440:. He thought that phlogiston should not be considered as a particle but as an essence that permeates substances, arguing that in a pound of any substance, one could not simply pick out the particles of phlogiston. Pott also observed the fact that when certain substances are burned they increase in mass instead of losing the mass of the phlogiston as it escapes; according to him, phlogiston was the basic fire principle and could not be obtained by itself. Flames were considered to be a mix of phlogiston and water, while a phlogiston-and-earthy mixture could not burn properly. Phlogiston permeates everything in the universe, it could be released as heat when combined with an acid. Pott proposed the following properties:
348:
487:
375:, and it was in this form that the theory probably had its greatest influence. The term 'phlogiston' itself was not something that Stahl invented. There is evidence that the word was used as early as 1606, and in a way that was very similar to what Stahl was using it for. The term was derived from a Greek word meaning inflame. The following paragraph describes Stahl's view of phlogiston:
1320:
22:
551:, the densities of magnesium and its combustion product showed that just being lighter than air could not account for the increase in weight. Stahl himself did not address the problem of the metals that burn gaining weight, but those who followed his school of thought were the ones that worked on this problem.
628:
occur only in the presence of water, that they directly involve water, and that water is regenerated and is detectable at the end of the reaction. Based on her experiments, she disagreed with some of the conclusions of
Lavoisier as well as with the phlogiston theorists that he critiqued. Her book on
500:
also created a very complete picture of phlogiston. When reading Stahl's work, he assumed that phlogiston was in fact very material. He, therefore, came to the conclusion that phlogiston has the property of levity, or that it makes the compound that it is in much lighter than it would be without the
332:
was a key feature of combustion and was released when combustible substances were burned. Becher did not have much to do with phlogiston theory as we know it now, but he had a large influence on his student Stahl. Becher's main contribution was the start of the theory itself, however much of it was
379:
To Stahl, metals were compounds containing phlogiston in combination with metallic oxides (calces); when ignited, the phlogiston was freed from the metal leaving the oxide behind. When the oxide was heated with a substance rich in phlogiston, such as charcoal, the calx again took up phlogiston and
217:
In general, substances that burned in the air were said to be rich in phlogiston; the fact that combustion soon ceased in an enclosed space was taken as clear-cut evidence that air had the capacity to absorb only a finite amount of phlogiston. When the air had become completely phlogisticated it
640:
Experienced chemists who supported Stahl's phlogiston theory attempted to respond to the challenges suggested by
Lavoisier and the newer chemists. In doing so, phlogiston theory became more complicated and assumed too much, contributing to the overall demise of the theory. Many people tried to
507:
brought the theory of phlogiston to France, where he was a very influential scientist and teacher, popularizing the theory very quickly. Many of his students became very influential scientists in their own right, Lavoisier included. The French viewed phlogiston as a very subtle principle that
457:
is evident only after a long time, and is due either to the fact that the particles of the body become more compact, decrease the volume and hence increase the density as in the case of lead, or those little heavy particles of air become lodged in the substance as in the case of powdered
208:
when burned, releasing stored phlogiston, which is absorbed by the air. Growing plants then absorb this phlogiston, which is why air does not spontaneously combust and also why plant matter burns. This method of accounting for combustion was inverse to the
396:
in 1723. According to Stahl, phlogiston was a substance that was not able to be put into a bottle but could be transferred nonetheless. To him, wood was just a combination of ash and phlogiston, and making a metal was as simple as getting a metal
1115:
Experiments and
Observations Relating to the Analysis of Atmospherical Air: Also, Farther Experiments Relating to the Generation of Air from Water. ... To which are Added, Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston, and the Decomposition of
530:("Chemical examination of the doctrine of phlogiston and the doctrine of pneumatists in relation to the nature of water"), which is considered the most original defence of Lavoisier's theory of water composition to appear in Italy.
538:
Eventually, quantitative experiments revealed problems, including the fact that some metals gained weight after they burned, even though they were supposed to have lost phlogiston. Some phlogiston proponents, like
298:, which contained the first instance of what would become the phlogiston theory. In his book, Becher eliminated fire and air from the classical element model and replaced them with three forms of the earth:
450:
The reason it causes expansion in most bodies is unknown, but not accidental. It is proportional to the compactness of the texture of the bodies or to the intimacy of their constitution.
1078:
For a discussion of how the term phlogiston was understood during the eighteenth century, see: James R Partington & Douglas McKie; "Historical studies on the phlogiston theory";
645:
reworded his theory many times, and even though he is said to have thought the theory of phlogiston was doomed, he stood by phlogiston and tried to make the theory work.
405:
was almost pure phlogiston, which is why heating it with a metallic calx transforms the calx into the metal and Stahl attempted to prove that the phlogiston in soot and
280:
that applied only to compounds. Experience had shown that burning was not always accompanied by a loss of material, and a better theory was needed to account for this.
