1382:: "He soon aroused opposition by marrying his brother's wife -- a crime like that of Antipas later -- and having been accused of cruelty by his subjects, "not able to bear his barbarous and tyrannical usage of them", he was banished to Vienne, Gaul, A. D. 7 in the tenth year of his government (Jos., "Ant.", XVII, ix, xiii, 1, 2)."; "Contrary to his better judgment he went, and soon learned that Agrippa by messengers had accused him before Caligula of conspiracy against the Romans. The emperor banished him to Lyons, Gaul (France), A. D. 39, and Herodias accompanied him (Jos., "Ant.", XVIII, vii, 2). Josephus (Bel. Jud., II, ix, 6) says: "So Herod died in Spain whither his wife had followed him". The year of his death is not known. To reconcile the two statements of Josephus about the place of exile and death, see Smith, "Dict. of the Bible", s. v. "Herodias" (note)."
559:
for the deep value early
Christians put on persecution may also be found in Acts 5:41 and Acts 8:1-4 (which states that even as Christians were persecuted, they spread the word). Additionally, in Luke 6:26, 40, Jesus speaks of coming hardship not just for himself, but for his followers. Touching on a theme that will be later explored more fully by Stephen in his final speech in Acts (7:1-53), Jesus and his followers are likened to the Jewish prophets of old, who were rejected by the Israelites despite being sent by God. Therefore, to follow Jesus is to suffer greatly as he will later in Luke. Through his crucifixion Jesus becomes the most important and potent example of suffering for which every Christian must prepare; those who do will be justly rewarded (Luke 6:22-23).
819:, while many rabbis scorned such a proposition. Fox also argues that the persecution accusations and stories of early Christians martrydom are exaggerated by the Church. He asserts that it is unhistorical to assume that the matrydom of Stephen was representative of a widespread persecution of Christians because events of this nature were not uncommon in that time. In support of this assertion, Fox argues that thousands of Jews were killed by Romans and it was not something novel. Thus the persecution hardly started before 70 AD, and when it was started by Bar Kokhba, it was not on purely theological grounds but also because of the disloyalty of Christians in the rebellion against the Romans.
368:, contains a multitude of episodes highlighting persecution. The majority of these conflicts occur between Christians and Jews, though there are examples of persecution by gentiles (such as the diviner-slave's owners in 16:16-24) and Romans (28:16). While Kelhoffer and Wilson have argued there is a purposeful pattern of Jewish-led persecution in Luke–Acts, there is significant doubt over how historically accurate Luke–Acts' portrayal of Christian-Jewish relations is and how wide reaching (whether directed at specific Jewish groups or 'Jews' as a whole) and seriously this polemic was meant be taken.
627:...I have worked much harder, been in prison more frequently, been flogged more severely, and been exposed to death again and again. Five times I received from the Jews the forty lashes minus one. Three times I was beaten with rods, once I was stoned, three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and a day in the open sea, I have been constantly on the move. I have been in danger from rivers, in danger from bandits, in danger from my own countrymen, in danger from Gentiles; in danger in the city, in danger in the country, in danger at sea; and in danger from false brothers.
823:
from their own community until at least the middle of the second century." By contrast, "almost from the outset
Christians have a consciousness of themselves as distinct from other Jews." Thus, acts of Jewish persecution of Christians fall within the boundaries of synagogue discipline and were so perceived by Jews acting and thinking as the established community. The Christians, on the other hand, being a new movement, worked out their identity in contrast and opposition to the Jewish community and saw themselves as persecuted rather than "disciplined."
533:
Acts2:17-21) as evidence for the author's continued connection to Jewish heritage, even as the author sees as
Christianity's future goal to spread to the Gentiles. Wilson argues that in Acts, Jews are depicted as repeatedly stirring up trouble for both Christians and Roman authorities (cf. 17:6-7, 18:13, 24:12-13), and the accused Christians are repeatedly found innocent by the Roman authorities, often by showing how they upheld both Roman and Jewish laws (cf. 23:6, 24:14-21, 26:23, 28:20) and were, therefore, morally superior to their accusers.
