2491:) represent, in principle, the phonemes of the language being written. This is most obviously the case when the alphabet was invented with a particular language in mind; for example, the Latin alphabet was devised for Classical Latin, and therefore the Latin of that period enjoyed a near one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes in most cases, though the devisers of the alphabet chose not to represent the phonemic effect of vowel length. However, because changes in the spoken language are often not accompanied by changes in the established
565:
991:
973:
982:
964:
4485:
4222:
2134:, the number of distinct phonemes will generally be smaller than the number of identifiably different sounds. Different languages vary considerably in the number of phonemes they have in their systems (although apparent variation may sometimes result from the different approaches taken by the linguists doing the analysis). The total phonemic inventory in languages varies from as few as 9–11 in
2454:(1935) stated "Such a definition is invalid because (1) we have no right to guess about the linguistic workings of an inaccessible 'mind', and (2) we can secure no advantage from such guesses. The linguistic processes of the 'mind' as such are quite simply unobservable; and introspection about linguistic processes is notoriously a fire in a wooden stove." This approach was opposed to that of
1642:
47:
2458:, who gave an important role to native speakers' intuitions about where a particular sound or group of sounds fitted into a pattern. Using English as an example, Sapir argued that, despite the superficial appearance that this sound belongs to a group of three nasal consonant phonemes (/m/, /n/ and /ŋ/), native speakers feel that the velar nasal is really the sequence /. The theory of
2348:(1934), in his article "The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic systems" stated "given the sounds of a language, there are usually more than one possible way of reducing them to a set of phonemes, and these different systems or solutions are not simply correct or incorrect, but may be regarded only as being good or bad for various purposes". The linguist
1907:). The nasals are therefore not contrastive in these environments, and according to some theorists this makes it inappropriate to assign the nasal phones heard here to any one of the phonemes (even though, in this case, the phonetic evidence is unambiguous). Instead they may analyze these phonemes as belonging to a single archiphoneme, written something like
933:, one is a verb and is stressed on the second syllable, the other is a noun and stressed on the first syllable (without changing any of the individual sounds). The position of the stress distinguishes the words and so a full phonemic specification would include indication of the position of the stress:
2425:
in the spelling. It is also possible to treat
English long vowels and diphthongs as combinations of two vowel phonemes, with long vowels treated as a sequence of two short vowels, so that 'palm' would be represented as /paam/. English can thus be said to have around seven vowel phonemes, or even six
2335:
During the development of phoneme theory in the mid-20th century, phonologists were concerned not only with the procedures and principles involved in producing a phonemic analysis of the sounds of a given language, but also with the reality or uniqueness of the phonemic solution. These were central
886:
can serve as a near minimal pair. The reason why this is still acceptable proof of phonemehood is that there is nothing about the additional difference (/r/ vs. /l/) that can be expected to somehow condition a voicing difference for a single underlying postalveolar fricative. One can, however, find
776:
However, the absence of minimal pairs for a given pair of phones does not always mean that they belong to the same phoneme: they may be so dissimilar phonetically that it is unlikely for speakers to perceive them as the same sound. For example, English has no minimal pair for the sounds (as in
1810:
pattern is followed). In some cases even this may not provide an unambiguous answer. A description using the approach of underspecification would not attempt to assign to a specific phoneme in some or all of these cases, although it might be assigned to an archiphoneme, written something like
2360:
states that "English has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes" and that "there are 20 vowel phonemes in
Received Pronunciation, 14–16 in General American and 20–21 in Australian English". Although these figures are often quoted as fact, they actually reflect just one of many possible
795:
could be used to argue for their being allophones of the same phoneme. However, they are so dissimilar phonetically that they are considered separate phonemes. A case like this shows that sometimes it is the systemic distinctions and not the lexical context which are decisive in establishing
658:, transcribed for the aspirated form and for the unaspirated one. These different sounds are nonetheless considered to belong to the same phoneme, because if a speaker used one instead of the other, the meaning of the word would not change: using the aspirated form in
1989:, for example) would reveal which phoneme the flap represents, once it is known which morpheme is being used. However, other theorists would prefer not to make such a determination, and simply assign the flap in both cases to a single archiphoneme, written (for example)
552:, ordinary letters may be used to denote phonemes, although this approach is often imperfect, as pronunciations naturally shift in a language over time, rendering previous spelling systems outdated or no longer closely representative of the sounds of the language (see
799:
Phonologists have sometimes had recourse to "near minimal pairs" to show that speakers of the language perceive two sounds as significantly different even if no exact minimal pair exists in the lexicon. It is challenging to find a minimal pair to distinguish
English
686:. In some languages, however, and are perceived by native speakers as significantly different sounds, and substituting one for the other can change the meaning of a word. In those languages, therefore, the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example, in
2437:
position was that the analysis should be made purely on the basis of the sound elements and their distribution, with no reference to extraneous factors such as grammar, morphology or the intuitions of the native speaker; this position is strongly associated with
3627:
Bross, Fabian. 2015. "Chereme", in In: Hall, T. A. Pompino-Marschall, B. (ed.): Dictionaries of
Linguistics and Communication Science (Wörterbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft, WSK). Volume: Phonetics and Phonology. Berlin, New York: Mouton de
1762:
where some phonemes are not contrastive in certain environments. Some phonologists prefer not to specify a unique phoneme in such cases, since to do so would mean providing redundant or even arbitrary information – instead they use the technique of
2352:
referred to this argument within linguistics as "God's Truth" (i.e. the stance that a given language has an intrinsic structure to be discovered) vs. "hocus-pocus" (i.e. the stance that any proposed, coherent structure is as good as any other).
476:
realizations of those phonemes—each phoneme with its various allophones—constitute the surface form that is actually uttered and heard. Allophones each have technically different articulations inside particular words or particular
383:), yet they comprise a single phoneme in some other languages, such as Spanish, in which and for instance are merely interpreted by Spanish speakers as regional or dialect-specific ways of pronouncing the same word (
537:
1213:, the one actually heard at a given occurrence of that phoneme may be dependent on the phonetic environment (surrounding sounds). Allophones that normally cannot appear in the same environment are said to be in
736:
for the two alternative phones in question (in this case, and ). The existence of minimal pairs is a common test to decide whether two phones represent different phonemes or are allophones of the same phoneme.
2562:) that further complicate the correspondence of letters to phonemes, although they need not affect the ability to predict the pronunciation from the spelling and vice versa, provided the rules are consistent.
662:
might sound odd, but the word would still be recognized. By contrast, some other sounds would cause a change in meaning if substituted: for example, substitution of the sound would produce the different word
2622:. Just as with spoken languages, when features are combined, they create phonemes. As in spoken languages, sign languages have minimal pairs which differ in only one phoneme. For instance, the ASL signs for
346:
2722:
to describe sign languages as true and full languages. Once a controversial idea, the position is now universally accepted in linguistics. Stokoe's terminology, however, has been largely abandoned.
529:; however, American speakers perceive or "hear" all of these sounds (usually with no conscious effort) as merely being allophones of a single phoneme: the one traditionally represented in the IPA as
633:
362:
2361:
analyses, and later in the
English Phonology article an alternative analysis is suggested in which some diphthongs and long vowels may be interpreted as comprising a short vowel linked to either
485:
distinctions. Alternatively, at least one of those articulations could be feasibly used in all such words with these words still being recognized as such by users of the language. An example in
614:
2691:, as the basic unit of signed communication, is functionally and psychologically equivalent to the phonemes of oral languages, and has been replaced by that term in the academic literature.
