339:, and small-bowel bypass surgery. Protein energy malnutrition is often seen in VAD; suppressed synthesis of retinol binding protein (RBP) due to protein deficiency leads to reduced retinol uptake. Excess alcohol consumption can deplete vitamin A, and a stressed liver may be more susceptible to vitamin A toxicity. People who consume large amounts of alcohol should seek medical advice before taking vitamin A supplements. In general, people should also seek medical advice before taking vitamin A supplements if they have any condition associated with fat malabsorption such as
547:
and
Central Africa to achieve over 80% coverage of vitamin A supplementation. According to UNICEF data, in 2013 worldwide, 65% of children between the ages of 6 and 59 months were fully protected with two high-dose vitamin A supplements. Vitamin A capsules cost about US$ 0.02. The capsules are easy to handle; they do not need to be stored in a refrigerator or vaccine carrier. When the correct dosage is given, vitamin A is safe and has no negative effect on
274:
palmitate to be taken by mouth, which is administered two to four times a year. Intramuscular injections are poorly absorbed and are ineffective in delivering sufficient bioavailable vitamin A. Fortification of food with vitamin A is costly, but can be done in wheat, sugar, and milk. Households may circumvent expensive fortified food by altering dietary habits. Consumption of yellow-orange fruits and vegetables rich in
33:
179:
Southeast Asia and Africa. According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), VAD is under control in the United States, but in developing countries, VAD is a significant concern. Globally, 65% of all children aged 6 to 59 months received two doses of vitamin A in 2013, fully protecting them against VAD (80% in the
2045:
Stevens, Gretchen A; Bennett, James E; Hennocq, Quentin; Lu, Yuan; De-Regil, Luz Maria; Rogers, Lisa; Danaei, Goodarz; Li, Guangquan; White, Richard A; Flaxman, Seth R; Oehrle, Sean-Patrick; Finucane, Mariel M; Guerrero, Ramiro; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A; Then-Paulino, Amarilis; Fawzi, Wafaie; Black, Robert
551:
rates for oral polio or measles vaccines. However, because the benefit of vitamin A supplements is transient, children need them regularly every four to six months. Since NIDs provide only one dose per year, NIDs-linked vitamin A distribution must be complemented by other programs to maintain vitamin
494:
diets can provide sufficient vitamin A in the form of provitamin A carotenoids if the diet contains carrots, carrot juice, sweet potatoes, green leafy vegetables such as spinach and kale, and other carotenoid-rich foods. In the U.S., the average daily intake of β-carotene is in the range 2â7 mg.
546:
eradication or measles. Additionally, the delivery of vitamin A supplements, during integrated child health events such as child health days, has helped ensure high coverage of vitamin A supplementation in a large number of least developed countries. Child health events enable many countries in West
541:
and all-cause mortality. Vitamin A supplementation of children under five who are at risk of VAD can reduce allâcause mortality by 23%. Some countries where VAD is a public-health problem address its elimination by including vitamin A supplements available in capsule form with national immunization
1584:
Beaton GH et al. Effectiveness of vitamin A supplementation in the control of young child morbidity and mortality in developing countries. United
Nations Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-committee on Nutrition State-of-the-Art Series: Nutrition Policy Discussion Paper No. 13. Geneva,
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beta-carotene, a precursor of retinol, in the edible parts of rice. In May 2018, regulatory agencies in the United States, Canada, Australia and New
Zealand had concluded that Golden Rice met food safety standards. On 21 July 2021, the Philippines became the first country to officially issue the
178:
VAD is estimated to affect about one-third of children under the age of five around the world. It is estimated to claim the lives of 670,000 children under five annually. Around 250,000â500,000 children in developing countries become blind each year owing to VAD, with the highest prevalence in
273:
Decreasing night blindness requires the improvement of vitamin A status in at-risk populations. Supplements and fortification of food have been shown to be effective interventions. Supplement treatment for night blindness includes massive doses of vitamin A (200,000 IU) in the form of retinyl
475:
Vitamin A is found in many foods. Vitamin A in food exists either as preformed retinol â an active form of vitamin A â found in animal liver, dairy and egg products, and some fortified foods, or as provitamin A carotenoids, which are plant pigments digested into vitamin A after consuming
242:
typically causes an increase in photopigment amounts in response to low levels of illumination. This occurs to an enormous magnitude, increasing light sensitivity by up to 100,000 times its sensitivity in normal daylight conditions. VAD affects vision by inhibiting the production of
375:
the most reliable. Measurement of plasma retinol levels is a common laboratory assay used to diagnose VAD. Other biochemical assessments include measuring plasma retinyl ester levels, plasma and urinary retonioic acid levels, and vitamin A in breast milk.
175:, even mild, subclinical deficiency can also be a problem, as it may increase children's risk of developing respiratory and diarrheal infections, decrease growth rate, slow bone development, and decrease likelihood of survival from serious illness.