550:(Acts 7:51-53), and his death is paralleled with Jesus' (Acts 7:59-60). Acts 28:25-28 also provides strong encouragement and validation for Gentiles readers, while Acts 9:4-5 makes a direct link between the persecuted and Jesus, which further indicts any critics or persecutors of Christianity. Kelhoffer sees the author of Luke–Acts as turning the dishonor of persecution into an honor, placing those who suffer "on account of the Son of Man" (Luke 6:22 NSRV) in the legacy of Old Testament and Israelite salvation history.
803:. Most of those who were killed were victims of mob violence rather than official action. None were executed for purely religious reasons although individual missionaries were banned, detained and flogged for breach of the peace. According to Hare, the numerous New Testament references to persecution reflect early Christian expectations of persecution based perhaps on the pre-Christian "conviction that the Jews had always persecuted the messengers of God".
115:
846:. To Roman ears, such talk was seditious. Romans gave Jews at that time limited self-rule; the main obligations of Jewish leaders were to collect taxes for Rome and to maintain civil order. Thus, Jewish leaders would have to suppress any seditious talk. In cases where Jewish leaders did not suppress seditious talk, they were often sent to Rome for trial and execution, or in the cases of
653:
751:"—as "being drunk with the blood of the saints and the blood of the witnesses to Jesus" (17:6 NRSV). The Book of Revelation progresses with the wrath of God poured upon the Earth as retribution for the sufferings of the faithful Christians. It ends with the Fall of Babylon and Christ's defeat of Satan, after which there are "a new heaven and a new earth" (21:1 NRSV).
587:, meaning that while there was no empire-wide persecution when Mark was written, it is possible that Christians were being executed in various provinces. It is also important to realize that there was probably persecution of Christians, especially Jewish Christians by Jews because they were seen as disturbing the peace, which could lead to retribution by the Romans.
511:, scholars like Luke T. Johnson have attempted to nuance the portrayal of the Jews both by presenting a less homogenous dichotomy of 'Christians' versus 'Jews' and by contextualizing the polemics within the rhetoric of contemporaneous philosophical debate, showing how rival schools of thought routinely insulted and slandered their opponents.
274:
contains numerous references to and episodes of persecution against
Christians, carried out primarily by Jews and Roman authorities. As historiography, the scholarly consensus is that Luke–Acts presents a skewed picture of the hardships faced by the early church. While evidence for isolated incidents
810:
when
Christianity started spreading among Gentiles and when the Jews realized the separation between themselves and Christians. Paul E. Davies states that the violent persecuting zeal displayed by some Jews sharpened the criticisms of the Jews in the Gospels as they were written. Fox argues that the
523:
If Luke–Acts is not an accurate catalog of every
Christian persecution during the first century, scholars have offered a variety of interpretative frameworks to understand what motivated the author of the books and how the author uses persecution to argue their claims. These interpretations include:
498:
While evidence has been offered both to argue Luke–Acts' positive view of the Roman Empire and the opposite, scholars tend to see Luke–Acts as pro-Roman and analyze it as though it was written with a Roman (though not exclusively) audience in mind. Larger Lukan themes like the
Gentile mission, which
558:
Robert Maddox interprets Paul's experiences in Luke–Acts as the model example for its audience, not only as a devout believer but also as one who suffers repeated persecution. Passages like Luke 12:4-7 and Acts 14:22 are read by Maddox as warning
Christians of the hardships they will face. Evidence
822:
Claudia Setzer draws a distinction between Jews and
Christians (both Jewish and Gentile) as to when the perception of Christianity as a Jewish sect was replaced by an understanding of Christianity as a new and separate religion. Setzer asserts that, "Jews did not see Christians as clearly separate
746:
There are also passages in which John refers to martyrs. Revelation 6:9-11 and 20:4 seem to indicate that many
Christians were tortured and killed for their beliefs, and, in his vision, they "…cried out with a loud voice, 'Sovereign Lord…how long will it be before you judge and avenge our blood on
580:
in Jerusalem in 70 AD and contains multiple references to persecution of Christians. There is a great deal of argument in the scholarly community about to whom it is addressed. When looking at persecution in this text, it should be remembered that the provinces were largely autonomous and that the
279:
has not, however, prevented scholars from asking what purpose persecution serves in the narrative and what Luke–Acts' presentation of persecution suggests about the author's motivations. Possible explanations for the purpose of persecution in Luke–Acts have included: to portray Christianity as a
545:
arguing that persecution in Luke–Acts is used by the author to accomplish three things: (1) question the legitimacy of the accusers, (2) confirm the legitimacy of the faithful accused, and (3) derive legitimacy for the author's Gentile audience who might be suffering their own persecution. For
532:
S. G. Wilson has argued that Luke–Acts was composed to portray Christianity as a more peaceable form of Judaism to the books' (in part) Roman audience. He points to Luke–Acts' deep reverence for and reliance on Jewish scripture to legitimate Jesus and the mission of the church (cf. Luke 3:4-6,
514:
These attacks were formulaic and stereotyped, crafted to define who was the enemy in the debates, but not used with the expectation that their insults and accusations would be taken literally, as they would be centuries later. Furthermore, Luke–Acts certainly holds Jewish texts in high regard,
611:). This may be one of the stronger proofs of such persecution, as Paul's admission of guilt would be foolish if there were not actually a widespread persecution of Christians by Jews. Few people seeking converts to their cause would do so by falsely admitting to a crime.