548:
characters. However, descriptions of particular languages may use different conventional symbols to represent the phonemes of those languages. For languages whose writing systems employ the
468:) of spoken sound variations that are nevertheless perceived as a single basic unit of sound by the ordinary native speakers of a given language. While phonemes are considered an abstract
1443:
restrictions on which sequences of phonemes are possible and in which environments certain phonemes can occur. Phonemes that are significantly limited by such restrictions may be called
1562:, wherever it occurs, must unambiguously be assigned to one and only one phoneme. In other words, the mapping between phones and phonemes is required to be many-to-one rather than
1738:
Phonemes that are contrastive in certain environments may not be contrastive in all environments. In the environments where they do not contrast, the contrast is said to be
2344:: "There is only one accurate phonemic analysis for a given set of data", while others believed that different analyses, equally valid, could be made for the same data.
1289:
in its current sense, employing the word in his article "The phonetic structure of the
Sechuana Language". The concept of the phoneme was then elaborated in the works of
268:
are each examples of phonemes of the
English language, since they alone distinguish certain words from other words. Specifically they are consonant phonemes, along with
796:
phonemes. This implies that the phoneme should be defined as the smallest phonological unit which is contrastive at a lexical level or distinctive at a systemic level.
2209:
are close to average. Across all languages, the average number of consonant phonemes per language is about 22, while the average number of vowel phonemes is about 8.
2169:
has 14 vowel qualities, 12 of which may occur long or short, making 26 oral vowels, plus six nasalized vowels, long and short, making a total of 38 vowels; while
945:, word stress cannot have this function (its position is generally predictable) and so it is not phonemic (and therefore not usually indicated in dictionaries).
572:
A phoneme is a sound or a group of different sounds perceived to have the same function by speakers of the language or dialect in question. An example is the
2644:'s research, while still considered seminal, has been found not to characterize American Sign Language or other sign languages sufficiently. For instance,
460:
There are many views as to exactly what phonemes are and how a given language should be analyzed in phonemic terms. Generally, a phoneme is regarded as an
1351:
phonemes in oral language and many phonemes in sign languages. Features could be characterized in different ways: Jakobson and colleagues defined them in
3275:
2856:
Depending on the ability of the typesetter, this may be written vertically, an o over an a with a horizontal line (like a fraction) without the braces.
1217:. In other cases, the choice of allophone may be dependent on the individual speaker or other unpredictable factors. Such allophones are said to be in
4381:
1010:
2507:), the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation in a given language may be highly distorted; this is the case with English, for example.
2462:
which emerged in the 1960s explicitly rejected the structuralist approach to phonology and favoured the mentalistic or cognitive view of Sapir.
4256:
769:(ASL), also have minimal pairs, differing only in (exactly) one of the signs' parameters: handshape, movement, location, palm orientation, and
3866:
3772:
3754:
3736:
3715:
3233:
3989:
2446:
claimed that it is possible to discover the phonemes of a language purely by examining the distribution of phonetic segments. Referring to
2372:
1009:
4462:
4396:
4184:
4179:
216:
that is perceptually regarded by the speakers of a language as a single distinct unit, a single basic sound, that helps distinguish one
1981:
theory of linguistics, if a speaker applies such flapping consistently, morphological evidence (the pronunciation of the related forms
3958:
3565:
3204:
1725:
610:. Although most native speakers do not notice this, in most English dialects, the "c/k" sounds in these words are not identical: in
130:
1957:
Another example from
English, but this time involving complete phonetic convergence as in the Russian example, is the flapping of
4532:
4321:
3645:. Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo. Archived from
773:
or marker. A minimal pair may exist in the signed language if the basic sign stays the same, but one of the parameters changes.
2996:
Jones, D. (1917), The phonetic structure of the
Sechuana language, Transactions of the Philological Society 1917-20, pp. 99–106
2973:
A Greek-English
Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie.
2772:
1133:
257:
171:
153:
2648:
are not included in Stokoe's classification. More sophisticated models of sign language phonology have since been proposed by
4194:
2906:
1663:
68:
2381:
and Smith (1951), where all long vowels and diphthongs ("complex nuclei") are made up of a short vowel combined with either
3639:
1510:
1385:
By analogy with the phoneme, linguists have proposed other sorts of underlying objects, giving them names with the suffix
1243:
762:; since the words have different meanings, English-speakers must be conscious of the distinction between the two sounds.
3690:
1313:. Some structuralists (though not Sapir) rejected the idea of a cognitive or psycholinguistic function for the phoneme.
2056:
is a theoretical unit at a deeper level of abstraction than traditional phonemes, and is taken to be a unit from which
4472:
4386:
2767:
2610:
1706:
1555:
111:
2634:
differ minimally with respect to location while handshape and movement are identical; location is thus contrastive.
1678:
83:
4512:
4249:
3557:
2742:
2615:
2364:
1791:
1282:
1214:
792:
514:
1652:
57:
4507:
2737:
2511:
1912:
1747:
1266:
469:
828:, yet it seems uncontroversial to claim that the two consonants are distinct phonemes. The two words 'pressure'
401:
to transcribe more precise pronunciation details, including allophones; they describe this basic distinction as
4209:
4204:
3982:
2600:
2580:
2451:
1803:
1685:
1659:
1198:
90:
64:
3616:
Phonological categories in Sign Language of the Netherlands. The role of phonetic implementation and iconicity
3287:
1934:. Archiphonemes are often notated with a capital letter within double virgules or pipes, as with the examples
4426:
4361:
4356:
4336:
4199:
1347:, such features being the true minimal constituents of language. Features overlap each other in time, as do
1254:
564:
4467:
4431:
4401:
4366:
4107:
2672:
2575:
2551:
2547:
2539:
2447:
2434:
2427:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2324:
2320:
2308:
2304:
2296:
2292:
2284:
2280:
2268:
2260:
2252:
2248:
2104:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1990:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1920:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1856:
1848:
1841:
1834:
1827:
1816:
1812:
1799:
1795:
1779:
1775:
1622:
1618:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1567:
1532:
1527:
occur only before a vowel, never at the end of a syllable (except in interpretations in which a word like
1524:
1520:
1514:
1503:
1491:
1485:
1454:
1356:
1317:
1234:
938:
934:
766:
759:
755:
707:
703:
683:
672:
577:
530:
494:
434:
430:
426:
380:
376:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
273:
269:
265:
261:
253:
249:
167:
163:
149:
2229:
1692:
276:
is a vowel phoneme. The spelling of English does not strictly conform to its phonemes, so that the words
97:
4371:
4351:
4341:
4242:
4174:
4112:
2519:
2515:
2397:
for rhotic accents), each comprising two phonemes. The transcription for the vowel normally transcribed
1302:
900:
338:
2847:
There is allophonic variation of this tone. It may be realized in different ways, depending on context.
1270:
1581:
An example of the problems arising from the biuniqueness requirement is provided by the phenomenon of
387:: the Spanish word for "bread"). Such spoken variations of a single phoneme are known by linguists as
4517:
4441:
4331:
4102:
2792:
2732:
2719:
2478:
2459:
2370:
2362:
2221:
1783:
912:
478:
352:
336:
3185:
1674:
1382:. Though not all scholars working on such languages use these terms, they are by no means obsolete.
248:
have the exact same sequence of sounds, except for being different in their final consonant sounds:
79:
4346:
4189:
4022:
3975:
2802:
2699:
in language, is thus equivalent to phonology. The terms are not in use anymore. Instead, the terms
2510:
The correspondence between symbols and phonemes in alphabetic writing systems is not necessarily a
2093:
1344:
1332:. As a theoretical concept or model, though, it has been supplemented and even replaced by others.
