 2486: 2480: 2474: 2468: 2462: 2456: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2411: 2405: 2399: 2393: 2384: 2378: 2369: 2363: 2350: 2344: 2335: 2334: 2314: 2308: 2307: 2287: 2281: 2275: 2269: 2263: 2254: 2248: 2239: 2233: 2224: 2218: 2207: 2201: 2195: 2189: 2183: 2177: 2157: 2154: 2133:Dating the Bible 1994: 1993: 1913:Source criticism 1883: 1836:Solomonic period 1624:Wilhelm de Wette 1523:Primeval history 1507:Babylonian exile 1472:("elected") the 1395:Table of Nations 1198:province of the 1153:people of Israel 1130:. Starting with 1038:paleographically 920:Diodorus Siculus 893:Dead Sea Scrolls 831:source criticism 764:Jewish tradition 724: 717: 710: 698:Bible portal 696: 695: 694: 419:Synoptic problem 343: 338:Biblical studies 267:Dead Sea scrolls 228:Petrine epistles 223:Pauline epistles 52: 29: 21: 5044: 5043: 5039: 5038: 5037: 5035: 5034: 5033: 4999: 4998: 4997: 4968: 4943: 4937: 4920: 4914: 4897: 4891: 4876: 4870: 4855: 4830: 4824: 4809: 4803: 4788: 4782: 4767: 4761: 4744: 4738: 4730:. Eisenbrauns. 4723: 4717: 4700: 4694: 4677: 4671: 4656: 4650: 4635: 4629: 4612: 4606: 4591: 4585: 4570: 4564: 4549: 4543: 4522: 4516: 4501: 4495: 4480: 4456: 4450: 4435: 4429: 4413:Kugel, James L. 4411: 4380: 4371: 4365: 4350: 4344: 4325: 4319: 4304: 4295: 4293: 4287: 4281: 4266: 4260: 4245: 4239: 4224: 4215: 4201:10.2307/3087515 4186: 4180: 4167: 4161: 4146: 4140: 4122: 4116: 4098: 4092: 4077: 4071: 4056: 4050: 4033: 4027: 4012: 4006: 3991: 3985: 3977:. Eisenbrauns. 3970: 3964: 3949: 3943: 3926: 3904:10.2307/3557916 3889: 3883: 3868: 3862: 3847: 3841: 3826: 3817: 3813: 3808: 3807: 3801:Van Seters 2015 3799: 3792: 3784: 3780: 3772: 3768: 3760: 3753: 3747:Van Seters 2015 3745: 3741: 3733: 3729: 3721: 3714: 3706: 3702: 3694: 3690: 3682: 3678: 3670: 3666: 3660:Van Seters 2015 3658: 3654: 3648:Van Seters 2015 3646: 3642: 3636:Van Seters 2015 3634: 3630: 3622: 3618: 3610: 3606: 3598: 3591: 3583: 3579: 3571: 3567: 3559: 3552: 3544: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3517: 3513: 3505: 3501: 3493: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3462: 3453: 3445: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3423:Van Seters 2013 3421: 3417: 3409: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3385: 3381: 3375:Van Seters 2013 3373: 3369: 3363:Van Seters 2013 3361: 3357: 3349: 3345: 3337: 3333: 3327:Van Seters 1998 3325: 3316: 3308: 3304: 3296: 3289: 3283:Van Seters 2015 3281: 3277: 3269: 3265: 3257: 3253: 3245: 3241: 3233: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3209: 3202: 3194: 3187: 3179: 3175: 3167: 3163: 3155: 3151: 3143: 3139: 3131: 3122: 3114: 3107: 3103:, pp. 2–3. 3099: 3095: 3087: 3080: 3067: 3063: 3057:Van Seters 2007 3055: 3051: 3045:Van Seters 2007 3043: 3039: 3033:Wajdenbaum 2016 3031: 3027: 3019: 3015: 3007: 3003: 2995: 2991: 2983: 2979: 2971: 2967: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2916: 2912: 2904: 2900: 2892: 2888: 2880: 2876: 2872:, pp. 8–9. 