635:
have been able to identify genetic sequences in corn that are associated with higher levels of beta-carotene, the precursor to vitamin A. They found that breeders can cross certain variations of corn to produce a crop with an 18-fold increase in
2258:
630:
to stop commercial propagation of golden rice in relation to a petition filed by MASIPAG (a group of farmers and scientists), who claimed that golden rice poses risk to the health of consumers and to the environment. Researchers at the U.S.
295:
has been observed after an outbreak of measles, with mortality correlated with severity of eye disease. In longitudinal studies of preschool children, susceptibility to disease increased substantially when severe VAD was present.
290:
Along with poor diet, infection and disease are common in many developing communities. Infection depletes vitamin A reserves which in turn make the affected individual more susceptible to further infection. Increased incidence of
681:. An estimated 1.25 million deaths due to vitamin A deficiency have been averted in 40 countries since 1998. In 2013, the prevalence of vitamin A deficiency was 29% in low-income and middle-income countries, remaining highest in
270:, and their absence results in xerophthalmia, a condition where the eyes fail to produce tears. Dead epithelial and microbial cells accumulate on the conjunctiva and form debris that can lead to infection and possibly blindness.
191:
Vitamin A deficiency is the most common cause of blindness in developing countries. The WHO estimated in 1995 that 13.8 million children had some degree of visual loss related to VAD. Night blindness and its worsened condition,
677:. About 75% of the vitamin A required for supplementation of preschool-aged children in low- and middle-income countries is supplied through a partnership between Nutrition International and UNICEF, with support from
140:
4 to reduce child mortality. About 250,000 to 500,000 malnourished children in the developing world go blind each year from a deficiency of vitamin A, around half of whom die within a year of becoming blind. The
1037:
599:
or retinyl palmitate are used as a form of vitamin A for vitamin A fortification of fat-based foods. Fortification of sugar with retinyl palmitate as a form of vitamin A has been used extensively throughout
647:
contain pro-vitamin A and account for greater than 80% of intake for most individuals in the developing world. The increase in consumption of vitamin A-rich foods of animal origin has beneficial effects on
315:, leading to an inadequate immune response and consequently a greater susceptibility to infections. In the presence of dietary deficiency of vitamin A, VAD and infections reciprocally aggravate each other.
282:, provides provitamin A precursors that can prevent VAD-related night blindness. However, the conversion of carotene to retinol varies from person to person and bioavailability of carotene in food varies.
1321:
1757:
1961:
1832:
Ye X, Al-Babili S, KlĂśti A, Zhang J, Lucca P, Beyer P, Potrykus I (January 2000). "Engineering the provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm".
2181:
Flour
Fortification Initiative, GAIN, Micronutrient Initiative, USAID, The World Bank, UNICEF, Investing in the Future: A United Call to Action on Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies, 2009.
220:
in the subclinical stage of VAD. These conjunctival epithelial defects are not visible on a biomicroscope, but they take up black stain and become readily visible after instillation of
484:
of plant-food carotenoids results partly from binding to proteins â chopping, homogenizing or cooking disrupts the plant proteins, increasing provitamin A carotenoid bioavailability.
2048:"Trends and mortality effects of vitamin A deficiency in children in 138 low-income and middle-income countries between 1991 and 2013: a pooled analysis of population-based surveys"
1041:
611:
have been explored. Research on rice began in 1982. The first field trials of golden rice cultivars were conducted in 2004. The result was "Golden Rice", a variety of
504:
Despite the US setting an adult upper limit of 3,000 Îźg/day, some companies sell vitamin A (as retinal palmitate) as a dietary supplement with amounts of 7,500 Îźg/day.
371:
which is strongly correlated with VAD status (and can be used to monitor recovery progress). Several methods of assessing bodily vitamin A levels are available, with
689:. A 2017 review (updated in 2022) found that vitamin A supplementation in children five years old and younger in 70 countries was associated with a 12% reduction in
2336:
657:
Global efforts to support national governments in addressing VAD are led by the Global
Alliance for Vitamin A (GAVA), which is an informal partnership between
1435:
Dietary
Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
1156:
Borel P, Drai J, Faure H, Fayol V, Galabert C, Laromiguière M, Le MoÍl G (2005). "Recent knowledge about intestinal absorption and cleavage of carotenoids".
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1883:
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to proliferate correctly. Retinoic acid is a ligand for nuclear retinoic acid receptors that bind the promoter regions of specific genes, thus activating
674:
1313:
2183:
2171:
1971:
940:
World Health
Organization, Global prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in populations at risk 1995â2005, WHO global database on vitamin A deficiency.
627:
311:
and stimulating T cell replication. Vitamin A deficiency will often entail deficient retinol intake, resulting in a reduced number of T-cells and
2192:
949:
Black RE et al., Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences, The Lancet, 2008, 371(9608), p. 253.
916:
658:
1761:
113:. It is common in poorer countries, especially among children and women of reproductive age, but is rarely seen in more developed countries.