739:: "I know of your affliction and your poverty… Do not fear what you are about to suffer. Beware, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison so that you may be tested… Be faithful until death, and I will give you the crown of life" (2:9-10 NRSV). And to
304:
contains a few explicit examples of persecution against Christians. There are several passages that mention coming difficulties for Jesus' followers and Jerusalem, which scholars believe foreshadow the hardships Christians will face in Acts. For instance, while
713:(81–96 AD). From the middle down to the last quarter of the first century, extensive persecutions were carried out throughout the Roman Empire, although they were sporadic. Most were initiated by local governors, who were expected to keep their cities
743:: "I know where you are living, where Satan's throne is. Yet you are holding fast to my name, and you did not deny your faith in me even in the days of Antipas my witness, my faithful one, who was killed among you, where Satan lives" (2:13 NRSV).
506:
Even as scholars point to passages sympathetic to Jews, there is wide agreement that a strong anti-Jewish streak runs through Luke–Acts, even if it is not always consistent. Because these passages have been used throughout history to justify
799:. Organized opposition to Christianity appeared during the first revolt (when nationalist sentiment was high) and after it (when Pharisaic dominance of the synagogue was established). Few Christians were martyred prior to the
759:
One perspective holds that the earliest examples of Jewish persecution of Christians are examples of Jewish persecution of other Jews, that is, sectarian conflict. Prior to the destruction of the Temple, Judaism was extremely
352:) (23:6-12), sentenced to death (23:21-25), crucified, died, and buried (23:26-56). Luke's depiction of Pilate is thought by scholars to be key to understanding the author of Luke–Acts' opinion of the Roman Empire.
136:
815:
and was due to anti-Jewish feelings which were caused by Gentile converts to Christianity. This however is controversial as only certain segments of the community ever accepted Bar Kokhba as the
412:
is arrested by "the people…the elders and the scribes" (6:12 NRSV), questioned before the Sanhedrin, and stoned to death, sparking a "severe persecution against the church in Jerusalem" (8:1).
795:." Hare asserts that prior to the first revolt, Jewish persecution of Christians was more frequently directed at Christian missionaries to synagogues in the Jewish diaspora than against the
275:
has been found, there exists no historical evidence for systematic persecution of early Christians by either Jews or the Romans. during the period Luke–Acts was likely composed. The alleged
317:, Luke (4:14-30) devotes much more time to the episode than the other gospels. S. G. Wilson suggests that this might give a glimpse of later persecution by Jews and rejection of the
735:, he writes: " I know your works, your toil and your patient endurance… I also know that you are enduring patiently and bearing up for the sake of my name…" (2:2-3 NRSV). To
515:
repeatedly referencing them in relation to Jesus and others, casting doubt on interpretations that Luke–Acts is trying to completely divorce itself from its Jewish heritage.
724:
because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus" (Rev. 1:9 NRSV), and it was there that he wrote the Book of Revelation. In several of his messages addressed to the
276:
787:
the conflict between Jesus and the Pharisees has been intensified and it has often been suggested that this intensification reflects the continued struggle between the
599:, Paul indicates several times that the Jews have persecuted Christians, beginning with his admission of his own persecution of the Christians prior to his conversion (
717:("settled and orderly"). As pressure from the demands of the citizens to get rid of the Christians became harder to ignore or control, they were driven to acquiesce.