2868: 2864: 2860:, p. 24ff. 2856: 2852: 2844: 2840: 2834:Van Seters 2015 2832: 2825: 2817: 2810: 2802: 2798: 2790: 2786: 2778: 2774: 2766: 2762: 2754: 2750: 2742: 2738: 2730: 2726: 2720:Van Seters 2015 2718: 2709: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2682: 2674: 2667: 2659: 2652: 2640: 2636: 2628: 2624: 2616: 2612: 2606:Wajdenbaum 2016 2604: 2600: 2586: 2582: 2574: 2570: 2562: 2555: 2547: 2543: 2535: 2531: 2517: 2513: 2505: 2501: 2493: 2489: 2481: 2477: 2469: 2465: 2457: 2453: 2449:, pp. 6–7. 2445: 2441: 2433: 2429: 2421: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2394: 2387: 2379: 2372: 2364: 2353: 2347:Van Seters 2015 2345: 2338: 2331: 2316: 2315: 2311: 2304: 2289: 2288: 2284: 2276: 2272: 2266:Van Seters 2015 2264: 2257: 2249: 2242: 2234: 2227: 2219: 2210: 2202: 2198: 2190: 2186: 2178: 2171: 2166: 2161: 2160: 2155: 2151: 2146: 2114: 2094:Gerhard von Rad 2084: 2044:Priestly Writer 2028:John Van Seters 1987: 1981: 1972: 1921:deus ex machina 1876: 1870:(333–164 BCE). 1813:John Van Seters 1802: 1772: 1688:Friedrich Bleek 1658: 1640:Hermann Hupfeld 1626:identified the 1605:Johann Eichhorn 1589: 1583: 1574: 1546:Book of Numbers 1503: 1497: 1461:(539–332 BCE). 1435: 1429: 1412: 1328: 1326:Priestly source 1322: 1313: 1292: 1222: 1210:DNb inscription 1206:Louis C. Jonker 1184: 1116: 1080:Book of Ezekiel 1059:Hebrew language 1051: 1034:Numbers 6:24–26 1014: 1008: 948: 942: 889: 861: 855:(333–164 BCE). 827: 821:(539-333 BCE). 791:John Van Seters 728: 692: 690: 689: 681: 680: 667: 653: 631: 623: 622: 621: 537: 513: 486: 478: 477: 472: 391: 375: 364: 340: 330: 329: 328: 261: 260: 241: 240: 236:Johannine works 232: 196: 176: 175: 172:and development 159: 158: 157: 124: 110: 96: 69: 68: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5042: 5040: 5032: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5001: 5000: 4996: 4995: 4971:Hebrew Studies 4966: 4956:(4): 679–681. 4941: 4935: 4918: 4912: 4895: 4889: 4874: 4868: 4853: 4843:(1): 212–214. 4828: 4822: 4807: 4801: 4786: 4780: 4765: 4759: 4742: 4736: 4721: 4715: 4698: 4692: 4675: 4669: 4654: 4648: 4633: 4627: 4610: 4604: 4589: 4583: 4568: 4562: 4547: 4541: 4520: 4514: 4499: 4493: 4478: 4468:(2): 163–193. 4454: 4448: 4433: 4427: 4409: 4391:(2): 180–191. 4378: 4369: 4363: 4354:The Pentateuch 4348: 4342: 4323: 4317: 4311:. Bloomsbury. 4302: 4285: 4279: 4264: 4258: 4252:. Bloomsbury. 4243: 4237: 4222: 4213: 4195:(3): 437–465. 4184: 4178: 4165: 4159: 4144: 4138: 4120: 4114: 4096: 4090: 4075: 4069: 4054: 4048: 4031: 4025: 4010: 4004: 3989: 3983: 3968: 3962: 3953:The Pentateuch 3947: 3941: 3924: 3898:(4): 162–171. 3887: 3882:978-0495391050 3881: 3866: 3860: 3845: 3840:978-0300152647 3839: 3824: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3806: 3805: 3790: 3788:, p. 169. 3778: 3776:, p. 272. 3766: 3764:, p. 271. 3751: 3739: 3727: 3712: 3710:, p. 609. 3700: 3698:, p. 457. 3688: 3686:, p. 605. 3676: 3674:, p. 436. 3664: 3652: 3640: 3628: 3626:, p. 434. 3616: 3604: 3602:, p. 260. 3589: 3577: 3565: 3550: 3535: 3523: 3511: 3499: 3480: 3468: 3451: 3439: 3437:, p. 246. 3427: 3415: 3403: 3391: 3379: 3367: 3355: 3353:, p. 172. 3343: 3331: 3314: 3302: 3300:, p. 136. 3287: 3275: 3263: 3251: 3239: 3227: 3215: 3200: 3185: 3173: 3161: 3149: 3137: 3120: 3105: 3093: 3091:, p. 146. 3078: 3071:, 48:03, "The 3061: 3049: 3037: 3025: 3013: 3001: 2989: 2987:, p. 431. 