693:. The review reported that synthetic vitamin A supplementation may not be the best longâterm solution for vitamin A deficiency, but rather
1117:"The effect of vitamin A fortification of sugar on the serum vitamin A levels of preschool Guatemalan children: a longitudinal evaluation"
1062:
Underwood, Barbara A. Vitamin A Deficiency
Disorders: International Efforts to Control A Preventable "Pox." J. Nutr. 134: 231Sâ236S, 2004.
2329:
2108:
Imdad, Aamer; Mayo-Wilson, Evan; Haykal, Maya R.; Regan, Allison; Sidhu, Jasleen; Smith, Abigail; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A. (16 March 2022).
1595:
1281:
1072:
Sommer A, Muhilal, Tarwotjo I, Djunaedi E, Glover J (1980b). "Oral versus intramuscular vitamin A in the treatment of xerophthalmia".
367:
Initial assessment may be made based on clinical signs of VAD. Conjunctival impression cytology can be used to assess the presence of
355:. Other causes of vitamin A deficiency are inadequate intake, fat malabsorption, or liver disorders. Deficiency impairs immunity and
148:
The prevalence of night blindness due to VAD is also high among pregnant women in many developing countries. VAD also contributes to
1728:
1703:
1442:
893:
865:
552:
A in children. Maternal high supplementation benefits both mother and breast-fed infant: high-dose vitamin A supplementation of the
782:
2229:
575:
Food fortification is also useful for improving VAD. A variety of oily and dry forms of the retinol esters, retinyl acetates, and
966:
623:
2411:
2353:
1655:"High dose vitamin A supplementation of breast-feeding Indonesian mothers: effects on the vitamin A status of mother and infant"
1185:"Spinach or carrots can supply significant amounts of vitamin A as assessed by feeding with intrinsically deuterated vegetables"
751:
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1997:
1627:
2763:
1404:
834:
632:
2416:
1909:
2686:
2019:
137:
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in the conjunctiva, a membrane covering the outer surface of the eye. Goblet cells are responsible for secretion of
2110:"Vitamin A supplementation for preventing morbidity and mortality in children from six months to five years of age"
662:
336:
180:
2234:
2709:
2273:
750:. Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis. January 2015.
332:
118:
476:
carotenoid-rich plant foods, typically in red, orange, or yellow colors. Carotenoid pigments may be masked by
2421:
1491:. Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 1 July 2016
308:
164:
1934:
1560:
2499:
2180:
697:, improved food distribution programs, and crop improvement, such as for fortified rice or vitamin A-rich
2193:
UNICEF, Improving Child
Nutrition: The achievable imperative for global progress, UNICEF, New York, 2013.
2168:
607:
Separated from fortification via addition of synthetic vitamin A to foods, means of fortifying foods via
604:. Cereal flours, milk powder, and liquid milk are also used as food vehicles for vitamin A fortification.
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2592:
2460:
678:
2570:
2564:
2556:
2541:
1841:
1788:
1535:
514:
2676:
2664:
2654:
909:
608:
518:
352:
133:
2768:
2727:
2584:
2383:
1865:
1097:
694:
682:
580:
499:
149:
2214:
1743:
2699:
2694:
2649:
2644:
2486:
2473:
2147:
2129:
2087:
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1857:
1814:
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1676:
1438:
1379:
1371:
1255:
1206:
1165:
1138:
1089:
1019:
889:
861:
576:
564:. However, high-dose supplementation of pregnant women should be avoided because it can cause
2267:
1602:
1462:"Rank order of vitamin A content in foods, retinol activity equivalent (RAE) in ug per 100 g"
2612:
2527:
2137:
2121:
2069:
2059:
1849:
1804:
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1666:
1361:
1245:
1237:
1196:
1128:
1081:
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1001:
239:
205:
110:
1273:
247:, the photopigment responsible for sensing low-light situations. Rhodopsin is found in the
2634:
2629:
2187:
2175:
639:
Dietary diversification can also reduce risk of VAD. Non-animal sources of vitamin A like
601:
596:
481:
344:
324:
1461:
778:
163:
VAD also diminishes the ability to fight infections. In countries where children are not
1845:
1792:
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As an oral form, the supplementation of vitamin A is effective for lowering the risk of
2669:
2142:
2109:
1809:
1776:
1250:
1225:
1014:
989:
690:
548:
534:
453:
348:
299:
The reason for the increased infection rate in vitamin A deficient individuals is that
217:
142:
117:(night blindness) is one of the first signs of VAD, as the vitamin has a major role in
2064:
2047:
1085:
121:; but it is also the first symptom that is reversed when vitamin A is consumed again.
2757:
2704:
2602:
1966:
1884:"Golden Rice meets food safety standards in three global leading regulatory agencies"
591:
are the ideal food vehicles for vitamin A fortification. They protect vitamin A from
569:
487:
410:
368:
359:
and causes rashes and typical ocular effects (e.g., xerophthalmia, night blindness).
356:
304:
300:
292:
279:
209:
193:
172:
126:
122:
1869:
1488:
1226:"Mechanisms of retinoic acid signalling and its roles in organ and limb development"
1101:
805:"In Preventing Vitamin A Deficiency, a Little Friendly Bacteria Might Go a Long Way"
747:
32:
2622:
2597:
2551:
2345:
2302:
2125:
698:
618:
613:
431:
420:
340:
962:
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can provide the breast-fed infant with an appropriate amount of vitamin A through
145:
Special Session on Children in 2002 set a goal of the elimination of VAD by 2010.
