400:, whose complexity makes them predominantly data-driven. Such data-intensive scientific discovery is by some considered to be the fourth paradigm, after empiricism, theory and computer simulation. Others reject the idea that data driven research is about to replace theory. As Krakauer et al. put it: "machine learning is a powerful means of preprocessing data in preparation for mechanistic theory building, but should not be considered the final goal of a scientific inquiry." In regard to cancer biology, Raspe et al. state: "A better understanding of tumor biology is fundamental for extracting the relevant information from any high throughput data." The journal Science chose cancer immunotherapy as the breakthrough of 2013. According to their explanation a lesson to be learned from the successes of cancer immunotherapy is that they emerged from decoding of basic biology.
321:. She argues that this is because it is unlikely that our evaluative judgements about morality are tracking anything true about the world. Rather, she says, it is likely that moral judgements and intuitions that promote our reproductive fitness were selected for, and there is no reason to think that it is the truth of these moral intuitions which accounts for their selection. She notes that a moral intuition most people share, that someone being a close family member is a prima facie good reason to help them, happens to be an intuition likely to increase reproductive fitness, while a moral intuition almost no one has, that someone being a close family member is a reason not to help them, is likely to decrease reproductive fitness.
262:
ecosystem. Reducing an ecosystem to its parts in this case would be less effective at explaining overall behavior (in this case, the decrease in biodiversity). As individual organisms must be understood in the context of their ecosystems, holists argue, so must lower-level biological processes be understood in the broader context of the living organism in which they take part. Proponents of this view cite our growing understanding of the multidirectional and multilayered nature of gene modulation (including epigenetic changes) as an area where a reductionist view is inadequate for full explanatory power.
432:), perhaps RNA or an informational molecule more primitive than RNA or DNA. It has been argued that the evolution of order in living systems and in particular physical systems obey a common fundamental principle that was termed the Darwinian dynamic. This principal was formulated by first considering how macroscopic order is generated in a simple non-biological system far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and subsequently extending consideration to short, replicating RNA molecules. The underlying order-generating process was concluded to be basically similar for both types of systems.
3038:
5632:
354:), Thacker defines biomedia as entailing "the informatic recontextualization of biological components and processes, for ends that may be medical or non-medical...biomedia continuously make the dual demand that information materialize itself as gene or protein compounds. This point cannot be overstated: biomedia depend upon an understanding of biological as informational but not immaterial."
1806:
5619:
3026:
298:.” Some have argued that scientists have had no need for a notion of cosmic teleology that can explain and predict evolution, since one was provided by Darwin. But teleological explanations relating to purpose or function have remained useful in biology, for example, in explaining the structural configuration of
303:
physical nature of all underlying organic processes. While some philosophers claim that the ideas of
Charles Darwin ended the last remainders of teleology in biology, the matter continues to be debated. Debates in these areas of philosophy of biology turn on how one views reductionism more generally.
333:
One perspective on the philosophy of biology is how developments in modern biological research and biotechnologies have influenced traditional philosophical ideas about the distinction between biology and technology, as well as implications for ethics, society, and culture. An example is the work of
408:
approach. The lack of attention for context dependency in preclinical research is also illustrated by the observation that preclinical testing rarely includes predictive biomarkers that, when advanced to clinical trials, will help to distinguish those patients who are likely to benefit from a drug.
324:
David Copp responded to Street by arguing that realists can avoid this so-called dilemma by accepting what he calls a “quasi-tracking” position. Copp explains that what he means by quasi tracking is that it is likely that moral positions in a given society would have evolved to be at least somewhat
261:
is the view that emphasizes higher-level processes, phenomena at a larger level that occur due to the pattern of interactions between the elements of a system over time. For example, to explain why one species of finch survives a drought while others die out, the holistic method looks at the entire
302:
and the study of co-operation in social systems. By clarifying and restricting the use of the term “teleology” to describe and explain systems controlled strictly by genetic programmes or other physical systems, teleological questions can be framed and investigated while remaining committed to the
110:
Philosophers of biology examine the practices, theories, and concepts of biologists with a view toward better understanding biology as a scientific discipline (or group of scientific fields). Scientific ideas are philosophically analyzed and their consequences are explored. Philosophers of biology
407:
In tumor biology research, the characterization of cellular signaling processes has largely focused on identifying the function of individual genes and proteins. Janes showed however the context-dependent nature of signaling driving cell decisions demonstrating the need for a more system based
403:
Theory in biology is to some extent less strictly formalized than in physics. Besides 1) classic mathematical-analytical theory, as in physics, there is 2) statistics-based, 3) computer simulation and 4) conceptual/verbal analysis. Dougherty and
Bittner argue that for biology to progress as a
290:
and led to the discovery of universally applicable laws, testable in the course of experiment. It was difficult for biology to use this approach. Standard philosophy of science seemed to leave out a lot of what characterised living organisms - namely, a historical component in the form of an
265:
All processes in organisms obey physical laws, but some argue that the difference between inanimate and biological processes is that the organisation of biological properties is subject to control by coded information. This has led biologists and philosophers such as
325:
close to the truth. He justifies this by appealing to the claim that the purpose of morality is to allow a society to meet certain basic needs, such as social stability, and a society with a successful moral codes would be better at doing this.
495:
231:
1651:
Bernstein, Harris; Byerly, Henry C.; Hopf, Frederick A.; Michod, Richard A.; Vemulapalli, G. Krishna (June 1983). "The
Darwinian Dynamic". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 58 (2): 185. doi:10.1086/413216. JSTOR 2828805.
226:
in order to create logically tractable bodies of data for reasoning and search. The ontologies are species-neutral graph-theoretical representations of biological types joined together by formally defined relations.
246:
to lower-level sciences such as chemistry and physics. Materialism is the view that every biological system including organisms consists of nothing except the interactions of molecules; it is opposed to
127:
and whether progress in biology should compel modern societies to rethink traditional values concerning all aspects of human life. It is sometimes difficult to separate the philosophy of biology from
380:
Philosophy of biology was historically associated very closely with theoretical evolutionary biology, but more recently there have been more diverse movements, such as to examine molecular biology.
1416:
Janes, K. A.; Albeck, J. G.; Gaudet, S.; Sorger, P. K.; Lauffenburger, D. A.; Yaffe, M. B. (2005). "A Systems Model of
Signaling Identifies a Molecular Basis Set for Cytokine-Induced Apoptosis".
428:(as in some viruses), and such an informational molecule is likely intrinsic to life. Probably the earliest forms of life were likewise based on a self-replicating informational molecule (
230:
Philosophy of biology has become a visible, well-organized discipline, with its own journals, conferences, and professional organizations. The largest of the latter is the
1661:
Michod, Richard E. (2000). Darwinian
Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05011-9
2199:
1728:
3074:
482:
4416:
3573:
447:
50:
issues in the biological and biomedical sciences. Although philosophers of science and philosophers generally have long been interested in biology (e.g.,
342:. Building on current research in fields such as bioinformatics and biocomputing, as well as on work in the history of science (particularly the work of
4694:
3540:
2818:
2255:
2484:
388:
Research in biology continues to be less guided by theory than it is in other sciences. This is especially the case where the availability of
3535:
2655:
1404:
1399:
Dougherty, E.R. & Bittner, M.L. (2012) Epistemology of the Cell: A Systems
Perspective on Biological Knowledge. Wiley-IEEE Press, p. 149
787:
628:
3339:
864:
Neander, Karen (1998). "Functions as
Selected Effects: The Conceptual Analyst's Defense," in C. Allen, M. Bekoff & G. Lauder (Eds.),
2477:
2192:
1827:
1721:
1698:
1679:
1120:
563:
251:. As a methodology, reduction would mean that biological systems should be studied at the level of chemistry and molecules. In terms of
2227:
4957:
3900:
1105:
1084:
1067:
1046:
1012:
255:, reduction means that knowledge of biological processes can be reduced to knowledge of lower-level processes, a controversial claim.