2977: 2965: 2922: 2910: 2898: 2896:, p. 112. 2886: 2874: 2862: 2850: 2838: 2823: 2808: 2796: 2794:, p. 113. 2784: 2772: 2760: 2758:, p. 341. 2748: 2746:, p. 345. 2736: 2724: 2707: 2705:, p. 221. 2695: 2680: 2678:, p. 344. 2665: 2650: 2634: 2622: 2610: 2598: 2580: 2568: 2553: 2541: 2529: 2526:Chapter 40.3-8 2511: 2499: 2497:, p. 212. 2487: 2475: 2463: 2451: 2439: 2427: 2412: 2400: 2396:Whisenant 2010 2385: 2370: 2351: 2336: 2329: 2309: 2302: 2282: 2270: 2255: 2240: 2225: 2208: 2206:, p. 206. 2196: 2184: 2182:, p. 113. 2168: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2148: 2147: 2145: 2142: 2141: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2113: 2110: 2106:Rolf Rendtorff 2102:oral tradition 2089:form criticism 2083: 2080: 2066: 2065: 2058: 2051: 2020: 2019: 2012: 2009: 2008: 2005: 2002: 2001: 1998: 1983:Main article: 1980: 1977: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1964: 1961: 1959:Form criticism 1956: 1953: 1950: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1933: 1930: 1929:Supplementary 1926: 1925: 1915: 1910: 1907: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1896: 1893: 1890: 1887: 1875: 1872: 1864:Persian period 1829:Rolf Rendtorff 1801: 1798: 1771: 1770: 1747: 1744: 1738: 1731: 1724: 1717: 1710: 1702: 1657: 1654: 1582: 1579: 1573: 1570: 1542:Book of Exodus 1519:Tower of Babel 1499:Main article: 1496: 1493: 1431:Main article: 1428: 1425: 1411: 1408: 1399:Book of Exodus 1324:Main article: 1321: 1318: 1312: 1309: 1291: 1288: 1255:(278 BCE) and 1221: 1218: 1196:Yehud Medinata 1183: 1180: 1165:Persian period 1115: 1112: 1084:Masoretic text 1076:Book of Haggai 1050: 1047: 1010:Main article: 1007: 1004: 944:Main article: 941: 938: 888: 885: 860: 857: 826: 823: 819:Persian period 779:Rolf Rendtorff 730: 729: 727: 726: 719: 712: 704: 701: 700: 683: 682: 679: 678: 673: 666: 665: 660: 654: 652: 651: 650: 649: 639: 633: 632: 629: 628: 625: 624: 620: 619: 614: 609: 604: 599: 594: 589: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 538: 536: 535: 530: 525: 520: 514: 512: 511: 506: 501: 495: 494: 493: 487: 485:Interpretation 484: 483: 480: 479: 474: 473: 471: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 439: 436: 435: 429: 428: 427: 426: 421: 416: 411: 404: 399: 390: 389: 384: 379: 373: 368: 362: 357: 352: 346: 341: 336: 335: 332: 331: 327: 326: 321: 319:English Bibles 316: 311: 306: 301: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 272:Masoretic Text 269: 263: 262: 259: 258: 248: 247: 246: 243: 242: 239: 238: 231: 230: 225: 219: 218: 217: 212: 207: 202: 195: 194: 189: 184: 178: 177: 174: 173: 166: 165: 164: 161: 160: 156: 155: 154: 153: 148: 143: 132: 131: 130: 123: 122: 117: 111: 109: 108: 103: 97: 95: 94: 93: 92: 87: 82: 71: 70: 67: 66: 59: 58: 57: 54: 53: 45: 44: 38: 37: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5041: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5006: 5004: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4942: 4938: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4919: 4915: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4896: 4892: 4886: 4882: 4881: 4875: 4871: 4865: 4861: 