2278:
1993:
1853:
1631:
886:
Vitamin a Deficiency and Its Consequences: A Field Guide to Detection and Control
622:
biosafety permit for commercially propagating Golden Rice. In 2023, however, the
2742:
2732:
2617:
2373:
2363:
2169:
UNICEF, Vitamin A Supplementation: A Decade of Progress, UNICEF, New York, 2007.
1962:"SC issues Writ of Kalikasan vs Golden Rice, Bt eggplant - BusinessWorld Online"
1400:
565:
561:
477:
275:
263:
201:
830:
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1800:
686:
644:
557:
463:
312:
233:
213:
114:
2133:
2083:
1375:
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1349:
1721:
Food Fortification: Tech & Quality Control (Food & Nutrition Papers)
1201:
1184:
592:
584:
553:
526:
386:
244:
157:
153:
102:
2151:
2091:
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1654:
1430:
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1210:
1169:
1133:
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17:
1680:
1437:. Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine. pp. 82â161.
1142:
1093:
1023:
2737:
2447:
2406:
2368:
1005:
530:
491:
328:
2250:
2546:
1274:"Vitamin A Deficiency Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes"
538:
252:
197:
168:
1994:"A New Approach that Saves Eyesight and Lives in the Developing World"
858:
Human Nutrition in the Developing World (Fao Food and Nutrition Paper)
129:, and complete blindness can follow if the deficiency is more severe.
2535:
2262:
666:
640:
595:
during storage and prompt absorption of vitamin A. Beta-carotene and
442:
248:
1511:"USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28"
1241:
957:
955:
480:
in dark green leaf vegetables, such as spinach. The relatively low
262:
Night blindness caused by VAD has been associated with the loss of
1777:"From disagreements to dialogue: unpacking the Golden Rice debate"
543:
267:
256:
221:
106:
31:
2204:
132:
Vitamin A deficiency is the world's leading cause of preventable
1719:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1996).
1464:. FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture. 1 October 2021
513:
Treatment of VAD can be undertaken with both oral vitamin A and
502:
and dietary supplements are sources of vitamin A or β-carotene.
372:
323:
In addition to dietary problems, other causes of VAD are known.
2318:
2314:
2219:
27:
Disease resulting from low Vitamin A concentrations in the body
990:"Childhood blindness due to VAD in India: regional variations"
670:
588:
1596:"Distribution of vitamin A during national immunization days"
1183:
Tang G, Qin J, Dolnikowski GG, Russell RM, Grusak MA (2005).
701:, may be more effective in eradicating vitamin A deficiency.
2224:
1744:
FAQ: Who invented Golden Rice and how did the project start?
831:"WHO Vitamin A deficiency | Micronutrient deficiencies"
39:
2230:
World Health Organization Database on Vitamin A Deficiency
1401:"Diagnosis and Treatment of Vitamin A Deficiency: Workup"
1456:
1454:
2215:
UNICEF Data on Vitamin A Deficiency and Supplementation
1775:
Kettenburg AJ, Hanspach J, Abson DJ, Fischer J (2018).
1653:
Stoltzfus RJ, Hakimi M, Miller KW, et al. (1993).
2209:
963:"Vitamin A Deficiency and Supplementation UNICEF Data"
196:, are markers of Vitamin A deficiency; collections of
1424:
1422:
860:. Food & Agriculture Organization of the United.
2240:
1696:
Guidelines on Food Fortification With Micronutrients
2720:
2685:
2583:
2514:
2391:
2382:
2352:
2288:
2244:
879:
877:
401:
988:Rahi JS, Sripathi S, Gilbert CE, Foster A (1995).
327:can affect vitamin A uptake; other causes include
1350:"Diagnosis and detection of vitamin deficiencies"
1996:. USDA Agricultural Research Service. May 2010.
1483:
1481:
1479:
1758:"'Golden Rice' Could Help Reduce Malnutrition"
2330:
1935:"Filipinos soon to plant and eat Golden Rice"
617:rice produced through genetic engineering to
171:have higher fatality rates. As elucidated by
8:
1888:International Rice Research Institute â IRRI
2114:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
216:defects occur around lateral aspect of the
2388:
2337:
2323:
2315:
2241:
1189:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
2141:
2073:
2063:
1960:OrdoĂąez, John Victor D. (20 April 2023).
1808:
1670:
1365:
1249:
1200:
1132:
1115:Arroyave G, Mejia LA, Aguilar JR (1981).
1013:
224:(surma); this is called "Imtiaz's sign".
392:
208:, and ulceration and necrosis of cornea
36:Prevalence of vitamin A deficiency, 1995
779:"Micronutrient Deficiencies: Vitamin A"
773:
771:
769:
710:
1284:from the original on 21 September 2017
1224:Cunningham, T.J.; Duester, G. (2015).