604:
187:
385:, wherein the Roman magistrate participates in all parts of the trial, from evidence gathering to inquisition to judgment. A similar system can be seen in
159:
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281:
82:
173:
1464:. Ed. John Roberts. Oxford University Press, 2007. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. University of Chicago. 28 May 2012 <
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was arguing that the Pharisees alone, not the Romans, were responsible for the murder of Christ. However, according to Laqueur: "Absolving
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219:
This account of persecution is part of a general theme of anti-Christian persecution by both Romans and Jews, one that starts with the
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to be killed but is rescued by Roman soldiers who imprison him. He testifies before the Sanhedrin (22:30-23:11) and the governor
244:
86:
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name=purpose The Purpose of the Gospel of Mark in its Historical and Social Context, G. N. Roskam, Brill Leiden, Boston. 2004
140:
728:, John makes references to past and future times of persecution, trial and death, and calls upon their endurance and faith.
340:
in 22:1-23:56. Jewish chief priests and scribes plot to kill Jesus (22:1-6), arrest him (22:47-52), question him before the
180:
1287:
Porter, Stanley E., and Westfall, Cynthia L. Empire in the New Testament. Eugene, Or.: Pickwick Publications, 2011. Print.
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98:
894:
333:(6:22-23 NRSV). Jesus later says to "not fear those who kill the body and after that can do nothing more" (12:4 NRSV).
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889:
1465:
577:
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Geoffrey De Ste. Croix, Michael Whitby, and Joseph Streeter. "Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted". 105-152.
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36:
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44:
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Persuasion and Power: Readiness to Withstand Hardship as a Corroboration of Legitimacy in the New Testament
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603:) and ending with his suggestion that he is presently being persecuted because he no longer preaches
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232:
68:
64:
926:
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the inhabitants of the earth?'" (6:10 NRSV). John portrays the Roman Empire—called "the great whore
1446:
Luke T. Johnson. "The New Testament's Anti-Jewish Slander and the Conventions of Ancient Polemic",
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489:(24:1-27) before using his status as a Roman citizen (22:29) to have his case heard by the emperor.
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780:
706:
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314:
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example, in the story of Stephen's martyrdom, Stephen links his accusers to those who resisted
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is brought to trial before several different officials. Paul is tried through the procedure of
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in Acts (13:46). In Luke, Jesus speaks of "people hate" and "defame you on account of the
1312:
by Douglas R. A. Hare. Series: Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series (No. 6)
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500:
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1514:. Carlisle, Cumbria, UK :Grand Rapids, MI: Paternoster Press; Baker Academic, 2002. 1-41
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De Ste Croix, G. E. M. Geoffrey, Ernest Maurice, Michael Whitby, and Joseph Streeter.
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243:. This theme plays a significant part in several Christian doctrines ranging from the
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851:
769:
409:
48:
1483:
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The Theme of Jewish Persecution of Christians in the Gospel According to St Matthew
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The Theme of Jewish Persecution of Christians in the Gospel According to St Matthew
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1531:
1466:
http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t180.e1248
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114:
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hostile utterances of rabbis were towards those Christians who did not support
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Mark Reasoner. "Persecution", In Ralph P. Martin and Peter H. Davids (eds.).
623:, Paul asserts that he had been persecuted by the Jews on numerous occasions:
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348:(22:66-23:1). Jesus is questioned by Pilate (23:3-5), "Herod" (believed to be
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318:
40:
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14:5-6: Jews and gentiles attempt unsuccessfully to stone Paul and Barnabas.
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60:
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E G. Downing, "Pliny's Prosecution of Christians: Revelation and 1 Peter,"
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The major exception to these less direct references to persecution is the
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G. Fox asserts that Jewish persecution of the followers of Jesus started
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710:
450:
429:
950:
The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day
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Jewish Responses to Early Christians: History and Polemics, 30-150 C.E.