4860: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4823:9780664256524 4819: 4815: 4814: 4808: 4804: 4798: 4794: 4793: 4787: 4783: 4777: 4773: 4772: 4766: 4762: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4743: 4739: 4737:9781575061221 4733: 4729: 4728: 4722: 4718: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4699: 4695: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4676: 4672: 4666: 4662: 4661: 4655: 4651: 4645: 4641: 4640: 4634: 4630: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4611: 4607: 4605:9789004138032 4601: 4597: 4596: 4590: 4586: 4584:9780802862600 4580: 4576: 4575: 4569: 4565: 4563:9780521002912 4559: 4555: 4554: 4548: 4544: 4538: 4534: 4529: 4528: 4521: 4517: 4515:9780827205888 4511: 4507: 4506: 4500: 4496: 4490: 4486: 4485: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4449:9780802846365 4445: 4441: 4440: 4434: 4430: 4424: 4421:. FreePress. 4420: 4419: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4385: 4379: 4375: 4370: 4366: 4360: 4357:. SCM Press. 4356: 4355: 4349: 4345: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4330: 4324: 4320: 4314: 4310: 4309: 4303: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4276: 4272: 4271: 4265: 4261: 4255: 4251: 4250: 4244: 4240: 4234: 4230: 4229: 4223: 4219: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4185: 4181: 4179:9781589830158 4175: 4171: 4166: 4162: 4160:9780809145522 4156: 4152: 4151: 4145: 4141: 4135: 4131: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4111: 4107: 4106: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4087: 4083: 4082: 4076: 4072: 4066: 4062: 4061: 4055: 4051: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4032: 4028: 4026:9780664222314 4022: 4018: 4017: 4011: 4007: 4005:9780801026942 4001: 3997: 3996: 3990: 3986: 3980: 3976: 3975: 3969: 3965: 3959: 3955: 3954: 3948: 3944: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3888: 3884: 3878: 3875:. Wadsworth. 3874: 3873: 3867: 3863: 3861:9783161499302 3857: 3853: 3852: 3846: 3842: 3836: 3832: 3831: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3815: 3810: 3803:, p. 54. 3802: 3797: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3779: 3775: 3770: 3767: 3763: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3749:, p. 23. 3748: 3743: 3740: 3737:, p. 95. 3736: 3731: 3728: 3725:, p. 93. 3724: 3719: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3704: 3701: 3697: 3692: 3689: 3685: 3680: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3665: 3662:, p. 42. 3661: 3656: 3653: 3649: 3644: 3641: 3638:, p. 41. 3637: 3632: 3629: 3625: 3620: 3617: 3614:, p. 51. 3613: 3608: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3581: 3578: 3575:, p. 20. 3574: 3569: 3566: 3562: 3557: 3555: 3551: 3548:, p. 40. 3547: 3542: 3540: 3536: 3533:, p. 41. 3532: 3527: 3524: 3520: 3519:Friedman 1997 3515: 3512: 3508: 3503: 3500: 3497:, p. 38. 3496: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3472: 3469: 3466:, p. 19. 3465: 3460: 3458: 3456: 3452: 3449:, p. 31. 3448: 3443: 3440: 3436: 3431: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3416: 3413:, p. 26. 3412: 3407: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3392: 3389:, p. 97. 