969:from the original on 11 September 2016
742:
740:
738:
736:
734:
2103:
2101:
2020:"childinfo.org: Vitamin A Deficiency"
1698:. Geneva: World Health Organization.
1561:"Vital Nutrients Vitamin A 7,500 RAE"
1395:
1393:
1343:
1341:
1339:
888:. Geneva: World Health Organization.
732:
730:
728:
726:
724:
722:
720:
718:
716:
714:
7:
1756:LSU AgCenter Communications (2004).
1312:Merck Manuals Professional Edition.
922:from the original on 12 October 2017
785:from the original on 3 December 2013
1910:"Philippines OKs GMO 'golden rice'"
1314:"Vitamin A â Nutritional Disorders"
837:from the original on 16 August 2019
1939:Philippine Rice Research Institute
1324:from the original on 18 March 2017
754:from the original on 27 April 2021
255:(an active form of vitamin A) and
25:
2000:from the original on 3 March 2016
1536:"Vitamin A 25,000 IU (7,500 Îźg)"
1407:from the original on 6 July 2017
994:Archives of Disease in Childhood
624:Supreme Court of the Philippines
385:This section is an excerpt from
1628:"WHO Vitamin A supplementation"
303:require the retinol metabolite
136:, and is critical to achieving
2126:10.1002/14651858.CD008524.pub4
1429:Institute of Medicine (2001).
167:, infectious diseases such as
1:
2210:Global Alliance for Vitamin A
2065:10.1016/s2214-109x(15)00039-x
1348:Bates, C J (1 January 1999).
1086:10.1016/S0140-6736(80)91053-3
781:. World Health Organization.
633:Agricultural Research Service
1854:10.1126/science.287.5451.303
1158:Annales de Biologie Clinique
2412:WernickeâKorsakoff syndrome
856:Latham, Michael E. (1997).
152:and other poor outcomes in
138:Millennium Development Goal
2785:
2220:Helen Keller International
910:"A world fit for children"
663:Helen Keller International
556:mother in the first month
384:
337:inflammatory bowel disease
231:
212:can be seen. Conjunctival
59: Moderate subclinical
2417:Wernicke's encephalopathy
2046:E; Ezzati, Majid (2015).
1801:10.1007/s11625-018-0577-y
529:, especially from severe
181:least developed countries
2186:14 December 2010 at the
2052:The Lancet Global Health
1367:10.1258/0007142991902529
1354:British Medical Bulletin
1230:Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol
509:Prevention and treatment
333:pancreatic insufficiency
53: Severe subclinical
2205:Nutrition International
2174:31 October 2020 at the
884:Sommer, Alfred (1995).
659:Nutrition International
79: No data available
73: VAD under control
1278:emedicine.medscape.com
1080:(8168 Pt 1): 557â559.
628:agriculture department
87:
67: Mild subclinical
2593:Electrolyte imbalance
2461:Pyridoxine deficiency
2435:Riboflavin deficiency
1764:on 28 September 2007.
1202:10.1093/ajcn/82.4.821
679:Global Affairs Canada
35:
2764:Vitamin deficiencies
2571:Vitamin K deficiency
2565:Vitamin E deficiency
2542:Vitamin D deficiency
2523:Vitamin A deficiency
2422:Korsakoff's syndrome
2303:Vitamin A deficiency
2235:Vitamin A Deficiency
1672:10.1093/jn/123.4.666
1134:10.1093/ajcn/34.1.41
1006:10.1136/adc.72.4.330
517:forms, generally as
91:Vitamin A deficiency
2026:on 18 February 2008
1846:2000Sci...287..303Y
1793:2018SuSc...13.1469K
1038:"Untitled Document"
609:genetic engineering
519:vitamin A palmitate
387:Vitamin A § Sources
353:biliary obstruction
251:and is composed of
134:childhood blindness
2585:Mineral deficiency
2384:Vitamin deficiency
2289:External resources
1634:on 25 January 2013
1608:on 18 October 2012
1565:Pure Prescriptions
811:. 19 December 2011
695:food fortification
683:sub-Saharan Africa
653:Global initiatives
581:food fortification
579:are available for
500:manufactured foods
187:Signs and symptoms
150:maternal mortality
88:
2751:
2750:
2700:Failure to thrive
2695:Delayed milestone
2579:
2578:
2557:Harrison's groove
2487:Folate deficiency
2474:Biotin deficiency
2312:
2311:
1516:. 28 October 2015
577:retinyl palmitate
473:
472:
404:(2001) per 100 g
380:Vitamin A sources
238:A process called
119:phototransduction
99:hypovitaminosis A
85:
84:
16:(Redirected from
2776:
2389:
2339:
2332:
2325:
2316:
2242:
2156:
2155:
2145:
2105:
2096:
2095:
2077:
2067:
2058:(9): e528âe536.
2042:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2022:. Archived from
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1974:on 20 April 2023
1970:. Archived from
1957:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1931:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1812:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1760:. Archived from
1753:
1747:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1723:. Bernan Assoc.