522:
454:
394:
4484:
4221:
2948:
2194:
2170:
568:
A simplified procedure for determining whether two sounds represent the same or different phonemes
4527:
4522:
4488:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4391:
4326:
4225:
4058:
3936:
3908:
3838:
3512:
3332:
3150:
3142:
2817:
2439:
2217:
2206:
2065:
1978:
1927:
1764:
1464:, occurs only at the end of a syllable, never at the beginning (in many other languages, such as
1375:
1352:
1310:
1290:
908:
687:
549:
354:
2205:
uses a rather large set of 13 to 21 vowel phonemes, including diphthongs, although its 22 to 26
2143:
2135:
2060:
are built up. A morphophoneme within a morpheme can be expressed in different ways in different
2433:
In the same period there was disagreement about the correct basis for a phonemic analysis. The
2255:. Relatively few languages lack any of these consonants, although it does happen: for example,
2173:
achieves 31 pure vowels, not counting its additional variation by vowel length, by varying the
4446:
4122:
3954:
3880:
3862:
3846:
3837:(72), Le Maître Phonétique, supplement (reprinted in E. Fudge (ed) Phonology, Penguin): 1–20,
3818:
3802:
3786:
3768:
3750:
3732:
3711:
3695:
3640:"Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf"
3571:
3561:
3229:
3200:
2940:
2787:
2466:
2357:
2316:
2264:
2158:
1559:
1499:
1465:
1363:'s system is a purely articulatory system apart from the use of the acoustic term 'sibilant'.
1221:, but allophones are still selected in a specific phonetic context, not the other way around.
1185:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1139:
654:
465:
213:
3603:
Phonological representation of the sign: linearity and nonlinearity in American Sign Language
3443:
4376:
4127:
4078:
3928:
3900:
3504:
3418:
3322:
3192:
3134:
2559:
2554:. There may also exist spelling/pronunciation rules (such as those for the pronunciation of
2378:
2349:
2312:
2276:
2241:
2202:
2190:
2182:
2139:
1543:
below, particularly the example of the occurrence of the three English nasals before stops.
1539:
Some phonotactic restrictions can alternatively be analyzed as cases of neutralization. See
1473:
1469:
952:
860:
831:
817:
803:
770:
671:, and that sound must therefore be considered to represent a different phoneme (the phoneme
573:
486:
224:
difference that distinguishes meaning. Phonemes are primarily associated with the branch of
186:
2356:
Different analyses of the English vowel system may be used to illustrate this. The article
4421:
2882:
2782:
2637:
2624:
2535:
2500:
2300:
2272:
2213:
2198:
2186:
2162:
2047:
1823:
1787:
1495:
1481:
1360:
942:
398:
3249:
2630:
2080:
can be considered to be a single morphophoneme, which might be transcribed (for example)
1253:, "sound made, utterance, thing spoken, speech, language") was reportedly first used by
4274:
3386:
Chao, Yuen Ren (1934). "The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic systems".
3180:
2762:
2715:
2649:
2641:
2571:
2154:
1852:
1494:
occurs only at the beginning of a syllable, never at the end (a few languages, such as
1348:
1336:
1218:
990:
972:
904:
2711:) are used to stress the linguistic similarities between signed and spoken languages.
2034:, other than its historical development, and it might be less ambiguously transcribed
1742:. In these positions it may become less clear which phoneme a given phone represents.
981:
963:
929:
is encountered in languages such as English. For example, there are two words spelled
887:
true minimal pairs for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ if less common words are considered. For example, '
4501:
4153:
3724:
3545:
3437:
3336:
3222:
3154:
2877:
2757:
2684:
2653:
2645:
2443:
2345:
2288:
2237:
2166:
2127:
1931:
1755:
1699:
1598:
1477:
1298:
1294:
920:
698:
692:
506:
104:
3466:
4265:
4012:
3685:
3681:
2807:
2777:
2455:
2341:
2233:
2123:
1575:
1571:
1563:
1440:
1430:
1406:
1340:
1325:
1321:
1306:
888:
732:
498:
2898:
1863:
boundary between them), only one of the nasals is possible in any given position:
1806:
factors (such as which of the vowels occurs in other forms of the words, or which
1008:
4297:
3646:
2492:
1641:
1262:
1027:
461:
225:
46:
2945:
Some notes on phonemes and allophones in synchronic and diachronic descriptions
2812:
4313:
4282:
3998:
3549:
3327:
3310:
3196:
3138:
2747:
2640:
are no longer used by researchers to describe the phonemes of sign languages;
1807:
923:), which, in many languages, change the meaning of words and so are phonemic.
679:
335:
Sounds that are perceived as phonemes vary by languages and dialects, so that
1830:. In word-final position these all contrast, as shown by the minimal triplet
425:, can be represented phonemically and are written between slashes (including
4302:
4137:
4043:
3822:
3815:
Phonology in Relation to Phonetics, in Malmberg, B. (ed) Manual of Phonetics
3575:
2797:
2680:
2590:
2337:
2232:
have six to nine tones (depending on how they are counted), and the Kam-Sui
2225:
2178:
2174:
2131:
2061:
1786:
syllables, but in unstressed syllables the contrast is lost, since both are
1410:
1402:
1329:
1210:
482:
389:
229:
221:
3850:
3806:
3790:
3125:
Dinnsen, Daniel (1985). "A Re-Examination of Phonological Neutralization".
3884:
3699:
2514:. A phoneme might be represented by a combination of two or more letters (
4436:
4287:
4158:
4093:
4068:
4053:
2822:
2619:
2504:
2488:
2484:
2057:
1860:
1751:
1582:
1436:
1397:
1391:
1367:
916:
644:
625:
473:
159:
3842:
2014:
955:
in which a given syllable can have five different tonal pronunciations:
17:
4292:
4132:
4017:
3829:
Jones, Daniel (1957), "The History and Meaning of the Term 'Phoneme'",
3146:
2752:
2496:
1997:
1666: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
541:
35:
31:
3940:
3912:
3516:
260:(IPA), a writing system that can be used to represent phonemes. Thus,
4083:
4063:
3191:. Vol. 1. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 315–317.
2827:
2256:
1942:
given above. Other ways the second of these has been notated include
1597:(in the appropriate environments) to be realized with the phone (an
1379:
1091:
702:, meaning "riddles". Icelandic, therefore, has two separate phonemes
1771:
is an object sometimes used to represent an underspecified phoneme.
1517:
can occur immediately only before a vowel, never before a consonant.
1328:, and remains central to many accounts of the development of modern
1197:. Languages such as English do not have phonemic tone, but they use
3932:
3904:
3508:
3422:
1815:, which reflects the two neutralized phonemes in this position, or
367:
are separate phonemes in English since they distinguish words like
220:
from another. To put it in another way, it is the smallest unit of
30:
This article is about the speech unit. For the JavaME library, see
4117:
4048:
2542:). Also a single letter may represent two phonemes, as in English
2150:
1794:). In order to assign such an instance of to one of the phonemes
1049:
563:
545:
2122:
All known languages use only a small subset of the many possible
1822:
A somewhat different example is found in English, with the three
1450:
In English, examples of such restrictions include the following:
4027:
754:
illustrates that in English, and belong to separate phonemes,
553:
457:
allophone of /p/ (i.e., pronounced with an extra burst of air).
217:
4238:
4234:
3971:
1774:
An example of neutralization is provided by the Russian vowels
1285:
became the first linguist in the western world to use the term
1635:
1601:). For example, the same flap sound may be heard in the words
1566:. The notion of biuniqueness was controversial among some pre-
1439:
to be built of any arbitrary sequences of phonemes. There are
1000:
878:
875:
849:
820:
201:
40:
3967:
3354:. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
3350:
Moran, Steven; McCloy, Daniel; Wright, Richard, eds. (2014).