3388: 3383: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3368: 3364: 3359: 3356: 3352: 3347: 3344: 3341:, p. 61. 3340: 3335: 3332: 3328: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3306: 3303: 3299: 3298:Stackert 2022 3294: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3279: 3276: 3272: 3267: 3264: 3260: 3255: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3240: 3236: 3231: 3228: 3225:, p. 75. 3224: 3219: 3216: 3213:, p. 65. 3212: 3207: 3205: 3201: 3198:, p. 55. 3197: 3192: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3177: 3174: 3171:, p. 46. 3170: 3169:McKenzie 2000 3165: 3162: 3159:, p. 26. 3158: 3157:Bandstra 2009 3153: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3138: 3135:, p. 34. 3134: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3121: 3118:, p. 41. 3117: 3112: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3083: 3079: 3074: 3070: 3069:Gmirkin 2016b 3065: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3038: 3034: 3029: 3026: 3022: 3017: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3002: 2998: 2993: 2990: 2986: 2981: 2978: 2974: 2969: 2966: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2926: 2923: 2919: 2914: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2887: 2883: 2878: 2875: 2871: 2866: 2863: 2859: 2854: 2851: 2847: 2842: 2839: 2836:, p. 78. 2835: 2830: 2828: 2824: 2821:, p. 25. 2820: 2815: 2813: 2809: 2806:, p. 18. 2805: 2800: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2785: 2782:, p. 45. 2781: 2776: 2773: 2769: 2764: 2761: 2757: 2752: 2749: 2745: 2740: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2725: 2722:, p. 57. 2721: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2687: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2672: 2670: 2666: 2663:, p. 17. 2662: 2657: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2623: 2619: 2614: 2611: 2608:, p. 88. 2607: 2602: 2599: 2595: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2581: 2578:, p. 31. 2577: 2572: 2569: 2566:, p. 32. 2565: 2560: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2533: 2530: 2527: 2523: 2520: 2515: 2512: 2508: 2503: 2500: 2496: 2491: 2488: 2484: 2479: 2476: 2473:, p. 29. 2472: 2467: 2464: 2461:, p. 81. 2460: 2455: 2452: 2448: 2443: 2440: 2436: 2431: 2428: 2424: 2419: 2417: 2413: 2410:, p. 20. 2409: 2404: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2390: 2386: 2383:, p. 26. 2382: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2352: 2349:, p. 12. 2348: 2343: 2341: 2337: 2332: 2326: 2322: 2321: 2313: 2310: 2305: 2299: 2295: 2294: 2286: 2283: 2279: 2274: 2271: 2268:, p. 77. 2267: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2236:Thompson 2000 2232: 2230: 2226: 2223:, p. 49. 2222: 2217: 2215: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2197: 2194:, p. 13. 