4982:
3067:
2838:
2833:
2786:
2467:
454:
365:, anthropology, sociology of science, and political economy. This includes work by scholars such as Melinda Cooper, Luciana Parisi,
62:), philosophy of biology only emerged as an independent field of philosophy in the 1960s and 1970s, associated with the research of
5514:
1901:
1155:
Callebaut, Werner (2012). "Scientific perspectivism: A philosopher of science's response to the challenge of big data biology".
5544:
3566:
2848:
5657:
5570:
4730:
3018:
2185:
1714:
362:
1157:
Studies in
History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
4144:
3729:
5549:
5454:
5102:
3819:
3060:
2708:
2701:
317:
Sharon Street claims that contemporary evolutionary biological theory creates what she calls a “Darwinian
Dilemma” for
5353:
5067:
3696:
2560:
2535:
2520:
468:
1079:
Rose, Nikolas (2006). The
Politics of Life Itself: Biomedicine, Power, and Subjectivity in the Twenty-First Century.
278:
to resolve some of the problems which confronted them when they tried to employ a philosophy of science derived from
5220:
4889:
4195:
3971:
3559:
5426:
3638:
3628:
2733:
2713:
2621:
2617:
2540:
2232:
1909:
1881:
389:
5529:
5092:
4342:
4182:
4179:
3905:
3739:
3724:
2738:
2378:
2363:
2352:
2329:
1954:
271:
63:
351:
5107:
5048:
5001:
4859:
4822:
4190:
4105:
4095:
4019:
3885:
3857:
2976:
2723:
2718:
2691:
2626:
2580:
2575:
2510:
2403:
1852:
1773:
1240:
764:
523:
461:
243:
222:. Ontologies such as the Gene Ontology are being used to annotate the results of biological experiments in
5240:
5172:
4252:
4090:
3668:
3643:
3633:
3149:
2931:
2921:
2339:
2265:
2222:
1891:
1132:
941:
178:
83:
4745:
3842:
738:
5477:
5416:
5396:
5331:
5230:
5142:
5122:
5112:
4594:
4227:
4159:
4067:
4034:
3862:
3648:
3605:
3234:
3209:
3189:
2781:
2776:
2728:
2696:
2645:
2425:
2302:
2208:
1795:
827:
538:
518:
35:
1565:
Neveu, M.; Kim, H.J.; Benner, S.A. (April 2013). "The "strong" RNA world hypothesis: fifty years old".
4347:
404:
science, it has to move to more rigorous mathematical modeling, or otherwise risk to be "empty talk".
5494:
5449:
5411:
5358:
5287:
5043:
4839:
4750:
4573:
4543:
4284:
3812:
3658:
3653:
3454:
3264:
3214:
2761:
2756:
2631:
2515:
2420:
2393:
2275:
1886:
1521:
1425:
295:
1143:
946:
5635:
5590:
5580:
5539:
5487:
5472:
5401:
5381:
5363:
5195:
5162:
5023:
5010:
4817:
4614:
4525:
4480:
4386:
4272:
4085:
3933:
3369:
3239:
2823:
2505:
2398:
2373:
2358:
2287:
1999:
1939:
1751:
528:
128:
79:
5585:
5554:
5534:
5482:
5464:
5439:
5434:
5386:
5373:
5340:
5235:
5137:
5072:
5028:
4972:
4812:
4641:
4535:
4443:
4247:
4126:
4117:
4080:
4075:
3981:
3976:
3953:
3872:
3686:
3613:
3530:
3484:
3464:
3449:
3274:
3269:
3083:
2971:
2926:
2813:
2636:
2457:
2292:
2282:
2166:
2161:
2135:
2055:
2039:
2034:
1944:
1864:
1857:
1547:
1449:
1382:
959:
914:
877:
839:
823:
797:
343:
283:
5623:
5524:
5519:
5504:
5444:
5406:
5391:
5348:
4919:
4879:
4797:
4725:
4708:
4686:
4314:
4289:
4100:
3920:
3663:
3469:
3349:
3204:
3030:
2901:
2803:
2660:
2450:
2415:
2309:
2248:
2105:
2090:
2085:
1984:
1949:
1783:
1631:
1582:
1539:
1490:
1441:
1400:
1343:
1302:
1263:
1221:
1172:
1101:
1080:
1063:
1042:
1008:
783:
698:
624:
279:
258:
143:
55:
1283:"Gene expression profiling to dissect the complexity of cancer biology: Pitfalls and promise"
5575:
5509:
5499:
5200:
5147:
5097:
5077:
5038:
5033:
4874:
4802:
4520:
4431:
4322:
4294:
4279:
4242:
3948:
3928:
3895:
3800:
3762:
3194:
3001:
2956:
2936:
2472:
2462:
2445:
2125:
2095:
2080:
2029:
2024:
1979:
1621:
1613:
1574:
1529:
1480:
1433:
1374:
1333:
1294:
1255:
1211:
1203:
1164:
986:
951:
906:
688:
678:
601:
374:
4421:
5281:
5250:
5215:
5180:
5058:
4909:
4807:
4765:
4676:
4664:
4649:
4624:
4599:
4369:
4237:
4232:
4149:
4134:
3807:
3691:
3479:
3444:
2991:
2951:
2873:
2828:
2665:
2570:
2555:
2530:
2344:
2324:
2070:
2060:
1989:
1693:
851:
809:
358:
318:
1689:
1525:
1429:
1117:
5190:
5185:
5152:
5053:
5018:
4950:
4924:
4760:
4631:
4609:
4548:
4461:
4406:
4379:
4304:
4200:
3943:
3623:
3334:
3144:
3042:
2911:
2771:
2410:
2319:
2065:
2009:
1964:
1934:
1919:
1914:
1626:
1601:
1216:
1191:
693:
666:
335:
275:
223:
219:
5651:
5245:
5157:
5087:
4829:
4619:
4553:
4510:
4004:
3790:
3772:
3414:
3309:
3199:
3174:
3169:
2961:
2896:
2868:
2796:
2525:
2440:
2115:
2100:
2075:
2014:
1974:
1924:
1832:
1822:
1766:
990:
963:
420:
to humans, possess a self-replicating informational molecule (genome) that is either
299:
59:
17:
4352:
1453:
1386:
1298:
5276:
5266:
5225:
5205:
4977:
4940:
4899:
4785:
4735:
4396:
4374:
4299:
4267:
4139:
3999:
3910:
3706:
3459:
3439:
3404:
3399:
3389:
3384:
3364:
3344:
3254:
3224:
3184:
3164:
3154:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3037:
3006:
2986:
2941:
2916:
2906:
2878:
2808:
2766:
2640:
2594:
2565:
2545:
2140:
2130:
2019:
2004:
1842:
1778:
1551:
543:
533:
513:
370:
366:
252:
200:
112:
99:
71:
39:
1338:
1321:
5271:
5210:
5082:
5062:
4967:
4904:
4864:
4844:
4770:
4740:
4401:
4337:
4029:
4014:
3890:
3880:
3829:
3795:
3734:
3509:
3504:
3474:
3429:
3374:
3314:
3299:
3294:
3259:
3219:
3109:
3099:
3094:
2996:
2981:
2966:
2946:
2863:
2791:
2608:
2598:
2585:
2550:
2500:
2430:
2383:
2270:
2260:
2120:
1994:
1847:
1617:
1168:
508:
496:
International Society for the History, Philosophy, and Social Studies of Biology
347:
287:
232:
International Society for the History, Philosophy, and Social Studies of Biology
189:
124:
91:
43:
1259:
1207:
5117:
4945:
4894:
4884:
4755:
4659:
4604:
4411:
4391:
4257:
4024:
3938:
3767:
3714:
3678:
3582:
3494:
3489:
3434:
3419:
3359:
3324:
3319:
3289:
3249:
3229:
3159:
3139:
2883:
2612:
2603:
2590:
2334:
2297:
2145:
2110:
1969:
1959:
1929:
1837:
1805:
1378:
955:
894:
717:"Society for the History, Philosophy, and Social Studies of Biology (ISHPSSB)"
267:
120:
95:
5132:
5127:
4987:
4914:
4849:
4720:
4654:
4466:
4456:
4451:
4426:
4222:
3782:
3744:
3409:
3394:
3379:
3329:
3304:
2650:
2243:
1876:
1814:
1788:
1761:
1437:
932:
Street, Sharon (2006). "A Darwinian Dilemma for Realist Theories of Value".