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732:
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252:
55:, has traditionally been interpreted as relating Christian accounts of
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Jewish Responses to Early Christians: History and Polemics, 30-150 C.E
1500:. University of Kansas Publications, 1952. Humanistic Studies, No. 30
1398:. Series: Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series (No. 6)
764:; after the destruction of the Temple in AD 70, early Christians and
736:
721:
464:
415:
8:3, 9:2: Saul (whose Roman name was Paul) imprisons many Christians.
477:
21:27-28:30: In his final journey to Rome, Paul is taken by Jews in
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17:1-15: Paul and others are chased out of successive towns by Jews.
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446:
855:
256:
1534:
Chapter II: Persecution of Christianity and Christian Martyrdom
1275:. 25–47. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003. Print.
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635:
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riot against Paul and his companions, but they are not harmed.
108:
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and the desire not to antagonize those they want to convert."
1510:
Steve Walton. "The State They Were In" in Peter Oakes (ed.),
1545:, The first Christians, wrestling with their Jewish heritage
280:
non-threat to the Romans by contrasting the movement with a
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Dictionary of the Later New Testament and its Developments
1283:
1281:
1498:
The Persecution of the Jews in the Roman Empire (300-428)
329:" and likens his followers' suffering to that of earlier
1493:, Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1997. 907-913
1475:. Vol. 126. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1982.
245:
release of Christians from obeying the Old Testament Law
71:
depicts instances of early Christian persecution by the
1273:
Reading the Book of Revelation: A Resource for Students
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421:
12:1-5: King Herod (believed to be Agrippa I) executes
405:, questioned by the Sanhedrin, and flogged (5:40 only).
1532:
Schaff's History of the Christian Church, Volume II,
292:; and to provide encouragement in times of hardship.
1519:
Related Strangers: Jews and Christians, 70-170 C.E.
720:The author, John, found himself "…on the island of
99:
missionary activities of early Christianity in Rome
459:18:12-17: Paul is made to appear before the Roman
35:narrative which depicts the early church as being
1412:. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2006
418:9:23-24, 20:19, 23:12-14: Jews plot to kill Paul.
1484:http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/pliny1.asp
1191:
1189:
1053:
1051:
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467:, who dismisses the case as an internal dispute.
156:"Persecution of Christians in the New Testament"
1410:Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy
1298:Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy
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1168:
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43:beliefs by a Jewish establishment in the Roman
1482:. Fordham University. Accessed 5/29/12 at <
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996:
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29:persecution of Christians in the New Testament
1441:Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church
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1480:Medieval Sourcebook: Pliny on the Christians
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664:texts from within a religion or faith system
375:features heavily in the later chapters when
97:from guilt may have been connected with the
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1335:
1269:"Ordinary Lives: John and His First Readers
783:, "it has long been recognized that in the
143:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
18:Persecution of early Christians by the Jews
1417:Journal for the Study of the New Testament
838:were preaching the imminent return of the
449:are flogged and imprisoned by gentiles in
442:14:19-20: Jews stone Paul nearly to death.
1457:. vol. 270. TĂĽbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010.
693:Learn how and when to remove this message
499:sought to spread Christianity beyond the
207:Learn how and when to remove this message
1521:, Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1995.
1462:Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World
1351:
1349:
1347:
915:
344:and then take him to the Roman prefect
1512:Rome in the Bible and the Early Church
1426:, University Press of America (1994);
905:Expounding of the Law#Love for enemies
221:Pharisee rejection of Jesus's ministry
277:historical unreliability of Luke-Acts
83:hostility between Christians and Jews
7:
705:Leonard L. Thompson argues that the
141:adding citations to reliable sources
1507:Fortress. Minneapolis. 1994 254pp.
885:Antisemitism and the New Testament
875:Anti-Judaism in early Christianity
581:governors had legal control under
541:Kelhoffer spends part of his book
315:rejection of Jesus in his hometown
85:grew over the generations. By the
25:
1453:James A. Kelhoffer. Persecution,
1424:Antisemitism in the New Testament
1300:. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006. Print.
776:) vied for influence among Jews.
621:Second Epistle to the Corinthians
543:Persecution, Persuasion and Power
537:Rhetorical weapon against critics
709:was written during the reign of
651:
113:
1565:Persecution of early Christians
1443:, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965
900:Christian–Jewish reconciliation
785:Gospel according to St. Matthew
576:was probably written after the
528:Contrasting Jews and Christians
364:, which tells the story of the
239:' refusal to accept him as the
57:the Pharisee rejection of Jesus
1537:Section 14: Jewish Persecution
1448:Journal of Biblical Literature
563:Elsewhere in the New Testament
75:, the Jewish religious court.