1716:
1710:
1709:
1694:Allen L (2006).
1691:
1685:
1684:
1674:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1630:. Archived from
1624:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1607:
1601:. Archived from
1600:
1592:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1515:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1485:
1474:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1458:
1449:
1448:
1426:
1417:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1397:
1388:
1387:
1369:
1345:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1318:merckmanuals.com
1309:
1303:
1300:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1253:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1204:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1153:
1147:
1146:
1136:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1069:
1063:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1040:. Archived from
1034:
1028:
1027:
1017:
985:
979:
978:
976:
974:
959:
950:
947:
941:
938:
932:
931:
929:
927:
921:
914:
906:
900:
899:
881:
872:
871:
853:
847:
846:
844:
842:
827:
821:
820:
818:
816:
801:
795:
794:
792:
790:
775:
764:
763:
761:
759:
744:
542:days (NIDs) for
403:
393:
78:
72:
66:
58:
52:
46:
40:
21:
2784:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2716:
2681:
2575:
2510:
2503:
2496:
2483:
2470:
2457:
2444:
2431:
2403:
2378:
2355:
2348:
2343:
2313:
2308:
2307:
2284:
2283:
2253:
2201:
2188:Wayback Machine
2176:Wayback Machine
2165:
2163:Further reading
2160:
2159:
2120:(3): CD008524.
2107:
2106:
2099:
2044:
2043:
2039:
2029:
2027:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2003:
2001:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1977:
1975:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1944:
1942:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1918:
1916:
1907:
1906:
1902:
1892:
1890:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1840:(5451): 303â5.
1831:
1830:
1826:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1755:
1754:
1750:
1746:Goldenrice.org.
1742:
1738:
1731:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1706:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1652:
1651:
1647:
1637:
1635:
1626:
1625:
1621:
1611:
1609:
1605:
1598:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1567:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1544:
1542:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1508:
1504:
1494:
1492:
1487:
1486:
1477:
1467:
1465:
1460:
1459:
1452:
1445:
1428:
1427:
1420:
1410:
1408:
1399:
1398:
1391:
1347:
1346:
1337:
1327:
1325:
1311:
1310:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1287:
1285:
1272:
1271:
1267:
1242:10.1038/nrm3932
1223:
1222:
1218:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1047:
1045:
1044:on 30 July 2014
1036:
1035:
1031:
987:
986:
982:
972:
970:
961:
960:
953:
948:
944:
939:
935:
925:
923:
919:
912:
908:
907:
903:
896:
883:
882:
875:
868:
855:
854:
850:
840:
838:
829:
828:
824:
814:
812:
803:
802:
798:
788:
786:
777:
776:
767:
757:
755:
746:
745:
712:
707:
655:
602:Central America
597:retinyl acetate
533:, and reducing
511:
506:
505:
482:bioavailability
390:
382:
365:
345:cystic fibrosis
325:Iron deficiency
321:
288:
278:, specifically
240:dark adaptation
236:
230:
228:Night blindness
189:
86:
80:
76:
74:
70:
68:
64:
60:
56:
54:
50:
48:
44:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2782:
2780:
2772:
2771:
2766:
2756:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2702:
2697:
2691:
2689:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2670:Keshan disease
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2589:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2573:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2494:
2491:
2490:
2489:
2481:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2442:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2401:
2397:
2395:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2358:
2354:Protein-energy
2350:
2349:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2334:
2327:
2319:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2285:
2282:
2281:
2270:
2254:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2245:Classification
2239:
2238:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2200:
2199:External links
2197:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2178:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2097:
2037:
2011:
1985:
1952:
1941:. 23 July 2021
1926:
1900:
1875:
1824:
1787:(5): 1469â82.
1767:
1748:
1736:
1729:
1711:
1704:
1686:
1665:(4): 666â675.
1645:
1619:
1587:
1577:
1552:
1527:
1502:
1475:
1450:
1443:
1418:
1389:
1360:(3): 643â657.
1335:
1304:
1302:(Combs, 1991).
1295:
1265:
1236:(2): 110â123.
1216:
1195:(4): 821â828.
1175:
1164:(2): 165â177.
1148:
1107:
1064:
1055:
1029:
980:
951:
942:
933:
901:
894:
873:
866:
848:
822:
796:
765:
709:
708:
706:
703:
691:mortality rate
654:
651:
650:
649:
637:
636:beta-carotene.
605:
583:of vitamin A.