683:
312:
242:
A prominent question in the philosophy of biology is whether biology can be
196:
182:
51:
4357:
1635:
1586:
1543:
1494:
1445:
1347:
1306:
1267:
1225:
1176:
1024:
Thacker, "Biomedia", in W. J. T. Mitchell and Mark B. N. Hansen (editors),
702:
357:
Some approaches to the philosophy of biology incorporate perspectives from
1578:
1144:
Hey, T. (ed) 2009 The Fourth Paradigm: Data-Intensive Scientific Discovery
4962:
4869:
4834:
4792:
4780:
4568:
4362:
4262:
4205:
4009:
3963:
3847:
3499:
3424:
3354:
3284:
3279:
3104:
2670:
2388:
1869:
1756:
1467:
Creixell, Pau; Schoof, Erwin M.; Erler, Janine T.; Linding, Rune (2012).
564:"Northwestern professor David L. Hull helped found philosophy of biology"
397:
248:
215:
204:
171:
2177:
1706:
4589:
4563:
4558:
4500:
4495:
4327:
4215:
4210:
4169:
3991:
3837:
3719:
3514:
3244:
3114:
2368:
918:
150:
136:
67:
3052:
4854:
4775:
4505:
4164:
4154:
3852:
3754:
3179:
2435:
1485:
1468:
780:
Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology
745:(Spring 2017 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
429:
116:
47:
1534:
1509:
1362:
1282:
910:
589:
66:. Philosophers of science then began paying increasing attention to
1510:"Drug development: Raise standards for preclinical cancer research"
1060:
Abstract Sex: Philosophy, Biotechnology and the Mutations of Desire
1039:
Life As Surplus: Biotechnology and Capitalism in the Neoliberal Era
605:
4670:
4332:
3618:
1674:
1098:
Tissue Economies: Blood, Organs, and Cell Lines in Late Capitalism
417:
393:
164:
1469:"Navigating cancer network attractors for tumor-specific therapy"
2314:
977:
Copp, David (2008). "Darwinian Skepticism about Moral Realism".
157:
87:
5313:
4055:
3593:
3555:
3056:
2181:
1710:
782:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 100–114.
644:
111:
have also explored how our understanding of biology relates to
4515:
621:
Autopoiesis and cognition : the realization of the living
425:
421:
75:
3551:
882:
Nature's purposes: Analyses of Function and Design in Biology
880:(1998). "Teleological explanations in evolutionary biology."
866:
Nature's Purposes: Analyses of Function and Design in Biology
74:
in the 1930s and 1940s to the discovery of the structure of
716:
294:
Philosophers of biology have also examined the notion of “
218:
and logic are being used by biologists in the domain of
274:
to return to the strictly philosophical reflections of
474:
210:"Are there laws of biology like the laws of physics?"
1363:"On the Different Ways of "Doing Theory" in Biology"
1281:
Raspe, Eric; Decraene, Charles; Berx, Geert (2012).
5563:
5463:
5425:
5372:
5339:
5330:
5259:
5171:
5009:
5000:
4933:
4707:
4685:
4640:
4582:
4534:
4488:
4479:
4442:
4313:
4178:
4125:
4116:
4066:
3990:
3962:
3919:
3871:
3828:
3781:
3753:
3705:
3677:
3604:
3523:
2856:
2847:
2749:
2679:
2493:
2215:
2154:
2048:
1900:
1813:
1744:
1241:"The challenges and scope of theoretical biology"
1647:
1645:
1096:Waldby, Catherine, and Robert Mitchell (2006).
619:Maturana, Humberto; Varela, Francisco (1980).
3567:
3068:
2193:
1722:
286:approach used in physics emphasised a strict
8:
483:Studies in History and Philosophy of Science
412:The Darwinian dynamic and the origin of life
1192:"On the Epistemological Crisis in Genomics"
1028:, University of Chicago Press 2010, p. 123.
476:Philosophy, Theory, and Practice in Biology
448:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
5336:
5327:
5310:
5006:
4713:
4485:
4122:
4063:
4052:
3601:
3590:
3574:
3560:
3552:
3075:
3061:
3053:
2853:
2200:
2186:
2178:
1729:
1715:
1707:
179:biological materialism & deterministic
3541:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
2819:Relationship between religion and science
1625:
1533:
1484:
1337:
1215:
945:
692:
682:
192:possible, given our biological origins?"
743:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
555:
436:Journals and professional organizations
238:Biological laws and autonomy of biology
847:
837:
805:
795:
3536:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
146:, and how does it operate in nature?"
7:
1133:Vienna series in theoretical biology
778:Smocovitis, Vassiliki Betty (1996).
667:"Relations in biomedical ontologies"
94:reactions, and the incorporation of
1828:Alternatives to Darwinian evolution
1699:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1680:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1121:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
737:Brigandt, Ingo; Love, Alan (2017),
78:in 1953 to more recent advances in
1041:. University of Washington Press.
181:molecular biology compatible with
25:
2839:Sociology of scientific knowledge
2834:Sociology of scientific ignorance
2787:History and philosophy of science
1007:. University of Minnesota Press.
897:(1992). "The idea of teleology".
834:. W.H. Freeman. pp. 497–504.
590:"Health as a Theoretical Concept"
455:Journal of the History of Biology
416:Organisms that exist today, from
27:Subfield of philosophy of science
5631:
5630:
5617:
3036:
3024:
1804:
1026:Critical Terms for Media Studies
991:10.1111/j.1533-6077.2008.00144.x
765:"Getting Over the Code Delusion"
153:states from non-disease states?"