2570:
Sign language phonemes are bundles of articulation features.
648:, it is unaspirated. The words, therefore, contain different
3554:
Linguistics of American Sign Language : an introduction
1754:
representations (surface forms). The term was introduced by
1628:
For further discussion of such cases, see the next section.
1006:
3311:"On the underlying representation of contour tones in Wobe"
3031:
3029:
1248:
1193:
The tone "phonemes" in such languages are sometimes called
872:
843:
433:, etc.), while nuances of exactly how a speaker pronounces
288:, regardless of spelling, all share the consonant phonemes
195:
3877:
Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of Human Behavior
3115:, 1968, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston (pp. 170–202)
2503:
on orthography, and the use of foreign spellings for some
1343:) proposed that phonemes may be further decomposable into
1257:
in 1873, but it referred only to a speech sound. The term
846:
806:
2574:
was the first scholar to describe the phonemic system of
2247:
The most common vowel system consists of the five vowels
437:
are phonetic and written between brackets, like for the
3919:
Twaddell, W.F. (March 1935). "On Defining the Phoneme".
2244:, has been claimed to have 14, though this is disputed.
1625:
in the second. This appears to contradict biuniqueness.
3004:
3002:
2022:. That is, there is no particular reason to transcribe
903:
phonemes such as vowels and consonants, there are also
3652:
on 23 November 2021 – via Save Our Deaf Schools.
2487:
writing systems. In such systems the written symbols (
2377:. The fullest exposition of this approach is found in
1926:
This latter type of analysis is often associated with
1359:
basis, though retaining some acoustic features, while
3945:(reprinted in Joos, M. Readings in Linguistics, 1957)
3351:
2236:
has nine to 15 tones by the same measure. One of the
1540:
198:
192:
3662:
Seegmiller, 2006. "Stokoe, William (1919–2000)", in
3495:
Sapir, Edward (1925). "Sound patterns in language".
869:
866:
840:
837:
158:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
4455:
4311:
4272:
4167:
4146:
4092:
4036:
4005:
1421:respectively) to applications outside linguistics.
863:
834:
472:for sound segments within words, the corresponding
296:, differing only by their internal vowel phonemes:
204:
189:
71:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3465:
3221:
3184:
2947:, in “Linguistik online”, 129/5, 2024, pp. 39–51,
2197:, on the other hand, has somewhere around 77, and
1022:Minimal set for phonemic tone in Mandarin Chinese
1005:with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese
730:(above) that differ only in one phone is called a
554:§ Correspondence between letters and phonemes
3442:. American Council of Learned Societies. p.
3071:
2068:rules). For example, the English plural morpheme
1617:, although it is intended to realize the phoneme
1273:during 1875–1895. The term used by these two was
696:, meaning "cheerful", but is the first sound of
312:is the notation for a sequence of four phonemes,
1965:in some American English (described above under
1370:has been used to indicate contrastive length or
791:), and the fact that they can be shown to be in
172:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
1366:In the description of some languages, the term
725:
719:
3891:Swadesh, M. (1934), "The Phonemic Principle",
2340:. Some writers took the position expressed by
1790:to the same sound, usually (for details, see
1378:are phonemic, the tone phonemes may be called
1355:terms, Chomsky and Halle used a predominantly
1297:(during the years 1926–1935), and in those of
4250:
3983:
3411:International Journal of American Linguistics
3059:
1201:for functions such as emphasis and attitude.
1124:
1117:
1110:
1103:
1096:
1082:
1075:
1068:
1061:
1054:
501:(or a similar glottalized sound) in the word
8:
3109:Linguistic universals and linguistic change.
3035:
2683:and phoneme previously used in the study of
2483:Phonemes are considered to be the basis for
2421:, or /ar/ in a rhotic accent if there is an
2012:, as suggested by the alternative spellings
1570:linguists and was prominently challenged by
891:' and 'confusion' are a valid minimal pair.
3763:Gimson, A.C. (2008), Cruttenden, A. (ed.),
3590:A prosodic model of sign language phonology
3047:
2473:Correspondence between letters and phonemes
678:The above shows that in English, and are
4257:
4243:
4235:
3990:
3976:
3968:
3927:(1). Linguistic Society of America: 5–62.
3797:Jakobson, R.; Fant, G.; Halle, M. (1952),
3708:An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology
2899:"Minimal pairs in sign language phonology"
2118:Numbers of phonemes in different languages
1746:is a phenomenon in which a segment of the
1435:Languages do not generally allow words or
941:for the noun. In other languages, such as
740:To take another example, the minimal pair
544:exist to represent IPA symbols using only
489:is that the sound spelled with the symbol
481:, yet these differences do not create any
3326:
3083:
2426:if schwa were treated as an allophone of
1726:Learn how and when to remove this message
915:, syllable boundaries and other forms of
131:Learn how and when to remove this message
3664:Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
3008:
2638:Stokoe's terminology and notation system
2331:The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions
2088:, and which is realized phonemically as
1020:
34:. For the collection of phenotypes, see
3167:
2869:
2840:
1409:, who also generalized the concepts of
560:Assignment of speech sounds to phonemes
3747:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
3729:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
3618:. PhD dissertation, Leiden University.
3482:
3274:Bearth, Thomas; Link, Christa (1980).
3020:
2971:Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R. (1940).
2467:English phonology#Controversial issues
2465:These topics are discussed further in
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
643:
624:
409:. Thus, the pronunciation patterns of
397:in the IPA to transcribe phonemes but
3405:Householder, F.W. (1952). "Review of
3376:, University of Michigan Press, p. 64
3111:In: E. Bach & R.T. Harms (eds.),
2984:
2959:
2927:
2909:from the original on 14 February 2017
2495:(as well as other reasons, including
1977:might both be pronounced . Under the
1277:, the basic unit of what they called
1265:was developed by the Polish linguist
7:
3228:. Pantheon Books. pp. 178–179.
3095:
2149:The number of phonemically distinct
1782:. These phonemes are contrasting in
1664:adding citations to reliable sources
1405:. The latter term was first used by
1316:Later, it was used and redefined in
328:, that together constitute the word
162:. For the distinction between ,
69:adding citations to reliable sources
4463:International scientific vocabulary
4185:International scientific vocabulary
4180:English lexicology and lexicography
3532:Current Issues in Linguistic Theory
1578:in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
1374:of phonemes. In languages in which
907:features of pronunciation (such as
3556:(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.:
2584:(elements of location, from Latin
1819:, reflecting its unmerged values.
1125:
1118:
1111:
1104:
1097:
25:
3783:Methods in Structural Linguistics
3407:Methods in structural linguistics
2714:The terms were coined in 1960 by
2608:). Some researchers also discern
2523:
2251:. The most common consonants are
1966:
1558:phonemics. It means that a given
1209:When a phoneme has more than one
629:, the sound is aspirated, but in
4483:
4220:
3813:Jakobson, R.; Halle, M. (1968),
3799:Preliminaries to Speech Analysis
1640:
1632:Neutralization and archiphonemes
1541:Neutralization and archiphonemes
989:
980:
971:
962:
859:
830:
816:
802:
580:, which occurs in words such as
185:
45:
3439:An Outline of English Structure
3187:Handbook of Amazonian Languages
3113:Universals in linguistic theory
3072:Jakobson, Fant & Halle 1952
2773:International Phonetic Alphabet
2538:(both representing the phoneme
2064:of that morpheme (according to
1996:Further mergers in English are
1651:needs additional citations for
951:are found in languages such as
258:International Phonetic Alphabet
154:International Phonetic Alphabet
56:needs additional citations for
4382:Language-for-specific-purposes
4195:Lexicographic information cost
3953:, Cambridge University Press,
3706:Clark, J.; Yallop, C. (1995),
3436:Trager, G.; Smith, H. (1951).