558:
rather than a material substance. By the end of the eighteenth century, for the few chemists who still used the term phlogiston, the concept was linked to
566:, for example, in referring to the reaction of steam on iron, while fully acknowledging that the iron gains weight after it binds with oxygen to form a
276:
reinforced this idea by characterising them as moist, dry, hot, and cold. Fire was thus thought of as a substance, and burning was seen as a process of
478:
Pott's formulations proposed little new theory; he merely supplied further details and rendered existing theory more approachable to the common man.
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During the eighteenth century, as it became clear that metals gained weight after they were oxidized, phlogiston was increasingly regarded as a
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169:. The theory was challenged by the concomitant weight increase and was abandoned before the end of the 18th century following experiments by
608:) and could be measured by means of weighing closed vessels. The use of closed vessels by Lavoisier and earlier by the Russian scientist
117:
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in 1772, and the pair used the theory to explain his results. The residue of air left after burning, in fact, a mixture of nitrogen and
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phlogiston. He also showed that air was needed for combustion by putting substances in a sealed flask and trying to burn them.
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in the 1770s and by other scientists. Phlogiston theory led to experiments that ultimately resulted in the identification (
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1340:
1120:
527:
Examen chimique de la doctrine du phlogistique et de la doctrine des pneumatistes par rapport à la nature de l'eau
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introduced
Lavoisier's work in Italy. Giobert won a prize competition from the Academy of Letters and Sciences of
594:, "birth" referring to oxygen's supposed role in the formation of acids), Priestley described phlogiston as the
1345:
1153:
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remodel their theories on phlogiston to have the theory work with what
Lavoisier was doing in his experiments.
511:
548:
547:, gave the more conventional argument that it is lighter than air. However, a more detailed analysis based on
508:
vanishes in all analysis, yet it is in all bodies. Essentially they followed straight from Stahl's theory.
421:. He did not account for the increase in weight on combustion of tin and lead that were known at the time.
612:
also negated the buoyancy that had disguised the weight of the gases of combustion, and culminated in the
218:
would no longer serve to support the combustion of any material, nor would a metal heated in it yield a
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capable of combining with more phlogiston and thus supporting combustion for longer than ordinary air.
222:; nor could phlogisticated air support life. Breathing was thought to take phlogiston out of the body.
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429:
436:. He compared phlogiston to light or fire, saying that all three were substances whose natures were
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changed after him. Becher's idea was that combustible substances contain an ignitable matter, the
1178:
763:
269:
730:
Mauskop, Seymour (1 November 2002). "Richard Kirwan's
Phlogiston Theory: Its Success and Fate".
390:, published in 1697. His most quoted definition was found in the treatise on chemistry entitled
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When set in motion, phlogiston is the chief active principle in nature of all inanimate bodies.
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regenerated the metal. Phlogiston was a definite substance, the same in all its combinations.
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574:), and this is the substance or principle, to which we give the name phlogiston". Following
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in 1792 for his work refuting phlogiston theory. He presented a paper at the
432:, a student of one of Stahl's students, expanded the theory and attempted to
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616:. These observations solved the mass paradox and set the stage for the new
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675: – View that energy is the fundamental element in all physical change
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The
Overthrow of Phlogiston Theory: The Chemical Revolution of 1775–1789
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The form of phlogiston consists of a circular movement around its axis.
1149:"Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" I: against phlogiston theory"
605:
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showed that combustion requires a gas that has weight (specifically,
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406:
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181:
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121:
157:. Phlogiston theory attempted to explain chemical processes such as
21:
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Discovery of the
Perviousness of Glass to Ponderable Parts of Flame
629:
the subject appeared in print soon after
Lavoisier's execution for
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485:
346:
166:
20:
669: – Tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons
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402:
398:
365:, proposed a variant of the theory in which he renamed Becher's
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When homogeneous it cannot be consumed or dissipated in a fire.
1228:. Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Foundation. pp. 28–31.
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that there were four elements—water, earth, fire, and air—and
79:
600:
Phlogiston remained the dominant theory until the 1770s when
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570:, iron oxide, iron also loses "the basis of inflammable air (
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Stahl's first definition of phlogiston first appeared in his
91:
108:) contained within combustible bodies and released during
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67:
61:
1222:
Rayner-Canham, Marelene; Rayner-Canham, Geoffrey (2001).
70:
1135:
Heads of lectures on a course of experimental philosophy
245:
having taken up all of the phlogiston. Conversely, when
683:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
434:
make it much more understandable to a general audience
981:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
100:
85:
73:
55:
977:
Leicester, Henry M.; Klickstein, Herbert S. (1965).
862:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 60.