1:
1460:"law and procedure, Roman",
854:merely deposed and exiled to
671:that critically analyze them.
313:(6:1-6) have versions of the
1575:Judaism in the New Testament
1380:Catholic Encyclopedia: Herod
895:Antisemitism in Christianity
229:trial before the High Priest
227:, and continues on with his
31:is an important part of the
1560:Bible-related controversies
952:, Oxford University Press.
890:Catholic Church and Judaism
755:Basis in sectarian conflict
494:Opinions of Romans and Jews
282:disruptive Jewish community
1591:
1142:"law and procedure, Roman"
842:and the establishment of
578:destruction of the temple
470:19:23-41: Worshippers of
1570:1st-century Christianity
1473:The Purpose of Luke-Acts
1450:, 108.3 (1989): 419-441.
1369:. Minneapolis: Fortress.
880:Christianity and Judaism
772:group that would become
597:Epistle to the Galatians
503:, support this reading.
1365:Claudia Setzer (1994).
290:critics of Christianity
267:Depictions in Luke–Acts
249:preach to "all nations"
225:cleansing of the Temple
59:and accusations of the
1496:James Everett Seaver.
1422:Lillian C. Freudmann.
834:, the reason was that
726:Seven churches of Asia
640:
584:cognitio extra ordinem
382:cognitio extra ordinem
366:early Christian church
247:to the commandment to
1267:Thompson, Leonard L.
667:without referring to
259:) to the concepts of
1543:From Jesus to Christ
1394:Douglas R. A. Hare.
1271:. In Barr, David L.
832:From Jesus to Christ
675:improve this article
432:being driven out of
425:and imprisons Peter.
362:Acts of the Apostles
356:Acts of the Apostles
137:improve this section
69:Acts of the Apostles
1355:G. George Fox, p.84
1329:G. George Fox, p.83
797:church in Jerusalem
445:16:16-24: Paul and
428:13:44-51: Paul and
63:responsibility for
1478:Paul Halsall Mar.
781:Douglas R. A. Hare
715:pacate atque quita
707:Book of Revelation
472:Artemis in Ephesus
373:Roman court system
1419:, 34(1988) 105-23
836:Jewish Christians
801:Bar Kokhba revolt
731:In his letter to
703:
702:
695:
669:secondary sources
393:4:3-22, 5:17-42:
387:Pliny the Younger
338:Passion narrative
217:
216:
209:
191:
51:, especially the
45:province of Judea
16:(Redirected from
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1503:Claudia Setzer.
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969:De Ste Croix 107
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840:King of the Jews
828:Paula Fredriksen
774:Rabbinic Judaism
698:
691:
687:
684:
678:
655:
654:
647:
638:
401:are arrested by
389:'s letter 10.96
212:
205:
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117:
109:
21:
1590:
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1471:Robert Maddox.
1391:
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848:Herod Archelaus
757:
699:
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672:
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631:
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615:2nd Corinthians
593:
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519:Interpretations
501:Jewish diaspora
496:
358:
323:gentile mission
309:(13:53-58) and
298:
269:
261:supersessionism
213:
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196:
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150:
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118:
107:
91:John Chrysostom
65:his crucifixion
33:Early Christian
23:
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15:
12:
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5:
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1548:
1547:
1541:PBS Frontline
1538:
1527:
1526:External links
1524:
1523:
1522:
1517:S. G. Wilson.