3315:Studies in African Linguistics
3280:Studies in African Linguistics
2883:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
1802:, it is necessary to consider
1750:is not realized in any of its
536:For computer-typing purposes,
1:
3309:Singler, John Victor (1984).
3254:www.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de
3224:Don't Sleep, there are Snakes
2130:can produce, and, because of
1401:. These are sometimes called
3785:, Chicago University Press,
3765:The Pronunciation of English
3691:The Sound Pattern of English
3464:Bloomfield, Leonard (1933).
3286:(2): 147–207. Archived from
2578:. He identified the bundles
2499:differences, the effects of
2450:definitions of the phoneme,
2161:. At the other extreme, the
2153:can be as low as two, as in
1554:is a requirement of classic
1249:
1225:Background and related ideas
1001:
4473:List of online dictionaries
3749:(3rd ed.), Cambridge,
3731:(2nd ed.), Cambridge,
3710:(2nd ed.), Blackwell,
3638:Stokoe, William C. (1960).
3614:Kooij, Els van der (2002).
3220:Everett, Daniel L. (2008).
2768:Initial-stress-derived noun
2072:appearing in words such as
1758:(1968), and contrasts with
1488:can appear word-initially).
308:, respectively. Similarly,
4549:
3558:Gallaudet University Press
2743:Complementary distribution
2676:
2476:
2430:or of other short vowels.
2189:each have just seven, and
2045:
1921://lɪNp//,//lɪNt//,//lɪNk//
1913:underlying representations
1792:vowel reduction in Russian
1428:
1425:Restrictions on occurrence
1238:
1215:complementary distribution
1205:Distribution of allophones
793:complementary distribution
765:Signed languages, such as
29:
4481:
4218:
3861:(5th ed.), Thomson,
3328:10.32473/sal.v15i1.107520
3276:"The tone puzzle of Wobe"
3197:10.1515/9783110850819.200
3183:(1 July 1986). "Pirahã".
3139:10.1017/s0022226700010276
3060:Jakobson & Halle 1968
2738:Alternation (linguistics)
2512:one-to-one correspondence
1760:contextual neutralization
1748:underlying representation
1267:Jan Baudouin de Courtenay
1169:
1132:
1090:
1083:
1076:
1069:
1062:
1055:
1048:
1026:
690:, is the first sound of
479:environments within words
470:underlying representation
453:, which in English is an
4210:Specialized lexicography
3767:(7th ed.), Hodder,
3588:Brentari, Diane (1998).
3036:Chomsky & Halle 1968
2975:Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2679:"hand") are synonyms of
2212:Some languages, such as
2185:and the Papuan language
1589:. This may cause either
1335:Some linguists (such as
212:) is any set of similar
4533:Linguistics terminology
4200:Linguistic prescription
3745:Crystal, David (2010),
3601:Sandler, Wendy (1989).
3250:"UPSID Nr. of segments"
3048:Clark & Yallop 1995
1744:Absolute neutralization
1255:A. Dufriche-Desgenettes
895:Suprasegmental phonemes
150:phonetic transcriptions
27:Basic unit of phonology
4468:List of lexicographers
4108:Hypernymy and hyponymy
3857:Ladefoged, P. (2006),
3530:Chomsky, Noam (1964).
3409:by Zellig S. Harris".
3127:Journal of Linguistics
2614:(orientation), facial
2107:in other cases (as in
1859:(provided there is no
1621:in the first word and
1587:North American English
1318:generative linguistics
1014:
767:American Sign Language
726:
720:
697:
691:
569:
147:This article contains
4397:Monolingual learner's
4175:Controlled vocabulary
4113:Meronymy and holonymy
3859:A Course in Phonetics
2656:, and Van der Kooij.
2594:(the handshape, from
2142:to as many as 141 in
1303:Ferdinand de Saussure
1013:
718:A pair of words like
567:
525:alveolar plosive in
236:Examples and notation
3949:Wells, J.C. (1982),
3831:Le Maître Phonétique
2793:Phonemic orthography
2733:Alphabetic principle
2720:Gallaudet University
2479:Phonemic orthography
2460:generative phonology
2094:voiceless consonants
1851:. However, before a
1660:improve this article
682:of a single phoneme
65:improve this article
4437:Spelling dictionary
4347:Defining vocabulary
4190:Lexicographic error
3875:Pike, K.L. (1967),
3781:Harris, Z. (1951),
3290:on 24 February 2021
3086:, pp. 268–276.
2803:Phonological change
2709:distinctive feature
2646:non-manual features
2532:⟨sch⟩
2253:/p/,/t/,/k/,/m/,/n/
2249:/i/,/e/,/a/,/o/,/u/
2228:and several of the
2216:, have no phonemic
1511:non-rhotic dialects
1445:restricted phonemes
1320:, most famously by
1023:
919:, nasalization and
4489:Linguistics portal
4322:Advanced learner's
4226:Linguistics portal
3951:Accents of English
3694:, Harper and Row,
3372:Pike, K.L. (1947)
3181:Everett, Daniel L.
2886:. Merriam-Webster.
2695:, as the study of
2604:(the motion, from
2528:⟨sh⟩
2440:Leonard Bloomfield
2066:morphophonological
1979:generative grammar
1969:). Here the words
1928:Nikolai Trubetzkoy
1765:underspecification
1506:syllable-finally).