1299:10.1016/j.semcancer.2012.02.011
899:Journal of the History of Ideas
392:techniques for the different "-
307:Ethical implications of biology
214:Ideas drawn from philosophical
2228:Analytic–synthetic distinction
1606:Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol
1248:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1239:Krakauer; et al. (2011).
363:science and technology studies
82:. Other key ideas include the
1:
1339:10.1126/science.342.6165.1432
868:(pp. 313–333). The MIT Press.
741:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
5103:Ordinary language philosophy
588:Boorse, Christopher (1977).
384:Scientific discovery process
5153:Contemporary utilitarianism
5068:Internalism and externalism
2561:Hypothetico-deductive model
2536:Deductive-nomological model
2521:Constructivist epistemology
1618:10.1101/cshperspect.a006742
1602:"The RNA worlds in context"
1361:Pigliucci, Massimo (2013).
1320:Couzin-Frankel, J. (2013).
1169:10.1016/j.shpsc.2011.10.007
149:"How should we distinguish
5674:
4417:Svatantrika and Prasangika
1287:Seminars in Cancer Biology
1260:10.1016/j.jtbi.2011.01.051
1208:10.2174/138920208784139546
645:"Gene Ontology Consortium"
490:Professional organizations
310:
5611:
5326:
5309:
4716:
4062:
4051:
3639:Philosophy of mathematics
3629:Philosophy of information
3600:
3589:
3090:
3015:
2622:Semantic view of theories
2541:Epistemological anarchism
2478:dependent and independent
1882:Evolutionary epistemology
1802:
1379:10.1007/s13752-012-0047-1
1100:. Duke University Press.
956:10.1007/s11098-005-1726-6
832:Teleological explanations
739:"Reductionism in Biology"
390:high throughput screening
2364:Intertheoretic reduction
2353:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
2330:Functional contextualism
1600:Cech, T.R. (July 2012).
1190:Dougherty, E.R. (2008).
1058:Parisi, Luciana (2004).
1037:Cooper, Melinda (2008).
1003:Thacker, Eugene (2004).
462:Biology & Philosophy
5108:Postanalytic philosophy
5049:Experimental philosophy
2849:Philosophers of science
2627:Scientific essentialism
2576:Model-dependent realism
2511:Constructive empiricism
2404:Evidence-based practice
1902:Philosophers of biology
1690:"Philosophy of Biology"
1675:"Philosophy of biology"
1438:10.1126/science.1116598
684:10.1186/gb-2005-6-5-r46
524:Materialism Controversy
5241:Social constructionism
4253:Hellenistic philosophy
3669:Theoretical philosophy
3644:Philosophy of religion
3634:Philosophy of language
3150:Biological engineering
2932:Alfred North Whitehead
2922:Charles Sanders Peirce
1322:"Cancer Immunotherapy"
1118:Philosophy of Biology.
170:"What is the basis of
135:"What is a biological
5658:Philosophy of biology
5624:Philosophy portal
5143:Scientific skepticism
5123:Reformed epistemology
3649:Philosophy of science
3235:Developmental biology
3210:Computational biology
3190:Cellular microbiology
3031:Philosophy portal
2782:Hard and soft science
2777:Faith and rationality
2646:Scientific skepticism
2426:Scientific Revolution
2209:Philosophy of science
1796:Evolutionary taxonomy
1738:Philosophy of biology
1579:10.1089/ast.2012.0868
934:Philosophical Studies
665:Smith, Barry (2005).
594:Philosophy of Science
539:Philosophy of Science
519:Golden Eurydice Award
352:Hans-Jörg Rheinberger
311:Further information:
36:philosophy of science
32:philosophy of biology
18:Philosophy of Biology
5044:Critical rationalism
4751:Edo neo-Confucianism
4595:Acintya bheda abheda
4574:Renaissance humanism
4285:School of the Sextii
3659:Practical philosophy
3654:Political philosophy
3455:Reproductive biology
3340:Mathematical biology
3265:Evolutionary biology
3215:Conservation biology
2757:Criticism of science
2632:Scientific formalism
2516:Constructive realism
2421:Scientific pluralism
2394:Problem of induction
1473:Nature Biotechnology
979:Philosophical Issues
763:Talbott, Stephen L.
424:(most organisms) or
291:inherited genotype.
4615:Nimbarka Sampradaya
4526:Korean Confucianism
4273:Academic Skepticism
3240:Ecological genetics
3084:Branches of biology
2824:Rhetoric of science
2762:Descriptive science
2506:Confirmation holism
2399:Scientific evidence
2359:Inductive reasoning
2288:Demarcation problem
1940:Peter Godfrey-Smith
1652:S2CID 83956410
1526:2012Natur.483..531B
1508:Begley, C. (2012).
1430:2005Sci...310.1646J
1424:(5754): 1646–1653.
1332:(6165): 1432–1433.
824:Ayala, Francisco J.
767:. The New Atlantis.
529:Mechanism (biology)
129:theoretical biology
80:genetic engineering
70:, from the rise of
38:, which deals with
5236:Post-structuralism
5138:Scientific realism
5093:Quinean naturalism
5073:Logical positivism
5029:Analytical Marxism
4248:Peripatetic school
4160:Chinese naturalism
3687:Aesthetic response
3614:Applied philosophy
3531:History of biology
3465:Structural biology
3450:Relational biology
3275:Generative biology
3270:Freshwater biology
3043:Science portal
2972:Carl Gustav Hempel
2927:Wilhelm Windelband
2814:Questionable cause
2637:Scientific realism
2458:Underdetermination
2293:Empirical evidence
2283:Creative synthesis
2167:History of biology
2162:Philosophy of mind
2136:John Maynard Smith
2056:Francisco J. Ayala
2040:William C. Wimsatt
2035:Gerard Verschuuren
1945:James R. Griesemer
344:Georges Canguilhem
329:Other perspectives
5645:
5644:
5607:
5606:
5603:
5602:
5599:
5598:
5305:
5304:
5301:
5300:
5297:
5296:
5024:Analytic feminism
4996:
4995:
4958:Kierkegaardianism
4920:Transcendentalism
4880:Neo-scholasticism
4726:Classical Realism
4703:
4702:
4475:
4474:
4290:Neopythagoreanism
4047:
4046:
4043:
4042:
3664:Social philosophy
3549:
3548:
3470:Synthetic biology
3350:Molecular biology
3205:Cognitive biology
3050:
3049:
2892:
2891:
2804:Normative science
2661:Uniformitarianism
2416:Scientific method
2310:Explanatory power
2175:
2174:
2106:Humberto Maturana
2091:Stephen Jay Gould
1985:Roberta Millstein
1950:Paul E. Griffiths
1688:Griffiths, Paul.
1520:(7391): 531–533.