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869:Acta Sanctorum
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633:2 Cor 11:23–26
629:
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574:Gospel of Mark
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568:Gospel of Mark
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346:Pontius Pilate
319:Jewish mission
302:Gospel of Luke
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296:Gospel of Luke
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241:Jewish messiah
215:
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121:
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79:Walter Laqueur
53:Gospel of John
24:
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1057:Kelhoffer 351
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958:0-19-530429-2
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852:Herod Antipas
849:
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829:
826:According to
824:
820:
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814:
809:
804:
802:
798:
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790:
786:
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779:According to
777:
775:
771:
770:Second Temple
767:
763:
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729:
727:
723:
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670:
666:
665:
660:This section
658:
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614:
612:
610:
606:
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598:
590:
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554:Encouragement
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347:
343:
339:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
303:
295:
293:
291:
288:to discredit
287:
284:; to craft a
283:
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189:
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172:
168:
165:
161:
158: –
157:
153:
152:Find sources:
146:
142:
138:
132:
131:
127:
122:This section
120:
116:
111:
110:
105:Basic context
104:
102:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
49:New Testament
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
19:
1542:
1533:
1518:
1511:
1504:
1497:
1490:
1479:
1472:
1461:
1454:
1447:
1440:
1437:W.H.C. Frend
1423:
1416:
1409:
1395:
1375:
1366:
1360:
1341:Davies, p.74
1325:
1305:
1297:
1292:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1254:
1245:
1236:
1227:
1218:
1209:
1200:
1179:
1174:Reasoner 907
1160:Walton 20-29
1156:
1147:
1138:
1129:
1108:
1099:
1078:
1029:Reasoner 909
1025:
1016:
1007:
1002:Reasoner 913
986:
981:Reasoner 915
965:
949:
941:
918:
867:
831:
825:
821:
807:
805:
778:
758:
745:
730:
719:
714:
704:
689:
680:
673:Please help
661:
626:
618:
605:circumcision
594:
583:
571:
557:
542:
540:
531:
522:
513:
509:antisemitism
505:
497:
380:
370:
359:
335:
299:
270:
251:(meaning to
218:
203:
197:October 2020
194:
184:
177:
170:
163:
151:
135:Please help
123:
81:argues that
77:
28:
26:
1133:Johnson 441
1020:Downing 113
935:22:30–23:22
923:Acts 4:1–22
844:his kingdom
683:August 2020
255:as well as
233:crucifixion
87:4th century
1554:Categories
1389:References
813:Bar Kokhba
643:Revelation
463:Gallop in
377:Saint Paul
327:Son of Man
235:, and the
167:newspapers
39:for their
37:persecuted
1231:Wilson 59
1213:Wilson 58
1204:Wilson 60
1183:Walton 35
1124:Wilson 69
1112:Walton 20
1094:Wilson 57
1073:Maddox 81
1043:Wilson 70
960:. p.46-48
793:synagogue
766:Pharisees
762:heterodox
591:Galatians
479:Jerusalem
461:proconsul
408:6:8-8:1:
403:Sadducees
350:Agrippa I
342:Sanhedrin
272:Luke–Acts
237:Pharisees
124:does not
73:Sanhedrin
41:heterodox
1439:, 1965.
990:Seaver 6
948:(2006):
931:6:8–7:60
862:See also
791:and the
741:Pergamum
711:Domitian
630:—
609:Gal 5:11
601:Gal 4:29
487:Caesarea
451:Philippi
430:Barnabas
331:prophets
253:gentiles
61:Pharisee
927:5:17–42
817:messiah
749:Babylon
733:Ephesus
619:In the
595:In his
434:Antioch
410:Stephen
307:Matthew
286:polemic
181:scholar
145:removed
130:sources
1430:
1402:
1316:
956:
789:Church
737:Smyrna
722:Patmos
465:Achaia
321:for a
231:, his
223:, the
183:
176:
169:
162:
154:
95:Pilate
67:. The
47:. The
1320:p. 61
911:Notes
830:, in
768:(the
662:uses
548:Moses
447:Silas
423:James
395:Peter
188:JSTOR
174:books
1486:>
1468:>
1428:ISBN
1400:ISBN
1314:ISBN
954:ISBN
856:Gaul
850:and
808:only
572:The
399:John
397:and
371:The
360:The
311:Mark
300:The
257:Jews
160:news
128:any
126:cite
27:The
1151:Mar
636:NIV
485:at
139:by
1556::
1346:^
1334:^
1280:^
1188:^
1165:^
1117:^
1087:^
1062:^
1048:^
1034:^
995:^
974:^
933:,
929:,
858:.
263:.
89:,
925:,
696:)
690:(
685:)
681:(
677:.
607:(
453:.
436:.
210:)
204:(
199:)
195:(
185:·
178:·
171:·
164:·
147:.
133:.
20:)
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