1413:description (from
1311:Leonard Bloomfield
1293:and others of the
1291:Nikolai Trubetzkoy
1271:Mikołaj Kruszewski
1021:
1015:
570:
550:phonemic principle
240:The English words
4513:Reading (process)
4495:
4494:
4232:
4231:
4123:Lexical semantics
3868:978-1-4282-3126-9
3817:, North-Holland,
3774:978-0-340-95877-3
3756:978-0-521-73650-3
3738:978-0-521-55967-6
3717:978-0-631-19452-1
3235:978-0-375-42502-8
2941:Fausto Cercignani
2566:In sign languages
2556:⟨c⟩
2544:⟨x⟩
2423:⟨r⟩
2401:would instead be
2358:English phonology
2350:F. W. Householder
2265:standard Hawaiian
2230:Kam–Sui languages
1736:
1735:
1728:
1710:
1247:
1191:
1190:
1186:question particle
1011:
466:equivalence class
141:
140:
133:
115:
16:(Redirected from
4540:
4508:Learning to read
4487:
4387:Machine-readable
4259:
4252:
4245:
4236:
4224:
4128:Semantic network
3992:
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3352:"PHOIBLE Online"
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2029:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1992:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1922:
1917:limp, lint, link
1911:, and state the
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1893:limp, lint, link
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1456:
1269:and his student
1252:
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1024:
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993:
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953:Mandarin Chinese
940:
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880:
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808:
771:nonmanual signal
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622:
621:
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579:
532:
515:alveolar plosive
487:American English
445:versus for the
436:
432:
428:
393:. Linguists use
382:
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3674:Further reading
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2846:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2783:Morphophonology
2728:
2662:
2568:
2555:
2543:
2531:
2527:
2501:morphophonology
2481:
2475:
2422:
2333:
2126:that the human
2120:
2050:
2048:Morphophonology
2044:
2030:rather than as
1732:
1721:
1715:
1712:
1669:
1667:
1657:
1645:
1634:
1549:
1531:is analyzed as
1433:
1427:
1279:psychophonetics
1227:
1207:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1007:
996:
995:
994:
986:
985:
977:
976:
968:
967:
927:Phonemic stress
897:
862:
858:
857:and 'pleasure'
833:
829:
819:
815:
805:
801:
716:
634:
632:
631:
630:
615:
613:
612:
611:
562:
399:square brackets
361:
360:
359:
345:
344:
343:
238:
188:
184:
177:
176:
175:
137:
126:
120:
117:
74:
72:
62:
50:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4546:
4544:
4536:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4500:
4499:
4493:
4492:
4482:
4479:
4478:
4476:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4459:
4457:
4453:
4452:
4450:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4318:
4316:
4309:
4308:
4306:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4279:
4277:
4270:
4269:
4264:
4262:
4261:
4254:
4247:
4239:
4230:
4229:
4219:
4216:
4215:
4213:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4171:
4169:
4165:
4164:
4162:
4161:
4156:
4150:
4148:
4144:
4143:
4141:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4099:
4097:
4090:
4089:
4087:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4040:
4038:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4009:
4007:
4003:
4002:
3997:
3995:
3994:
3987:
3980:
3972:
3965:
3964:
3959:
3946:
3933:10.2307/522070
3916:
3905:10.2307/409603
3899:(2): 117–129,
3888:
3872:
3867:
3854:
3826:
3810:
3794:
3778:
3773:
3760:
3755:
3742:
3737:
3725:Crystal, David
3721:
3716:
3703:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3655:
3630:
3620:
3607:
3594:
3581:
3566:
3546:Clayton, Valli
3537:
3522:
3509:10.2307/409004
3487:
3475:
3456:
3428:
3423:10.1086/464181
3397:
3378:
3365:
3342:
3301:
3266:
3241:
3234:
3212:
3205:
3172:
3170:, p. 173.
3160:
3117:
3107:Kiparsky, P.,
3100:
3088:
3084:Ladefoged 2006
3076:
3064:
3052:
3040:
3025:
3013:
2998:
2989:
2977:
2964:
2952:
2932:
2920:
2889:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2859:
2858:
2849:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2763:Free variation
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2716:William Stokoe
2685:sign languages
2661:
2658:
2642:William Stokoe
2567:
2564:
2530:in English or
2477:Main article:
2474:
2471:
2332:
2329:
2193:has only six.
2119:
2116:
2046:Main article:
2043:
2042:Morphophonemes
2040:
2008:conflate with
1734:
1733:
1648:
1646:
1639:
1633:
1630:
1548:
1545:
1537:
1536:
1518:
1507:
1489:
1429:Main article:
1426:
1423:
1349:suprasegmental
1337:Roman Jakobson
1299:structuralists
1226:
1223:
1219:free variation
1206:
1203:
1189:
1188:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1167:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1148:
1142:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1122:
1115:
1108:
1101:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1080:
1073:
1066:
1059:
1052:
1046:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
998:
997:
988:
987:
979:
978:
970:
969:
961:
960:
959:
958:
957:
949:Phonemic tones
937:for the verb,
905:suprasegmental
896:
893:
784:) and (as in
715:
712:
645:[skɪl]
626:[kʰɪt]
561:
558:
237:
234:
170:⟩, see
146:
145:
144:
139:
138:
53:
51:
44:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4545:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4490:
4486:
4480:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4460:
4458:
4454:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4317:
4315:
4310:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4271:
4267:
4260:
4255:
4253:
4248:
4246:
4241:
4240:
4237:
4227:
4223:
4217:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4154:Function word
4152:
4151:
4149:
4145:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4091:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4035:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4010:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3993:
3988:
3986:
3981:
3979:
3974:
3973:
3970:
3962:
3960:0-521-29719-2
3956:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3917:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3889:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3873:
3870:
3864:
3860:
3855:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3827:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3811:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3795:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3779:
3776:
3770:
3766:
3761:
3758:
3752:
3748:
3743:
3740:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3719:
3713:
3709:
3704:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3692:
3687:
3686:Halle, Morris
3683:
3682:Chomsky, Noam
3679:
3678:
3673:
3665:
3659:
3656:
3648:
3641:
3634:
3631:
3624:
3621:
3617:
3611:
3608:
3604:
3598:
3595:
3591:
3585:
3582:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3567:9781563680977
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3541:
3538:
3533:
3526:
3523:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3503:(37): 37–51.
3502:
3498:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3479:
3476:
3472:. Henry Holt.
3470:
3469:
3460:
3457:
3445:
3441:
3440:
3432:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3401:
3398:
3393:
3389:
3382:
3379:
3375:
3369:
3366:
3353:
3346:
3343:
3338:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3305:
3302:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3270:
3267:
3255:
3251:
3245:
3242:
3237:
3231:
3226:
3225:
3216:
3213:
3208:
3206:9783110102574
3202:
3198:
3194:
3189:
3188:
3182:
3176:
3173:
3169:
3164:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3133:(2): 265–79.
3132:
3128:
3121:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3104:
3101:
3097:
3092:
3089:
3085:
3080:
3077:
3073:
3068:
3065:
3061:
3056:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3017:
3014:
3010:
3009:Twaddell 1935
3005:
3003:
2999:
2993:
2990:
2986:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2968:
2965:
2962:, p. 48.
2961:
2956:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2936:
2933:
2930:, p. 44.
2929:
2924:
2921:
2908:
2904:
2903:handspeak.com
2900:
2893:
2890:
2885:
2884:
2879:
2873:
2870:
2863:
2853:
2850:
2844:
2841:
2834:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2758:Emic and etic
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2730:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2674:
2673:Ancient Greek
2670:
2666:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2582:
2577:
2573:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2546:representing
2537:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2480:
2472:
2470:
2468:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2444:Zellig Harris
2441:
2436:
2435:structuralist
2431:
2380:
2374:
2366:
2359:
2354:
2351:
2347:
2346:Yuen Ren Chao
2343:
2339:
2330:
2328:
2318:
2314:
2302:
2299:, colloquial
2295:and a simple
2290:
2278:
2274:
2266:
2258:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2238:Kru languages
2235:
2234:Dong language
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2177:. As regards
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2128:speech organs
2125:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2102:
2101:
2095:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2054:morphophoneme
2049:
2041:
2039:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2016:
1999:
1994:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1955:
1933:
1932:Prague school
1929:
1924:
1918:
1914:
1894:
1862:
1854:
1847:
1840:
1833:
1825:
1820:
1809:
1805:
1804:morphological
1793:
1789:
1785:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1757:
1756:Paul Kiparsky
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1730:
1727:
1719:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1698:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1684:
1680:
1677: –
1676:
1672:
1671:Find sources:
1665:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1649:This section
1647:
1643:
1638:
1637:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1616:
1614:
1608:
1606:
1600:
1599:alveolar flap
1588:
1584:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1556:structuralist
1553:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1530:
1519:
1512:
1508:
1501:
1497:
1490:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1462:
1453:
1452:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1432:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1411:emic and etic
1408:
1404:
1400:
1399:
1394:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1314:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1295:Prague School
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1245:
1236:
1235:Ancient Greek
1232:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1081:
1074:
1067:
1060:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1003:
999:The syllable
992:
983:
974:
965:
956:
954:
950:
946:
944:
932:
928:
924:
922:
921:vowel harmony
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
894:
892:
890:
883:
854:
825:
811:
797:
794:
790:
789:
783:
781:
774:
772:
768:
763:
753:
751:
746:
744:
738:
735:
734:
728:
722:
714:Minimal pairs
713:
711:
701:
700:
695:
694:
689:
681:
676:
670:
668:
661:
657:
656:
651:
650:speech sounds
646:
639:
637:
627:
620:
618:
609:
607:
601:
599:
593:
591:
586:
584:
575:
566:
559:
557:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
534:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
507:alveolar flap
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
475:
471:
467:
464:of a set (or
463:
458:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
391:
386:
374:
370:
363:
356:
347:
340:
333:
331:
287:
283:
279:
259:
247:
243:
235:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
214:speech sounds
209:
182:
173:
161:
157:
155:
151:
143:
135:
132:
124:
113:
110:
106:
103:
99:
96:
92:
89:
85:
82: –
81:
77:
76:Find sources:
70:
66:
60:
59:
54:This article
52:
48:
43:
42:
37:
33:
19:
4427:Single-field
4362:Etymological
4357:Encyclopedic
4337:Biographical
4314:dictionaries
4266:Lexicography
4073:
4013:Lexical item
3950:
3924:
3920:
3896:
3892:
3876:
3858:
3834:
3830:
3814:
3798:
3782:
3764:
3746:
3728:
3707:
3689:
3663:
3658:
3647:the original
3633:
3623:
3615:
3610:
3602:
3597:
3592:. MIT Press.