1405:978-1-1180-2779-0
1367:Biological Theory
789:978-0-691-03343-3
630:978-90-277-1016-1
469:Biological Theory
396:" fields such as
280:classical physics
259:Holism in science
144:natural selection
34:is a subfield of
16:(Redirected from
5665:
5634:
5633:
5622:
5621:
5620:
5337:
5328:
5311:
5201:Frankfurt School
5148:Transactionalism
5098:Normative ethics
5078:Legal positivism
5054:Falsificationism
5039:Consequentialism
5034:Communitarianism
5007:
4875:New Confucianism
4714:
4521:Neo-Confucianism
4486:
4295:Second Sophistic
4280:Middle Platonism
4123:
4064:
4053:
3896:Epiphenomenalism
3763:Consequentialism
3697:Institutionalism
3602:
3591:
3576:
3569:
3562:
3553:
3195:Chemical biology
3077:
3070:
3063:
3054:
3041:
3040:
3029:
3028:
3027:
3002:Bas van Fraassen
2957:Hans Reichenbach
2937:Bertrand Russell
2854:
2680:Philosophy of...
2463:Unity of science
2256:Commensurability
2202:
2195:
2188:
2179:
2126:Joan Roughgarden
2096:Richard Lewontin
2081:Michael Ghiselin
2030:Francisco Varela
2025:Alfred I. Tauber
1980:Jane Maienschein
1808:
1731:
1724:
1717:
1708:
1703:
1694:Zalta, Edward N.
1684:
1662:
1659:
1653:
1649:
1640:
1639:
1629:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1537:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1488:
1486:10.1038/nbt.2345
1464:
1458:
1457:
1413:
1407:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1341:
1317:
1311:
1310:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1245:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1219:
1196:Current Genomics
1187:
1181:
1180:
1152:
1146:
1141:
1135:
1130:
1124:
1115:
1109:
1094:
1088:
1077:
1071:
1056:
1050:
1035:
1029:
1022:
1016:
1001:
995:
994:
974:
968:
967:
949:
929:
923:
922:
891:
885:
884:. The MIT Press.
878:Ayala, Francisco
875:
869:
862:
856:
855:
849:
845:
843:
835:
820:
814:
813:
807:
803:
801:
793:
775:
769:
768:
760:
754:
753:
752:
750:
734:
728:
727:
725:
723:
713:
707:
706:
696:
686:
662:
656:
655:
653:
651:
641:
635:
634:
616:
610:
609:
585:
579:
578:
576:
574:
560:
375:Catherine Waldby
199:compatible with
167:uniquely human?"
21:
5673:
5672:
5668:
5667:
5666:
5664:
5663:
5662:
5648:
5647:
5646:
5641:
5618:
5616:
5595:
5559:
5459:
5421:
5368:
5322:
5321:
5293:
5282:Russian cosmism
5255:
5251:Western Marxism
5216:New Historicism
5181:Critical theory
5167:
5163:Wittgensteinian
5059:Foundationalism
4992:
4929:
4910:Social contract
4766:Foundationalism
4699:
4681:
4665:Illuminationism
4650:Aristotelianism
4636:
4625:Vishishtadvaita
4578:
4530:
4471:
4438:
4309:
4238:Megarian school
4233:Eretrian school
4174:
4135:Agriculturalism
4112:
4058:
4039:
3986:
3958:
3915:
3867:
3824:
3808:Incompatibilism
3777:
3749:
3701:
3673:
3596:
3585:
3580:
3550:
3545:
3519:
3480:Systems biology
3445:Quantum biology
3086:
3081:
3051:
3046:
3035:
3025:
3023:
3011:
2992:Paul Feyerabend
2952:Michael Polanyi
2888:
2874:Galileo Galilei
2843:
2829:Science studies
2745:
2675:
2666:Verificationism
2571:Instrumentalism
2556:Foundationalism
2531:Conventionalism
2489:
2325:Feminist method
2211:
2206:
2176:
2171:
2150:
2071:Richard Dawkins
2061:Patrick Bateson
2044:
1990:Sandra Mitchell
1896:
1809:
1800:
1740:
1735:
1687:
1673:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1643:
1599:
1598:
1594:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1535:10.1038/483531a
1507:
1506:
1502:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1398:
1394:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1243:
1238:
1237:
1233:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1154:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1138:
1131:
1127:
1116:
1112:
1095:
1091:
1078:
1074:
1057:
1053:
1036:
1032:
1023:
1019:
1002:
998:
976:
975:
971:
947:10.1.1.150.5948
931:
930:
926:
911:10.2307/2709913
893:
892:
888:
876:
872:
863:
859:
846:
836:
822:
821:
817:
804:
794:
790:
777:
776:
772:
762:
761:
757:
748:
746:
736:
735:
731:
721:
719:
715:
714:
710:
664:
663:
659:
649:
647:
643:
642:
638:
631:
618:
617:
613:
587:
586:
582:
572:
570:
568:Chicago Tribune
562:
561:
557:
553:
548:
504:
492:
443:
438:
414:
386:
359:science studies
331:
315:
309:
240:
224:model organisms
108:
98:into a broader
40:epistemological
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5671:
5669:
5661:
5660:
5650:
5649:
5643:
5642:
5640:
5639:
5627:
5612:
5609:
5608:
5605:
5604:
5601:
5600:
5597:
5596:
5594:
5593:
5588:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5567:
5565:
5561:
5560:
5558:
5557:
5552:
5547:
5542:
5537:
5532:
5527:
5522:
5517:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5497:
5492:
5491:
5490:
5480:
5475:
5469:
5467:
5461:
5460:
5458:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5431:
5429:
5427:Middle Eastern
5423:
5422:
5420:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5394:
5389:
5384:
5378:
5376:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5366:
5361:
5356:
5351:
5345:
5343:
5334:
5324:
5323:
5320:
5319:
5315:
5314:
5307:
5306:
5303:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5295:
5294:
5292:
5291:
5284:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5263:
5261:
5257:
5256:
5254:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5191:Existentialism
5188:
5186:Deconstruction
5183:
5177:
5175:
5169:
5168:
5166:
5165:
5160:
5155:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5085:
5080:
5075:
5070:
5065:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5019:Applied ethics
5015:
5013:
5004:
4998:
4997:
4994:
4993:
4991:
4990:
4985:
4983:Nietzscheanism
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4954:
4953:
4943:
4937:
4935:
4931:
4930:
4928:
4927:
4925:Utilitarianism
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4867:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4826:
4825:
4823:Transcendental
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4790:
4789:
4788:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4761:Existentialism
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4717:
4711:
4705:
4704:
4701:
4700:
4698:
4697:
4691:
4689:
4683:
4682:
4680:
4679:
4674:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4646:
4644:
4638:
4637:
4635:
4634:
4629:
4628:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4549:Augustinianism
4546:
4540:
4538:
4532:
4531:
4529:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4492:
4490:
4483:
4477:
4476:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4469:
4464:
4462:Zoroastrianism
4459:
4454:
4448:
4446:
4440:
4439:
4437:
4436:
4435:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4384:
4383:
4382:
4377:
4367:
4366:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4319:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4308:
4307:
4305:Church Fathers
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4276:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4219:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4187:
4185:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4131:
4129:
4120:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4110:
4109:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4078:
4072:
4070:
4060:
4059:
4056:
4049:
4048:
4045:
4044:
4041:
4040:
4038:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3996:
3994:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3968:
3966:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3925:
3923:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3877:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3834:
3832:
3826:
3825:
3823:
3822:
3820:Libertarianism
3817:
3816:
3815:
3805:
3804:
3803:
3793:
3787:
3785:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3759:
3757:
3751:
3750:
3748:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3711:
3709:
3703:
3702:
3700:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3683:
3681:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3624:Metaphilosophy
3621:
3616:
3610:
3608:
3598:
3597:
3594:
3587:
3586:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3571:
3564:
3556:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3527:
3525:
3521:
3520:
3518:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3335:Marine biology
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3145:Bioinformatics
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3072:
3065:
3057:
3048:
3047:
3045:
3033:
3021:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2977:W. V. O. Quine
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2912:Rudolf Steiner
2909:
2904:
2902:Henri Poincaré
2899:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2860:
2858:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2772:Exact sciences
2769:
2764:
2759:
2753:
2751:
2750:Related topics
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2709:Social science
2706:
2705:
2704:
2702:Space and time
2694:
2689:
2683:
2681:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2615:
2606:
2601:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2497:
2495:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2411:Scientific law
2408:
2407:
2406:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2342:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2320:Falsifiability
2317:
2312:
2307:
2306:
2305:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2249:Mill's Methods
2241:
2230:
2225:
2219:
2217:
2213:
2212:
2207:
2205:
2204:
2197:
2190:
2182:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2164:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2086:François Jacob
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2066:Charles Darwin
2063:
2058:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2010:Sahotra Sarkar
2007:
2002:
2000:Alex Rosenberg
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1965:Philip Kitcher
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1935:Marjorie Grene
1932:
1927:
1922:
1920:Daniel Dennett
1917:
1915:Lindley Darden
1912:
1906:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1825:
1819:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1798:
1793:
1792:
1791:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1734:
1733:
1726:
1719:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1685:
1669:
1668:External links
1666:
1664:
1663:
1654:
1641:
1612:(7): a006742.