573:
549:seroconversion
510:
507:
471:
470:
467:
460:
459:
456:
454:cheddar cheese
450:
449:
446:
439:
438:
435:
428:
427:
424:
417:
416:
413:
407:
406:
397:
391:
383:
381:
378:
364:
361:
349:tropical sprue
320:
317:
301:killer T-cells
287:
284:
232:Main article:
229:
226:
188:
185:
143:United Nations
83:
82:
75:
69:
63:
61:
55:
49:
47: Clinical
43:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2781:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2705:Short stature
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2572:
2568:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2539:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2528:Bitot's spots
2526:
2525:
2524:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2505:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2479:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2440:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2427:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2399:
2398:
2396:
2394:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2351:
2347:
2340:
2335:
2333:
2328:
2326:
2321:
2320:
2317:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2295:
2294:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2276:
2275:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2252:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2075:10044/1/48910
2071:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2041:
2038:
2025:
2021:
2015:
2012:
1999:
1995:
1989:
1986:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1967:BusinessWorld
1963:
1956:
1953:
1940:
1936:
1930:
1927:
1915:
1911:
1904:
1901:
1889:
1885:
1879:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1828:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1737:
1732:
1730:92-5-103884-8
1726:
1722:
1715:
1712:
1707:
1705:92-4-159401-2
1701:
1697:
1690:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1649:
1646:
1633:
1629:
1623:
1620:
1604:
1597:
1591:
1588:
1581:
1578:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1553:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1528:
1512:
1506:
1503:
1490:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1463:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1444:0-309-07290-5
1440:
1436:
1432:
1425:
1423:
1419:
1406:
1402:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1308:
1305:
1299:
1296:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1266:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1220:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1160:(in French).
1159:
1152:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1111:
1108:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1068:
1065:
1059:
1056:
1043:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1007:
1003:
1000:(4): 330â33.
999:
995:
991:
984:
981:
968:
964:
958:
956:
952:
946:
943:
937:
934:
918:
911:
905:
902:
897:
895:92-4-154478-3
891:
887:
880:
878:
874:
869:
867:92-5-103818-X
863:
859:
852:
849:
836:
832:
826:
823:
810:
809:Rutgers Today
806:
800:
797:
784:
780:
774:
772:
770:
766:
753:
749:
743:
741:
739:
737:
735:
733:
731:
729:
727:
725:
723:
721:
719:
717:
715:
711:
704:
702:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
652:
646:
642:
638:
634:
629:
625:
620:
619:biosynthesize
616:
615:
610:
606:
603:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
571:
570:birth defects
567:
563:
559:
555:
550:
545:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
523:
522:
520:
516:
508:
503:
501:
496:
493:
489:
485:
483:
479:
468:
465:
462:
461:
457:
455:
452:
451:
447:
444:
441:
440:
436:
433:
432:chicken liver
430:
429:
426:4,970â21,145
425:
422:
419:
418:
414:
412:
411:cod liver oil
409:
408:
405:
398:
395:
394:
388:
379:
377:
374:
370:
369:xerophthalmia
362:
360:
358:
357:hematopoiesis
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
318:
316:
314:
310:
309:transcription
306:
305:retinoic acid
302:
297:
294:
293:xerophthalmia
285:
283:
281:
280:beta-carotene
277:
271:
269:
265:
260:
259:(a protein).
258:
254:
250:
246:
241:
235:
227:
225:
223:
219:
215:
211:
210:keratomalacia
207:
206:Bitot's spots
203:
199:
195:
194:xerophthalmia
186:
184:
182:
176:
174:
173:Alfred Sommer
170:
166:
161:
159:
155:
151:
146:
144:
139:
135:
130:
128:
127:keratomalacia
124:
123:Xerophthalmia
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
101:is a lack of
100:
96:
92:
62:
42:
41:
34:
30:
19:
2552:Osteomalacia
2522:
2356:malnutrition
2346:Malnutrition
2296:
2272:
2257:
2117:
2113:
2055:
2051:
2040:
2028:. Retrieved
2024:the original
2014:
2002:. Retrieved
1988:
1976:. Retrieved
1972:the original
1965:
1955:
1943:. Retrieved
1938:
1929:
1917:. Retrieved
1914:Philstar.com
1913:
1908:Talavera C.
1903:
1891:. Retrieved
1887:
1878:
1837:
1833:
1827:
1784:
1780:
1770:
1762:the original
1751:
1739:
1720:
1714:
1695:
1689:
1662:
1658:
1648:
1636:. Retrieved
1632:the original
1622:
1610:. Retrieved
1603:the original
1590:
1580:
1568:. Retrieved
1564:
1555:
1543:. Retrieved
1539:
1530:
1518:. Retrieved
1505:
1493:. Retrieved
1466:. Retrieved
1434:
1409:. Retrieved
1357:
1353:
1326:. Retrieved
1317:
1307:
1298:
1288:21 September
1286:. Retrieved
1277:
1268:
1233:
1229:
1219:
1192:
1188:
1178:
1161:
1157:
1151:
1127:(1): 41â49.