2193: 2188: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2174: 2170: 2163: 2153: 2150: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2115: 2111: 2109: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2090: 2081: 2079: 2075: 2072: 2063: 2059: 2056: 2052: 2049: 2048: 2047: 2045: 2042:(J), and the 2041: 2037: 2036:Deuteronomist 2033: 2029: 2017: 2013: 2011: 2006: 2004: 1999: 1996: 1995: 1991: 1986: 1978: 1976: 1969: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1954: 1951: 1948: 1947: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1927: 1923: 1922: 1916: 1914: 1911: 1908: 1905: 1902: 1901: 1897: 1894: 1891: 1888: 1885: 1884: 1881: 1880: 1873: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1857: 1851: 1849: 1843: 1841: 1837: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1809: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1742:Deuteronomist 1739: 1736: 1732: 1729: 1728:Deuteronomist 1725: 1722: 1721:Deuteronomist 1718: 1715: 1711: 1708: 1704: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1680: 1675: 1671: 1662: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1649:Wilhelm Vatke 1646: 1641: 1635: 1633: 1629: 1628:Deuteronomist 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1610: 1606: 1598: 1593: 1588: 1580: 1578: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1566:Promised Land 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1550:Numbers 10–14 1547: 1543: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1502: 1494: 1492: 1490: 1485: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1434: 1433:Deuteronomist 1427:Deuteronomist 1426: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1409: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1379: 1377: 1376:chosen people 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1356: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1327: 1319: 1317: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1301: 1298:engages in a 1297: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1280: 1279: 1274: 1270: 1265: 1262: 1258: 1254: 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Eerdmans. 4573: 4552: 4526: 4504: 4483: 4465: 4461: 4442:. Eerdmans. 4438: 4417: 4388: 4382: 4373: 4353: 4328: 4307: 4294:. Retrieved 4269: 4248: 4227: 4220:. 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BRILL. 4703:"Elohist" 4598:. Brill. 4405:170948951 4036:"Genesis" 3920:164042223 3708:Otto 2014 3696:Carr 2014 3684:Otto 2014 3672:Carr 2014 3624:Carr 2014 3259:Carr 2014 2960:167056882 2952:0901-8328 2038:(D), the 1730:historian 1723:historian 1554:pericopes 1478:theocracy 1335:(God) at 1142:with the 1026:Jerusalem 752:Leviticus 658:Inerrancy 468:Canonical 463:Redaction 355:Artifacts 136:Apocrypha 65:and books 4962:23044597 4505:Covenant 4415:(2008). 4126:(2013). 4102:(2015). 3247:Ska 2006 3089:Ska 2006 3073:prophets 2985:Ska 2014 2251:Ska 2014 2112:See also 2016:redactor 1735:Priestly 1668:In 1878 1632:Priestly 1616:Jehovist 1482:suzerain 1466:covenant 1451:Manasseh 1320:Priestly 1253:Berossus 787:Priestly 785:and the 607:Violence 592:Serpents 582:Prophecy 577:Muhammad 292:Peshitta 282:Targumim 34:a series 32:Part of 4296:22 July 4209:3087515 3912:3557916 2522:Library 2064:period. 2057:period. 