1592:
1573:(4): 391–403.
1557:
1500:
1479:(9): 842–848.
1459:
1408:
1392:
1373:(4): 287–297.
1353:
1312:
1293:(3): 250–260.
1273:
1254:(1): 269–276.
1231:
1182:
1147:
1136:
1125:
1110:
1106:978-0822337706
1089:
1085:978-0691121918
1072:
1068:978-0826469908
1051:
1047:978-0295987910
1030:
1017:
1013:978-0816643530
996:
969:
924:
905:(1): 117–135.
895:Mayr, Ernst W.
886:
870:
857:
828:Dobzhansky, T.
815:
806:|journal=
788:
770:
755:
729:
708:
671:Genome Biology
657:
636:
629:
611:
606:10.1086/288768
600:(4): 542–573.
580:
554:
552:
549:
547:
546:
541:
536:
531:
526:
521:
516:
511:
505:
503:
500:
499:
498:
491:
488:
487:
486:
479:
472:
465:
458:
451:
442:
439:
437:
434:
413:
410:
385:
382:
336:Eugene Thacker
330:
327:
308:
305:
300:macromolecules
276:Charles Darwin
239:
236:
220:bioinformatics
212:
211:
208:
193:
186:
175:
168:
161:
154:
147:
140:
107:
104:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5670:
5659:
5656:
5655:
5653:
5638:
5637:
5628:
5626:
5625:
5614:
5613:
5610:
5592:
5589:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5568:
5566:
5564:Miscellaneous
5562:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5496:
5493:
5489:
5486:
5485:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5470:
5468:
5466:
5462:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5432:
5430:
5428:
5424:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5380:
5379:
5377:
5375:
5371:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5346:
5344:
5342:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5329:
5325:
5317:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5290:
5289:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5264:
5262:
5260:Miscellaneous
5258:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5246:Structuralism
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5231:Postmodernism
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5221:Phenomenology
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5178:
5176:
5174:
5170:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5158:Vienna Circle
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5088:Moral realism
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5012:
5008:
5005:
5003:
4999:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4952:
4949:
4948:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4938:
4936:
4932:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4890:Phenomenology
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4830:Individualism
4828:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4795:
4794:
4791:
4787:
4784:
4783:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4718:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4706:
4696:
4695:Judeo-Islamic
4693:
4692:
4690:
4688:
4684:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4672:
4671:ʿIlm al-Kalām
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4647:
4645:
4643:
4639:
4633:
4630:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4620:Shuddhadvaita
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4592:
4591:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4581:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4554:Scholasticism
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4539:
4537:
4533:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4493:
4491:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4445:
4441:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4388:
4385:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4371:
4368:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4325:
4324:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4312:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4255:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4193:
4192:
4189:
4188:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4177:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4130:
4128:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4115:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4083:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4054:
4050:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4005:Conceptualism
4003:
4001:
3998:
3997:
3995:
3993:
3989:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3934:Particularism
3932:
3930:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3922:
3918:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3901:Functionalism
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3886:Eliminativism
3884:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3870:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3835:
3833:
3831:
3827:
3821:
3818:
3814:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3806:
3802:
3799:
3798:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3791:Compatibilism
3789:
3788:
3786:
3784:
3780:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3760:
3758:
3756:
3752:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3730:Particularism
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3708:
3704:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3680:
3676:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3577:
3572:
3570:
3565:
3563:
3558:
3557:
3554:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3415:Phylogenetics
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3310:Human biology
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3200:Chronobiology
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3175:Biotechnology
3173:
3171:
3170:Biostatistics
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3089:
3085:
3078:
3073:
3071:
3066:
3064:
3059:
3058:
3055:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3032:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3014:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2962:Rudolf Carnap
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2897:Auguste Comte
2895:
2894:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2869:Francis Bacon
2867:
2865:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2846:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2798:
2797:Pseudoscience
2795:
2794:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2711:
2710:
2707:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2656:Structuralism
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2619:
2618:Received view
2616:
2614:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2526:Contextualism
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2198:
2196:
2191:
2189:
2184:
2183:
2180:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2116:Jacques Monod
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2101:Konrad Lorenz
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2076:Jared Diamond
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2015:Elliott Sober
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1975:Helen Longino
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1853:Structuralism
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1833:Catastrophism
1831:
1830:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1823:Adaptationism
1821:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1797:
1794:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1768:
1767:Kin selection
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1754:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1681:
1676:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1658:
1655:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1593:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1463:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1402:
1396:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1316:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1277:
1274:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1242:
1235:
1232:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1186:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1129:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1062:. Continuum.
1061:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1034:
1031:
1027:
1021:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1000:
997:
992:
988:
984:
980:
973:
970:
965:
961:
957:
953:
948:
943:
939:
935:
928:
925:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
890:
887:
883:
879:
874:
871:
867:
861:
858:
853:
841:
833:
829:
825:
819:
816:
811:
799:
791:
785:
781:
774:
771:
766:
759:
756:
744:
740:
733:
730:
718:
712:
709:
704:
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
676:
672:
668:
661:
658:
646:
640:
637:
632:
626:
623:. D. Reidel.