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76:
58:
1262:. Hyderabad: Universities Press. pp. 247–250.
995:(revised edition). New York: Collier Books. Ch. 26.
64:
1200:
902:
784:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1950), 14.
326:, or combustible properties. Becher believed that
909:(1st American ed.). New York: W. W. Norton.
153:and later put together more formally in 1703 by
657: – Obsolete scientific theory of heat flow
377:
1068:. London: Essays of Effluvium. pp. 57–85.
8:
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204:substances contain phlogiston and that they
1292:Historical Studies on the Phlogiston Theory
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361:, a professor of medicine and chemistry at
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1290:Partington, J. R.; McKie, Douglas (1981).
859:Making modern science: A historical survey
624:demonstrated through experiment that many
474:It is the principal agent in fermentation.
41:, postulated the existence of a fire-like
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851:
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834:. University of Chicago Press. p. 4
438:widely understood but not easily defined
149:substance was first proposed in 1667 by
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1040:Biographical Dictionary of the Italians
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1207:. New York: Harper & Row. p.
465:Air attracts the phlogiston of bodies.
582:(hence its name, from Ancient Greek:
7:
1036:Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani
831:Lectures on the History of Chemistry
805:. Spaceship-earth.de. Archived from
681: – Topical pain relief medicine
524:of Turin on 18 March 1792, entitled
322:was the element that imparted oily,
1203:The Development of Modern Chemistry
620:of combustion. The British chemist
493:'s alchemical symbol for phlogiston
14:
1147:Best, Nicholas W. (1 July 2015).
1318:
947:The History of Phlogiston Theory
707:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary
51:
1361:Misidentified chemical elements
905:The Norton history of chemistry
545:Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau
241:, was sometimes referred to as
29:proposed the phlogiston theory.
16:Superseded theory of combustion
1356:Obsolete theories in chemistry
901:Brock, William Hodson (1993).
614:principle of mass conservation
453:The increase of weight during
200:Phlogiston theory states that
1:
1094:, 113–149. Reprinted 1981 as
578:description of oxygen as the
409:were identical by converting
174:
1366:Obsolete theories in physics
602:Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
521:Académie royale des Sciences
165:, now collectively known as
137:
122:
39:superseded scientific theory
25:The alchemist and physician
1090:, 1–58; and 337–371; 1939,
1032:"GIOBERT, Giovanni Antonio"
991:Mason, Stephen F., (1962).
949:. New York: AMS Press Inc.
471:It is the basis of colours.
1384:
1112:Priestley, Joseph (1796).
1030:Abbri, Ferdinando (2001).
979:A Source Book in Chemistry
945:White, John Henry (1973).
505:Guillaume-François Rouelle
131:
116:
112:. The name comes from the
1167:10.1007/s10698-015-9220-5
1137:. London: Joseph Johnson.
1133:Joseph Priestley (1794).
993:A History of the Sciences
828:Ladenburg, Dr. A (1911).
780:James Bryant Conant, ed.
744:10.1179/amb.2002.49.3.185
709:(3rd ed.). Longman.
387:Zymotechnia fundamentalis
180:), and naming (1777), of
1154:Foundations of Chemistry
856:Bowler, Peter J (2005).
512:Giovanni Antonio Giobert
1018:Encyclopedia Britannica
590:
584:
401:and adding phlogiston.
253:, he believed it to be
1323:Quotations related to
1259:The story of chemistry
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213:by Antoine Lavoisier.
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1256:Datta, N. C. (2005).
549:Archimedes' principle
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290:Johann Joachim Becher
284:Johann Joachim Becher
255:dephlogisticated air,
215:
151:Johann Joachim Becher
24:
1199:Ihde, Aaron (1964).
1064:Boyle, R. A (1673).
534:Challenge and demise
430:Johann Heinrich Pott
229:'s Scottish student
885:Physica Subterranea
803:"Priestley, Joseph"
661:Pneumatic chemistry
626:oxidation reactions
596:alkaline principle.
580:oxidizing principle
295:Physica subterranea
292:published his book
268:had formulated the
243:phlogisticated air,
1341:1667 introductions
495:
393:Fundamenta chymiae
355:
31:
1325:Phlogiston theory
1100:978-0-405-13895-9
1086:, 361–404; 1938,
1080:Annals of Science
916:978-0-393-03536-0
716:978-1-4058-8118-0
667:Electronegativity
635:French Revolution
622:Elizabeth Fulhame
610:Mikhail Lomonosov
359:Georg Ernst Stahl
352:Georg Ernst Stahl
343:Georg Ernst Stahl
231:Daniel Rutherford
190:Antoine Lavoisier
171:Antoine Lavoisier
155:Georg Ernst Stahl
145:). The idea of a
35:phlogiston theory
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689:References
460:zinc oxide
425:J. H. Pott
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