3589:
3584:
3553:
3540:
3531:
3525:
3500:
3496:
3490:
3485:, p. 5.
3478:
3467:
3459:
3447:. Retrieved
3438:
3431:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3400:
3391:
3387:
3381:
3373:
3368:
3356:. Retrieved
3345:
3321:(1): 59–75.
3318:
3314:
3304:
3292:. Retrieved
3288:the original
3283:
3279:
3269:
3257:. Retrieved
3253:
3244:
3223:
3215:
3186:
3175:
3168:Crystal 2010
3163:
3130:
3126:
3120:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3091:
3079:
3067:
3055:
3043:
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2992:
2980:
2972:
2967:
2955:
2944:
2935:
2923:
2911:. Retrieved
2902:
2892:
2881:
2872:
2852:
2843:
2808:Phonotactics
2778:Minimal pair
2713:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2668:
2664:
2663:
2636:
2629:
2623:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2595:
2589:
2585:
2579:
2569:
2509:
2482:
2464:
2456:Edward Sapir
2432:
2355:
2342:Kenneth Pike
2336:concerns of
2334:
2246:
2211:
2148:
2121:
2110:
2108:
2099:
2097:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2053:
2051:
2023:
2019:
2013:
1995:
1986:
1982:
1974:
1970:
1967:Biuniqueness
1956:
1925:
1916:
1892:
1845:
1838:
1831:
1821:
1808:inflectional
1773:
1769:archiphoneme
1768:
1759:
1743:
1739:
1737:
1722:
1713:
1703:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1670:
1658:Please help
1653:verification
1650:
1627:
1612:
1610:
1604:
1602:
1580:
1576:Noam Chomsky
1572:Morris Halle
1564:many-to-many
1552:Biuniqueness
1551:
1550:
1547:Biuniqueness
1538:
1528:
1460:
1458:
1449:
1444:
1434:
1431:Phonotactics
1418:
1414:
1407:Kenneth Pike
1396:
1390:
1386:
1384:
1371:
1365:
1357:articulatory
1341:Morris Halle
1334:
1326:Morris Halle
1322:Noam Chomsky
1315:
1307:Edward Sapir
1286:
1283:Daniel Jones
1278:
1274:
1258:
1230:
1228:
1208:
1194:
1192:
948:
947:
930:
926:
925:
898:
798:
787:
785:
779:
778:
775:
764:
749:
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742:
741:
739:
733:minimal pair
731:
717:
677:
666:
664:
659:
653:
649:
635:
616:
605:
603:
597:
595:
589:
588:
582:
581:
571:
535:
526:
518:
510:
502:
499:glottal stop
490:
459:
450:
446:
442:
438:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
388:
384:
372:
368:
334:
329:
285:
281:
277:
245:
241:
239:
180:
178:
166:and ⟨
148:
142:
127:
121:October 2020
118:
108:
101:
94:
87:
75:
63:Please help
58:verification
55:
4518:Orthography
4432:Specialized
4402:Multi-field
4367:Explanatory
4298:Phrase book
4006:Major terms
3550:Lucas, Ceil
3483:Harris 1951
3449:30 December
3050:, chpt. 11.
3021:Harris 1951
2913:13 February
2897:Handspeak.
2493:orthography
2448:mentalistic
2291:lacks both
2092:after most
1740:neutralized
1441:phonotactic
1263:abstraction
1028:Tone number
495:articulated
493:is usually
462:abstraction
226:linguistics
4502:Categories
4372:Historical
4352:Electronic
4342:Conceptual
4283:Dictionary
4205:Morphology
3999:Lexicology
3879:, Mouton,
3259:22 January
2985:Jones 1957
2960:Wells 1982
2928:Wells 1982
2864:References
2748:Diaphoneme
2616:expression
2596:designator
2485:alphabetic
2207:consonants
2181:phonemes,
2138:and 11 in
2062:allomorphs
1686:newspapers
1568:generative
1403:emic units
1389:, such as
1199:intonation
680:allophones
483:meaningful
390:allophones
91:newspapers
4528:Phonology
4523:Phonetics
4442:Sub-field
4332:Bilingual
4312:Types of
4303:Thesaurus
4273:Types of
4147:Functions
4138:Troponymy
4096:relations
3666:, 2nd ed.
3534:. Mouton.
3417:: 260–8.
3394:: 363–97.
3374:Phonemics
3358:5 January
3337:170335215
3294:5 January
3155:145227467
3096:Pike 1967
2878:"phoneme"
2798:Phonology
2701:phonology
2693:Cherology
2681:phonology
2665:Cherology
2606:signation
2505:loanwords
2489:graphemes
2417:would be
2409:would be
2338:phonology
2226:Cantonese
2179:consonant
2175:phonation
2165:language
2132:allophony
2103:) and as
2058:morphemes
2036://ˈsBɪn//
1826:phonemes
1675:"Phoneme"
1437:syllables
1361:Ladefoged
1330:phonology
1244:romanized
1229:The term
1211:allophone
939:/ˈɪnvaɪt/
935:/ɪnˈvaɪt/
901:segmental
889:Confucian
688:Icelandic
523:aspirated
521:, and an
455:aspirated
230:phonology
228:known as
80:"Phoneme"
4288:Glossary
4159:Headword
4103:Antonymy
4094:Semantic
4069:Morpheme
4054:Grapheme
4037:Elements
3921:Language
3893:Language
3843:44705495
3823:13223685
3727:(1997),
3688:(1968),
3628:Gruyter.
3605:. Foris.
3576:57352333
3552:(2000).
3497:Language
3468:Language
2907:Archived
2823:Triphone
2726:See also
2697:cheremes
2650:Brentari
2620:mouthing
2526:), like
2520:trigraph
2452:Twaddell
2317:Quileute
2311:, while
2224:, while
2201:81. The
2159:Arrernte
2004:, where
1998:plosives
1891:, as in
1861:morpheme
1855:such as
1784:stressed
1752:phonetic
1716:May 2019
1583:flapping
1502:, allow
1500:Romanian
1482:Setswana
1457:, as in
1419:phonetic
1415:phonemic
1398:grapheme
1392:morpheme
1372:duration
1368:chroneme
1353:acoustic
1345:features
917:juncture
899:Besides
576:phoneme
556:below).