622:
615:
612:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
584:
581:
569:
565:
559:
556:
550:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
506:
501:
497:
494:
493:
489:
485:
484:
480:
478:
477:
473:
471:
470:
466:
464:
463:
459:
457:
456:
452:
450:
449:
445:
444:
440:
435:
433:
431:
427:
423:
419:
411:
409:
405:
401:
399:
395:
391:
383:
381:
378:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
328:
326:
322:
320:
314:
306:
304:
301:
297:
292:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
263:
260:
256:
254:
250:
245:
237:
235:
233:
228:
225:
221:
217:
209:
206:
202:
198:
194:
191:
187:
184:
180:
176:
173:
169:
166:
162:
159:
155:
152:
148:
145:
141:
138:
134:
133:
132:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
105:
103:
101:
97:
93:
90:processes to
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
5629:
5615:
5286:
5277:Postcritique
5267:Kyoto School
5226:Posthumanism
5206:Hermeneutics
5061: /
5002:Contemporary
4978:Newtonianism
4941:Cartesianism
4900:Reductionism
4736:Conservatism
4731:Collectivism
4669:
4397:Sarvāstivadā
4375:Anekantavada
4300:Neoplatonism
4268:Epicureanism
4201:Pythagoreans
4140:Confucianism
4106:Contemporary
4096:Early modern
4000:Anti-realism
3954:Universalism
3911:Subjectivism
3707:Epistemology
3460:Sociobiology
3440:Protistology
3405:Photobiology
3400:Pharmacology
3390:Parasitology
3385:Paleontology
3365:Neuroscience
3345:Microbiology
3255:Epidemiology
3225:Cytogenetics
3185:Cell biology
3165:Biosemiotics
3155:Biomechanics
3135:Biogeography
3130:Biochemistry
3125:Bacteriology
3120:Astrobiology
3007:Larry Laudan
2987:Imre Lakatos
2942:Otto Neurath
2917:Karl Pearson
2907:Pierre Duhem
2879:Isaac Newton
2809:Protoscience
2767:Epistemology
2686:
2641:Anti-realism
2639: /
2620: /
2611: /
2597: /
2595:Reductionism
2593: /
2566:Inductionism
2546:Evolutionism
2351:
2238:a posteriori
2237:
2233:
2141:E. O. Wilson
2131:Rolf Sattler
2020:Kim Sterelny
2005:Michael Ruse
1892:Tree of life
1843:Orthogenesis
1779:Reductionism
1737:
1697:
1678:
1657:
1609:
1605:
1595:
1570:
1567:Astrobiology
1566:
1560:
1517:
1513:
1503:
1476:
1472:
1462:
1421:
1417:
1411:
1395:
1370:
1366:
1356:
1329:
1325:
1315:
1290:
1286:
1276:
1251:
1247:
1234:
1202:(2): 69–79.
1199:
1195:
1185:
1163:(1): 69–80.
1160:
1156:
1150:
1139:
1128:
1113:
1097:
1092:
1075:
1059:
1054:
1038:
1033:
1025:
1020:
1004:
999:
982:
978:
972:
937:
933:
927:
902:
898:
889:
881:
873:
865:
860:
831:
818:
779:
773:
758:
747:, retrieved
742:
732:
720:. Retrieved
711:
674:
670:
660:
648:. Retrieved
639:
620:
614:
597:
593:
583:
571:. Retrieved
567:
558:
544:Physics envy
534:Orthogenesis
514:Biosemiotics
481:
475:
467:
460:
453:
446:
415:
406:
402:
387:
379:
371:Nikolas Rose
367:Paul Rabinow
356:
339:
338:in his book
334:philosopher
332:
323:
316:
293:
264:
257:
253:epistemology
241:
229:
213:
201:Christianity
163:"What makes
113:epistemology
109:
100:neuroscience
72:Neodarwinism
44:metaphysical
31:
29:
5272:Objectivism
5211:Neo-Marxism
5173:Continental
5083:Meta-ethics
5063:Coherentism
4968:Hegelianism
4905:Rationalism
4865:Natural law
4845:Materialism
4771:Historicism
4741:Determinism
4632:Navya-Nyāya
4407:Sautrāntika
4402:Pudgalavada
4338:Vaisheshika
4191:Presocratic
4091:Renaissance
4030:Physicalism
4015:Materialism
3921:Normativity
3906:Objectivism
3891:Emergentism
3881:Behaviorism
3830:Metaphysics
3796:Determinism
3735:Rationalism
3510:Xenobiology
3505:Virophysics
3475:Systematics
3430:Primatology
3375:Ornithology
3315:Ichthyology
3300:Herpetology
3295:Gerontology
3260:Epigenetics
3220:Cryobiology
3110:Agrostology
3100:Aerobiology
3095:Abiogenesis
2997:Ian Hacking
2982:Thomas Kuhn
2967:Karl Popper
2947:C. D. Broad
2864:Roger Bacon
2792:Non-science
2734:Linguistics
2714:Archaeology
2609:Rationalism
2599:Determinism
2586:Physicalism
2551:Fallibilism
2501:Coherentism
2431:Testability
2384:Observation
2379:Objectivity
2340:alternative
2271:Correlation
2261:Consilience
2121:Denis Noble
1995:Susan Oyama
1910:John Beatty
1848:Mutationism
985:: 186–206.
940:: 109–166.
848:|work=
509:Autopoiesis
348:Lily E. Kay
288:determinism
234:(ISHPSSB).
190:rationality
125:metaphysics
92:biochemical
5571:Amerindian
5478:Australian
5417:Vietnamese
5397:Indonesian
4946:Kantianism
4895:Positivism
4885:Pragmatism
4860:Naturalism
4840:Liberalism
4818:Subjective
4756:Empiricism
4660:Avicennism
4605:Bhedabheda
4489:East Asian
4412:Madhyamaka
4392:Abhidharma
4258:Pyrrhonism
4025:Nominalism
4020:Naturalism
3949:Skepticism
3939:Relativism
3929:Absolutism
3858:Naturalism
3768:Deontology
3740:Skepticism
3725:Naturalism
3715:Empiricism
3679:Aesthetics
3583:Philosophy
3495:Toxicology
3490:Teratology
3435:Proteomics
3420:Physiology
3360:Neontology
3325:Lipidology
3320:Immunology
3290:Geobiology
3250:Embryology
3230:Dendrology
3160:Biophysics
3140:Biogeology
2884:David Hume
2857:Precursors
2739:Psychology
2719:Economics
2613:Empiricism
2604:Pragmatism
2591:Positivism
2581:Naturalism
2451:scientific
2335:Hypothesis
2298:Experiment
2146:Jonas Salk
2111:Ernst Mayr
2049:Biologists
1970:Tim Lewens
1960:Hans Jonas
1955:David Hull
1930:Carla Fehr
1925:John Dupré
1838:Lamarckism
1774:Naturalism
677:(5): R46.
573:11 January
551:References
284:positivist
282:. The old
272:David Hull
268:Ernst Mayr
174:thinking?"
121:aesthetics
96:psychology
64:David Hull
5450:Pakistani
5412:Taiwanese
5359:Ethiopian
5332:By region
5318:By region
5133:Scientism
5128:Systemics
4988:Spinozism
4915:Socialism
4850:Modernism
4813:Objective
4721:Anarchism
4655:Averroism
4544:Christian
4496:Neotaoism
4467:Zurvanism
4457:Mithraism
4452:Mazdakism
4223:Cyrenaics
4150:Logicians
3783:Free will
3745:Solipsism
3692:Formalism
3410:Phycology
3395:Pathology
3380:Osteology
3370:Nutrition
3330:Mammalogy
3305:Histology
2724:Geography
2692:Chemistry
2651:Scientism
2446:ladenness
2266:Construct
2244:Causality
1887:Teleology
1877:Darwinism
1815:Evolution
1789:Emergence
1762:Dysgenics
964:170656319
942:CiteSeerX
850:ignored (
840:cite book
808:ignored (
798:cite book
313:Bioethics
296:teleology
207:systems?"
