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science and technology gave breeders the ability to screen thousands of samples within a small amount of time, meaning breeders could identify a high performing hybrid quicker. The genetic improvement was mainly in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) resulting in 0.7-2.5% increase, at just 1% increase in IVDMD a single Bos Taurus also known as beef cattle reported 3.2% increase in daily gains. This improvement indicates plant breeding is an essential tool in gearing future agriculture to perform at a more advanced level.
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desirable traits that will increase the fitness of the individuals. Using this method decreases the need for breeding multiple generations of plants to get a generation that is homogeneous for the desired traits, thereby saving much time over the natural version of the same process. There are many plant tissue culturing techniques that can be used to achieve haploid plants, but microspore culturing is currently the most promising for producing the largest numbers of them.
1657:
the production environments found in organic vs. conventional farming systems are vastly different due to their distinctive management practices. Most notably, organic farmers have fewer inputs available than conventional growers to control their production environments. Breeding varieties specifically adapted to the unique conditions of organic agriculture is critical for this sector to realize its full potential. This requires selection for traits such as:
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is no longer a viable option. New varieties of plants can in some cases be developed through plant breeding that generate an increase of yield without relying on an increase in land area. An example of this can be seen in Asia, where food production per capita has increased twofold. This has been achieved through not only the use of fertilisers, but through the use of better crops that have been specifically designed for the area.
5723:
1703:). If this interaction is severe enough, an important trait required for the organic environment may not be revealed in the conventional environment, which can result in the selection of poorly adapted individuals. To ensure the most adapted varieties are identified, advocates of organic breeding now promote the use of direct selection (i.e. selection in the target environment) for many agronomic traits.
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1327:. Microbiomes of breeding lines showed that hybrid plants share much of their bacterial community with their parents, such as Cucurbita seeds and apple shoot endophytes. In addition, the proportional contribution of the microbiome from parents to offspring corresponds to the amount of genetic material contributed by each parent during breeding and domestication.
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allow worldwide access, which involves solving problems including drought tolerance. It has been suggested that global solutions are achievable through the process of plant breeding, with its ability to select specific genes allowing crops to perform at a level which yields the desired results. One issue facing agriculture is the loss of
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and concluded that 15 generations of natural selection are desirable to produce results that are competitive with conventional breeding. Evolutionary breeding allows working with much larger plant population sizes than conventional breeding. It has also been used in tandem with conventional practices
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Evolutionary plant breeding describes practices which use mass populations with diverse genotypes grown under competitive natural selection. Survival in common crop cultivation environments is the predominant method of selection, rather than direct selection by growers and breeders. Individual plants
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A 2019 review of participatory plant breeding indicated that it had not gained widespread acceptance despite its record of successfully developing varieties with improved diversity and nutritional quality, as well as greater likelihood of these improved varieties being adopted by farmers. This review
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Plant breeding can be performed through many different techniques ranging from simply selecting plants for propagation, to methods that make use of knowledge of genetics and chromosomes, to more complex molecular techniques. Genes in a plant are what determine what type of qualitative or quantitative
2008:
Hayes, Patrick M.; Castro, Ariel; Marquez-Cedillo, Luis; Corey, Ann; Henson, Cynthia; Jones, Berne L.; Kling, Jennifer; Mather, Diane; Matus, Ivan; Rossi, Carlos; Sato, Kazuhiro (2003). "Genetic diversity for quantitatively inherited agronomic and malting quality traits". In Roland von
Bothmer; Theo
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breeds results. Isolation is necessary to prevent cross contamination with related plants or the mixing of seeds after harvesting. Isolation is normally accomplished by planting distance but in certain crops, plants are enclosed in greenhouses or cages (most commonly used when producing F1 hybrids).
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When new plant breeds or cultivars are bred, they must be maintained and propagated. Some plants are propagated by asexual means while others are propagated by seeds. Seed propagated cultivars require specific control over seed source and production procedures to maintain the integrity of the plant
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using ML has made great strides and is now being applied to leaf phenotyping and other phenotyping jobs typically performed by human eyes. Pound et al. 2017 and Singh et al. 2016 are especially salient examples of early successful application and demonstration of the general usability of the process
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can also be employed as a diagnostics tool to facilitate selection of progeny who possess the desired trait(s), greatly speeding up the breeding process. This technique has proven particularly useful for the introgression of resistance genes into new backgrounds, as well as the efficient selection
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claim it is too low-yielding to be a viable alternative to conventional agriculture in situations when that poor performance may be the result in part of growing poorly-adapted varieties. It is estimated that over 95% of organic agriculture is based on conventionally adapted varieties, even though
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With an increasing population, the production of food needs to increase with it. It is estimated that a 70% increase in food production is needed by 2050 in order to meet the
Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security. But with the degradation of agricultural land, simply planting more crops
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Intellectual property legislation for plants often uses definitions that typically include genetic uniformity and unchanging appearance over generations. These legal definitions of stability contrast with traditional agronomic usage, which considers stability in terms of how consistent the yield or
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Issues facing plant breeding in the future include the lack of arable land, increasingly harsh cropping conditions and the need to maintain food security, which involves being able to provide the world population with sufficient nutrition. Crops need to be able to mature in multiple environments to
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Participatory plant breeding (PPB) is when farmers are involved in a crop improvement programme with opportunities to make decisions and contribute to the research process at different stages. Participatory approaches to crop improvement can also be applied when plant biotechnologies are being used
1022:. All plants have varying sizes and lengths of genomes with genes that code for different proteins, but many are also the same. If a gene's location and function is identified in one plant species, a very similar gene likely can also be found in a similar location in another related species genome.