540:such as
474:phonetic
407:phonetic
403:phonemic
272:, while
222:phonetic
164:/ /
160:Help:IPA
18:Phonemic
4417:Rhyming
4412:Reverse
4407:Picture
4392:Medical
4327:Anagram
4293:Lexicon
4133:Synonym
4074:Phoneme
4044:Chereme
4018:Lexicon
3851:4550377
3807:6492928
3801:, MIT,
3791:2232282
3147:4175789
2753:Diphone
2705:phoneme
2689:chereme
2669:chereme
2660:Chereme
2654:Sandler
2598:), and
2560:Italian
2516:digraph
2497:dialect
2313:Rotokas
2277:Tlingit
2191:Rotokas
2183:Puinave
2140:Rotokas
2096:(as in
2032:/ˈsbɪn/
2028:/ˈspɪn/
2020:sghetti
2010:/b,d,ɡ/
2006:/p,t,k/
1975:bedding
1971:betting
1948:{m,n,ŋ}
1944:|m-n-ŋ|
1930:of the
1887:before
1875:before
1867:before
1857:/p,t,k/
1828:/m,n,ŋ/
1788:reduced
1700:scholar
1474:Tagalog
1470:Swahili
1380:tonemes
1287:phoneme
1259:phoneme
1250:phōnēma
1246::
1231:phonème
1195:tonemes
574:English
542:X-SAMPA
538:systems
497:with a
421:versus
413:versus
405:versus
395:slashes
379:versus
256:in the
252:versus
181:phoneme
152:in the
105:scholar
36:phenome
32:phoneME
4447:Visual
4168:Fields
4084:Sememe
4064:Lexeme
4049:Glyphs
3957:
3941:522070
3939:
3913:409603
3911:
3885:308042
3883:
3865:
3849:
3841:
3821:
3805:
3789:
3771:
3753:
3735:
3714:
3700:317361
3698:
3574:
3564:
3517:409004
3515:
3335:
3232:
3203:
3153:
3145:
2949:online
2828:Viseme
2818:Toneme
2813:Sphoṭa
2671:(from
2631:mother
2625:father
2586:tabula
2572:Stokoe
2536:German
2393:(plus
2379:Trager
2303:lacks
2301:Samoan
2273:Mohawk
2267:lacks
2259:lacks
2257:Arabic
2222:stress
2214:French
2187:Tauade
2151:vowels
2136:Pirahã
2124:sounds
2015:sketti
2000:after
1952://n*//
1919:to be
1905:/lɪŋk/
1901:/lɪnt/
1897:/lɪmp/
1883:, and
1702:
1695:
1688:
1681:
1673:
1496:Arabic
1480:, and
1309:, and
1275:fonema
1261:as an
1239:φώνημα
1233:(from
1173:mother
1170:Gloss
1092:Pinyin
943:French
931:invite
913:stress
655:phones
511:dating
330:pushed
324:, and
310:/pʊʃt/
304:, and
284:, and
168:
107:
100:
93:
86:
78:
4456:Other
4377:Idiom
4118:Idiom
4059:Lemma
4023:Lexis
3937:JSTOR
3909:JSTOR
3839:JSTOR
3650:(PDF)
3643:(PDF)
3513:JSTOR
3333:S2CID
3151:S2CID
3143:JSTOR
2835:Notes
2788:Phone
2319:lack
2279:lack
2199:Ubykh
2163:Bantu
2155:Ubykh
2082://z//
1991://D//
1940://N//
1936://A//
1909://N//
1849:/sʌŋ/
1842:/sʌn/
1835:/sʌm/
1824:nasal
1817:{a|o}
1813://A//
1767:. An
1707:JSTOR
1693:books
1560:phone
1533:/bɔj/
1466:Māori
1376:tones
1301:like
1182:scold
1179:horse
1050:Hanzi
814:from
727:gátur
721:kátur
699:gátur
693:kátur
660:skill
652:, or
636:skill
546:ASCII
519:stick
513:, an
505:, an
417:, or
381:/sɪŋ/
377:/sɪn/
371:from
357:]
353:[
341:]
337:[
254:/sɛt/
250:/sɛl/
156:(IPA)
112:JSTOR
98:books
4422:Rime
4079:Seme
4028:Word
3955:ISBN
3881:OCLC
3863:ISBN
3847:OCLC
3819:OCLC
3803:OCLC
3787:OCLC
3769:ISBN
3751:ISBN
3733:ISBN
3712:ISBN
3696:OCLC
3572:OCLC
3562:ISBN
3451:2017
3392:IV.4
3360:2019
3296:2019
3261:2022
3230:ISBN
3201:ISBN
2939:See
2915:2017
2707:(or
2703:and
2687:. A
2677:χείρ
2667:and
2628:and
2552:/ks/
2548:/gz/
2524:etc.
2419:/ah/
2415:/ɑː/
2413:and
2411:/aw/
2407:/aʊ/
2403:/aj/
2399:/aɪ/
2323:and
2315:and
2307:and
2289:Hupa
2283:and
2275:and
2242:Wobé
2218:tone
2195:!Xóõ
2171:!Xóõ
2167:Ngwe
2157:and
2078:dogs
2076:and
2074:cats
2024:spin
2018:and
1985:and
1973:and
1961:and
1950:and
1938:and
1853:stop
1846:sung
1798:and
1778:and
1679:news
1609:and
1574:and
1523:and
1498:and
1478:Thai
1417:and
1395:and
1387:-eme
1339:and
1324:and
1176:hemp
911:and
909:tone
758:and
747:and
724:and
706:and
704:/kʰ/
443:spit
373:sing
351:and
292:and
286:gnat
278:knot
264:and
244:and
242:cell
218:word
84:news
3929:doi
3901:doi
3505:doi
3419:doi
3323:doi
3193:doi
3135:doi
2718:at
2618:or
2611:ori
2601:sig
2591:dez
2588:),
2581:tab
2576:ASL
2558:in
2550:or
2540:/ʃ/
2534:in
2428:/ʌ/
2395:/r/
2391:/h/
2389:or
2387:/w/
2383:/j/
2369:or
2325:/n/
2321:/m/
2309:/n/
2305:/t/
2297:/k/
2293:/p/
2285:/m/
2281:/p/
2269:/t/
2261:/p/
2220:or
2144:ǃXũ
2114:).
2109:dog
2105:/z/
2098:cat
2090:/s/
2086:|z|
2084:or
2026:as
2002:/s/
1987:bed
1983:bet
1963:/d/
1959:/t/
1915:of
1889:/k/
1885:/ŋ/
1881:/d/
1879:or
1877:/t/
1873:/n/
1869:/p/
1865:/m/
1839:sun
1832:sum
1800:/o/
1796:/a/
1780:/o/
1776:/a/
1662:by
1623:/d/
1619:/t/
1615:ing
1607:ing
1595:/d/
1593:or
1591:/t/
1585:in
1529:boy
1525:/j/
1521:/w/
1515:/ɹ/
1509:In
1504:/h/
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1486:/ŋ/
1455:/ŋ/
1134:IPA
760:/d/
756:/t/
708:/k/
684:/k/
675:).
673:/t/
669:ill
617:kit
578:/k/
531:/t/
527:tie
517:in
509:in
503:cat
451:pit
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435:/p/
431:/b/
427:/p/
423:bat
419:pat
415:tab
411:tap
385:pan
369:sin
332:.
326:/t/
322:/ʃ/
318:/ʊ/
314:/p/
306:/æ/
302:/ʌ/
300:,
298:/ɒ/
294:/t/
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282:nut
274:/ɛ/
270:/s/
266:/t/
262:/l/
246:set
67:by
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