205:religious
203:or other
197:evolution
183:free will
156:"What is
142:"What is
84:reduction
56:Descartes
52:Aristotle
5652:Category
5636:Category
5591:Yugoslav
5581:Romanian
5488:Scottish
5473:American
5402:Japanese
5382:Buddhist
5364:Africana
5354:Egyptian
5196:Feminist
5118:Rawlsian
5113:Quietism
5011:Analytic
4963:Krausism
4870:Nihilism
4835:Kokugaku
4798:Absolute
4793:Idealism
4781:Humanism
4569:Occamism
4536:European
4481:Medieval
4427:Yogacara
4387:Buddhist
4380:Syādvāda
4263:Stoicism
4228:Cynicism
4216:Sophists
4211:Atomists
4206:Eleatics
4145:Legalism
4086:Medieval
4010:Idealism
3964:Ontology
3944:Nihilism
3848:Idealism
3606:Branches
3595:Branches
3524:See also
3500:Virology
3485:Taxonomy
3425:Pomology
3355:Mycology
3285:Genomics
3280:Genetics
3105:Agronomy
3019:Category
2671:Vitalism
2494:Theories
2468:Variable
2389:Paradigm
2276:function
2234:A priori
2223:Analysis
2216:Concepts
1870:Vitalism
1865:Theistic
1858:Spandrel
1757:Eugenics
1636:21441585
1587:23551238
1544:22460880
1495:22965061
1454:22495219
1446:16339439
1387:15090379
1348:24357284
1307:22459768
1268:21315730
1226:19440447
1177:22326074
1005:Biomedia
826:(1977).
703:15892874
502:See also
441:Journals
398:genomics
340:Biomedia
319:realists
249:vitalism
216:ontology
188:"How is
106:Overview
5586:Russian
5555:Spanish
5550:Slovene
5540:Maltese
5535:Italian
5515:Finland
5483:British
5465:Western
5455:Turkish
5440:Islamic
5435:Iranian
5387:Chinese
5374:Eastern
5341:African
5288:more...
4973:Marxism
4803:British
4746:Dualism
4642:Islamic
4600:Advaita
4590:Vedanta
4564:Scotism
4559:Thomism
4501:Tiantai
4444:Persian
4432:Tibetan
4422:Śūnyatā
4363:Cārvāka
4353:Ājīvika
4348:Mīmāṃsā
4328:Samkhya
4243:Academy
4196:Ionians
4170:Yangism
4127:Chinese
4118:Ancient
4081:Western
4076:Ancient
4035:Realism
3992:Reality
3982:Process
3863:Realism
3843:Dualism
3838:Atomism
3720:Fideism
3515:Zoology
3245:Ecology
3115:Anatomy
2729:History
2697:Physics
2687:Biology
2485:more...
2473:control
2369:Inquiry
2155:Related
1696:(ed.).
1627:3385955
1552:4326966
1522:Bibcode
1426:Bibcode
1418:Science
1326:Science
1217:2674806
919:2709913
830:(ed.).
749:8 April
694:1175958
418:viruses
361:and/or
244:reduced
151:disease
137:species
86:of all
68:biology
48:ethical
5545:Polish
5525:German
5520:French
5505:Danish
5495:Canada
5445:Jewish
5407:Korean
5392:Indian
4934:People
4855:Monism
4808:German
4776:Holism
4709:Modern
4687:Jewish
4610:Dvaita
4583:Indian
4506:Huayan
4358:Ajñana
4315:Indian
4180:Greco-
4165:Taoism
4155:Mohism
4101:Modern
4068:By era
4057:By era
3972:Action
3853:Monism
3773:Virtue
3755:Ethics
3180:Botany
2441:choice
2436:Theory
2374:Nature
2303:design
1784:Holism
1752:Ethics
1745:Themes
1634:
1624:
1585:
1550:
1542:
1514:Nature
1493:
1452:
1444:
1403:
1385:
1346:
1305:
1266:
1224:
1214:
1175:
1104:
1083:
1066:
1045:
1011:
962:
944:
917:
786:
722:1 July
701:
691:
650:1 July
627:
430:genome
373:, and
350:, and
165:humans
123:, and
117:ethics
58:, and
46:, and
5576:Aztec
5530:Greek
5510:Dutch
5500:Czech
5349:Bantu
4786:Anti-
4333:Nyaya
4323:Hindu
4183:Roman
3977:Event
3619:Logic
1692:. In
1548:S2CID
1450:S2CID
1383:S2CID
1244:(PDF)
960:S2CID
915:JSTOR
394:omics
172:moral
4677:Sufi
4511:Chan
4370:Jain
4343:Yoga
3873:Mind
3813:Hard
3801:Hard
2345:null
2315:Fact
2236:and
1632:PMID
1583:PMID
1540:PMID
1491:PMID
1442:PMID
1401:ISBN
1344:PMID
1303:PMID
1264:PMID
1222:PMID
1173:PMID
1102:ISBN
1081:ISBN
1064:ISBN
1043:ISBN
1009:ISBN
852:help
810:help
784:ISBN
751:2019
724:2018
699:PMID
652:2018
625:ISBN
575:2023
270:and
195:"Is
177:"Is
158:life
88:life
60:Kant
30:The
4951:Neo
4516:Zen
1622:PMC
1614:doi
1575:doi
1530:doi
1518:483
1481:doi
1434:doi
1422:310
1375:doi
1334:doi
1330:342
1295:doi
1256:doi
1252:276
1212:PMC
1204:doi
1165:doi
987:doi
952:doi
938:127
907:doi
689:PMC
679:doi
602:doi
426:RNA
422:DNA
76:DNA
5654::
1677:.
1644:^
1630:.
1620:.
1608:.
1604:.
1581:.
1571:13
1569:.
1546:.
1538:.
1528:.
1516:.
1512:.
1489:.
1477:30
1475:.
1471:.
1448:.
1440:.
1432:.
1420:.
1381:.
1369:.
1365:.
1342:.
1328:.
1324:.
1301:.
1291:22
1289:.
1285:.
1262:.
1250:.
1246:.
1220:.
1210:.
1198:.
1194:.
1171:.
1161:43
1159:.
983:18
981:.
958:.
950:.
936:.
913:.
903:53
901:.
844::
842:}}
838:{{
802::
800:}}
796:{{
697:.
687:.
673:.
669:.
598:44
596:.
592:.
566:.
377:.
369:,
346:,
185:?"
160:?"
139:?"
131:.
119:,
115:,
102:.
54:,
42:,
3575:e
3568:t
3561:v
3076:e
3069:t
3062:v
2201:e
2194:t
2187:v
1730:e
1723:t
1716:v
1702:.
1683:.
1638:.
1616::
1610:4
1589:.
1577::
1554:.
1532::
1524::
1497:.
1483::
1456:.
1436::
1428::
1389:.
1377::
1371:7
1350:.
1336::
1309:.
1297::
1270:.
1258::
1228:.
1206::
1200:9
1179:.
1167::
1123:.
1108:.
1087:.
1070:.
1049:.
1015:.
993:.
989::
966:.
954::
921:.
909::
854:)
812:)
792:.
726:.
705:.
681::
675:6
654:.
633:.
608:.
604::
577:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.