2040:Yahwist 1782:Solomon 1714:Elohist 1707:Yahwist 1620:Elohist 1609:exegete 1501:Jahwist 1495:Yahwist 1417:Ezekiel 1275:in his 1257:Manetho 1148:written 1136:Hilkiah 1128:2 Kings 1103:2 Kings 1099:Genesis 925:Library 869:Abraham 799:Yahwist 756:Numbers 744:Genesis 647:Quranic 642:Islamic 637:Gnostic 612:Warfare 602:Slavery 542:Alcohol 504:Midrash 448:Textual 304:Vulgate 90:Ketuvim 85:Nevi'im 4989: 4960: 4933: 4910: 4887: 4866: 4820: 4799: 4778: 4757: 4734: 4713: 4690: 4667: 4646: 4625: 4602: 4581: 4560: 4553:Exodus 4539: 4512: 4491: 4446: 4425: 4403: 4361: 4340: 4315: 4277: 4256: 4235: 4207: 4176: 4157: 4136: 4112: 4088: 4067: 4046: 4023: 4002: 3981: 3960: 3939: 3918: 3910: 3879: 3858: 3837: 2958: 2950: 2593:Yahweh 2327: 2300: 2055:exilic 1856:Josiah 1823:, and 1763:Samuel 1759:Judges 1755:Joshua 1562:Canaan 1535:Joseph 1470:chosen 1455:exilic 1393:, the 1368:Yahweh 1360:Elohim 1333:Yahweh 967:Judean 875:, and 758:, and 748:Exodus 572:Incest 552:Ethics 509:Pardes 499:Pesher 453:Source 382:Places 377:People 360:Dating 187:Dating 141:Jewish 75:Tanakh 63:Canons 36:on the 5024:Torah 4987:S2CID 4958:JSTOR 4401:S2CID 4205:JSTOR 3916:S2CID 3908:JSTOR 2956:S2CID 2144:Notes 1767:Kings 1558:Sinai 1531:Jacob 1527:Isaac 1489:Kings 1353:Aaron 1349:Moses 1341:Aaron 1337:Sinai 1273:Plato 877:Jacob 873:Isaac 845:Torah 811:Yehud 775:Torah 617:Women 567:Humor 387:Names 80:Torah 42:Bible 4931:ISBN 4908:ISBN 4885:ISBN 4864:ISBN 4818:ISBN 4797:ISBN 4776:ISBN 4755:ISBN 4732:ISBN 4711:ISBN 4688:ISBN 4665:ISBN 4644:ISBN 4623:ISBN 4600:ISBN 4579:ISBN 4558:ISBN 4537:ISBN 4510:ISBN 4489:ISBN 4444:ISBN 4423:ISBN 4359:ISBN 4338:ISBN 4313:ISBN 4298:2019 4275:ISBN 4254:ISBN 4233:ISBN 4174:ISBN 4155:ISBN 4134:ISBN 4110:ISBN 4086:ISBN 4065:ISBN 4044:ISBN 4021:ISBN 4000:ISBN 3979:ISBN 3958:ISBN 3937:ISBN 3877:ISBN 3856:ISBN 3835:ISBN 3076:BC." 2948:ISSN 2325:ISBN 2298:ISBN 2096:and 2030:and 1749:DH: 1740:D†: 1733:P*: 1540:The 1533:and 1515:Noah 1419:and 1372:Noah 1283:Laws 1278:Laws 1157:Ezra 1090:and 958:The 738:(or 734:The 587:Rape 458:Form 254:and 4979:doi 4954:130 4845:doi 4470:doi 4393:doi 4389:112 4197:doi 4193:122 3900:doi 2940:doi 2071:and 1811:by 1712:E: 1705:J: 1690:'s 1174:of 1155:by 1138:in 1106:of 922:'s 597:Sex 5005:: 4985:. 4975:46 4973:. 4952:. 4841:59 4839:. 4686:. 4535:. 4533:41 4464:. 4399:. 4387:. 4336:. 4332:. 4203:. 4191:. 3914:. 3906:. 3896:66 3894:. 3793:^ 3754:^ 3715:^ 3592:^ 3553:^ 3538:^ 3483:^ 3454:^ 3317:^ 3290:^ 3203:^ 3188:^ 3123:^ 3108:^ 3081:^ 2954:. 2946:. 2936:33 2934:. 2826:^ 2811:^ 2710:^ 2683:^ 2668:^ 2653:^ 2646:28 2556:^ 2524:, 2415:^ 2388:^ 2373:^ 2354:^ 2339:^ 2258:^ 2243:^ 2228:^ 2211:^ 2172:^ 1815:, 1765:, 1761:, 1757:, 1537:. 1529:, 1216:. 1190:, 1167:. 1110:. 1094:. 911:. 871:, 813:. 754:, 750:, 746:, 151:NT 146:OT 4993:. 4981:: 4964:. 4939:. 4916:. 4893:. 4872:. 4851:. 4847:: 4826:. 4805:. 4784:. 4763:. 4740:. 4719:. 4696:. 4673:. 4652:. 4631:. 4608:. 4587:. 4566:. 4545:. 4518:. 4497:. 4476:. 4472:: 4466:7 4452:. 4431:. 4407:. 4395:: 4367:. 4346:. 4321:. 4300:. 4283:. 4262:. 4241:. 4211:. 4199:: 4182:. 4163:. 4142:. 4118:. 4094:. 4073:. 4052:. 4029:. 4008:. 3987:. 3966:. 3945:. 3922:. 3902:: 3885:. 3864:. 3843:. 3425:. 3273:. 3023:. 2975:. 2962:. 2942:: 2884:. 2848:. 2693:. 2632:. 2333:. 2306:. 2280:. 1997:* 1769:) 1599:. 1101:– 723:e 716:t 709:v 20:)

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