1124:
1120:
1110:
1077:
1073:
1067:
1058:
1046:. Retrieved
1042:the original
1032:
997:
993:
983:
971:. Retrieved
945:
936:
924:. Retrieved
904:
885:
857:
851:
839:. Retrieved
825:
813:. Retrieved
808:
799:
789:12 September
787:. Retrieved
756:. Retrieved
699:sweet potato
656:
626:ordered the
614:Oryza sativa
612:
512:
497:
486:
478:chlorophylls
474:
399:
366:
341:pancreatitis
322:
298:
289:
272:
264:goblet cells
261:
237:
190:
177:
162:
147:
131:
98:
94:
90:
89:
29:
2743:Underweight
2733:Weight loss
2374:Catabolysis
2364:Kwashiorkor
1781:Sustain Sci
1495:21 December
1489:"Vitamin A"
1468:20 December
1431:"Vitamin A"
748:"Vitamin A"
566:miscarriage
562:breast milk
313:lymphocytes
276:carotenoids
204:, known as
202:conjunctiva
18:Phrynoderma
2758:Categories
2710:Idiopathic
2660:Molybdenum
2504:deficiency
2393:B vitamins
2298:Patient UK
1570:26 January
1545:26 January
1540:WonderLabs
1520:5 February
1411:1 November
815:27 October
758:1 November
705:References
687:South Asia
645:vegetables
558:postpartum
515:injectable
488:Vegetarian
421:beef liver
234:Nyctalopia
214:epithelial
115:Nyctalopia
2769:Blindness
2640:Manganese
2618:Potassium
2613:Phosphate
2608:Magnesium
2500:Vitamin B
2134:1469-493X
2084:2214-109X
2004:19 August
1978:22 August
1945:21 August
1919:21 August
1376:0007-1420
1048:15 August
593:oxidation
585:Margarine
554:lactating
535:mortality
527:morbidity
363:Diagnosis
286:Infection
245:rhodopsin
165:immunized
158:lactation
154:pregnancy
103:vitamin A
2738:Cachexia
2728:Anorexia
2677:Fluorine
2665:Selenium
2655:Chromium
2603:Chloride
2448:Pellagra
2407:Beriberi
2369:Marasmus
2184:Archived
2172:Archived
2152:35294044
2092:26275329
2030:14 March
1998:Archived
1870:40258379
1862:10634784
1819:30220919
1405:Archived
1384:10746353
1328:17 March
1322:Archived
1282:Archived
1260:25560970
1211:16210712
1170:15771974
1102:35416519
967:Archived
917:Archived
835:Archived
783:Archived
752:Archived
531:diarrhea
466:(cooked)
434:(cooked)
423:(cooked)
329:fibrosis
2721:General
2598:Calcium
2547:Rickets
2279:D014802
2237:on IAPB
2143:8925277
1842:Bibcode
1834:Science
1810:6132390
1789:Bibcode
1681:8463867
1659:J. Nutr
1638:3 March
1612:3 March
1251:4636111
1143:7446457
1121:J. Nutr
1094:6102284
1024:7763066
1015:1511233
973:7 April
926:3 March
841:3 March
539:measles
445:(stick)
415:30,000
253:retinal
200:in the
198:keratin
169:measles
111:tissues
2687:Growth
2650:Iodine
2645:Copper
2623:Sodium
2536:Scurvy
2150:
2140:
2132:
2090:
2082:
1893:30 May
1868:
1860:
1817:
1807:
1727:
1702:
1679:
1441:
1382:
1374:
1258:
1248:
1209:
1168:
1141:
1100:
1092:
1074:Lancet
1022:
1012:
892:
864:
673:, and
667:UNICEF
641:fruits
443:butter
437:4,296
351:, and
319:Causes
249:retina
218:limbus
81:
77:
71:
65:
57:
51:
45:
2515:Other
1866:S2CID
1606:(PDF)
1599:(PDF)
1585:1993.
1514:(PDF)
1098:S2CID
920:(PDF)
913:(PDF)
544:polio
537:from
498:Some
492:vegan
268:mucus
257:opsin
222:kajal
107:blood
97:) or
2635:Zinc
2630:Iron
2274:MeSH
2268:5B55
2148:PMID
2130:ISSN
2118:2022
2088:PMID
2080:ISSN
2032:2008
2006:2010
1980:2023
1947:2021
1921:2021
1895:2018
1858:PMID
1815:PMID
1725:ISBN
1700:ISBN
1677:PMID
1640:2008
1614:2008
1572:2022
1547:2022
1522:2022
1497:2021
1470:2021
1439:ISBN
1413:2019
1380:PMID
1372:ISSN
1330:2017
1290:2017
1256:PMID
1207:PMID
1166:PMID
1139:PMID
1090:PMID
1050:2014
1020:PMID
975:2015
928:2008
890:ISBN
862:ISBN
843:2008
817:2019
791:2019
760:2019
685:and
648:VAD.
643:and
587:and
568:and
490:and
469:140
458:316
448:684
396:Food
373:HPLC
156:and
109:and
2569:K:
2563:E:
2540:D:
2534:C:
2521:A:
2259:ICD
2225:A2Z
2138:PMC
2122:doi
2070:hdl
2060:doi
1850:doi
1838:287
1805:PMC
1797:doi
1667:doi
1663:123
1362:doi
1246:PMC
1238:doi
1197:doi
1129:doi
1082:doi
1010:PMC
1002:doi
675:CDC
671:WHO
589:oil
464:egg
402:RAE
400:Îźg
183:).
105:in
95:VAD
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2502:12
2495:12
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