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In 1929, Harlan and
Martini proposed a method of plant breeding with heterogeneous populations by pooling an equal number of F2 seeds obtained from 378 crosses among 28 geographically diverse barley cultivars. In 1938, Harlan and Martini demonstrated evolution by natural selection in mixed dynamic
1306:. Such concerns are not new to plant breeding. Most countries have regulatory processes in place to help ensure that new crop varieties entering the marketplace are both safe and meet farmers' needs. Examples include variety registration, seed schemes, regulatory authorizations for GM plants, etc.
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may be crossed with a high-yielding but susceptible pea, the goal of the cross being to introduce mildew resistance without losing the high-yield characteristics. Progeny from the cross would then be crossed with the high-yielding parent to ensure that the progeny were most like the high-yielding
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Plant breeding can contribute to global food security as it is a cost-effective tool for increasing nutritional value of forage and crops. Improvements in nutritional value for forage crops from the use of analytical chemistry and rumen fermentation technology have been recorded since 1960; this
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Uniform and genetically stable cultivars can be inadequate for dealing with environmental fluctuations and novel stress factors. Plant breeders have focused on identifying crops which will ensure crops perform under these conditions; a way to achieve this is finding strains of the crop that is
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but as the result of the cross of two homozygous/doubled haploid lines derived from the originally selected plant. Plant tissue culturing can produce haploid or double haploid plant lines and generations. This cuts down the genetic diversity taken from that plant species in order to select for
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can map thousands of genes. This allows plant breeders to screen large populations of plants for those that possess the trait of interest. The screening is based on the presence or absence of a certain gene as determined by laboratory procedures, rather than on the visual identification of the
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in products for humans and animals. The goals of plant breeding are to produce crop varieties that boast unique and superior traits for a variety of applications. The most frequently addressed agricultural traits are those related to biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, grain or biomass yield,
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The NGS platform has substantially declined the time and cost required for sequencing and facilitated SNP discovery in model and non-model plants. This in turn has led to employing large-scale SNP markers in genomic selection approaches which aim at predicting genomic breeding values/GEBVs of
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Currently, few breeding programs are directed at organic agriculture and until recently those that did address this sector have generally relied on indirect selection (i.e. selection in conventional environments for traits considered important for organic agriculture). However, because the
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resistance to drought conditions with low nitrogen. It is evident from this that plant breeding is vital for future agriculture to survive as it enables farmers to produce stress resistant crops hence improving food security. In countries that experience harsh winters such as
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Stage 3: Seeds of each cross are then mixed to produce the first generation of the
Composite Cross Population (CCP). The entire offspring is sown to grow and set seed. As the number of plants in the population increases, a proportion of the harvested seed is saved for
620:. It describes the tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed.
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Industrial breeding of plants has unintentionally altered how agricultural cultivars associate with their microbiome. In maize, for example, breeding has altered the nitrogen cycling taxa required to the rhizosphere, with more modern lines recruiting less
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value is central in this respect. Although relatively little direct research in this area has been done, there are scientific indications that, by favoring certain aspects of a plant's development, other aspects may be retarded. A study published in the
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plants which have the advantages of heterozygosity and a greater range of possible traits. Thus, an individual heterozygous plant chosen for its desirable characteristics can be converted into a heterozygous variety (F1 hybrid) without the necessity of
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Breeding is not a quick process, which is especially important when breeding to ameliorate a disease. The average time from human recognition of a new fungal disease threat to the release of a resistant crop for that pathogen is at least twelve years.
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When a desirable trait has been bred into a species, a number of crosses to the favored parent are made to make the new plant as similar to the favored parent as possible. Returning to the example of the mildew resistant pea being crossed with a
3267:
Vivek, B.S.; Krishna, Girish Kumar; Vengadessan, V.; Babu, R.; Zaidi, P.H.; Kha, Le Quy; Mandal, S.S.; Grudloyma, P.; Takalkar, S.; Krothapalli, K.; Singh, I.S.; Ocampo, Eureka Teresa M.; Xingming, F.; Burgueño, J.; Azrai, M. (March 2017).
2204:
436:). The progeny from that cross would then be tested for yield (selection, as described above) and mildew resistance and high-yielding resistant plants would be further developed. Plants may also be crossed with themselves to produce
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Genetic modification can further increase yields by increasing stress tolerance to a given environment. Stresses such as temperature variation, are signalled to the plant via a cascade of signalling molecules which will activate a
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and further east in Europe, plant breeders are involved in breeding for tolerance to frost, continuous snow-cover, frost-drought (desiccation from wind and solar radiation under frost) and high moisture levels in soil in winter.
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for crop improvement. Local agricultural systems and genetic diversity are strengthened by participatory programs, and outcomes are enhanced by farmers knowledge of the quality required and evaluation of the target environment.
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traits it will have. Plant breeders strive to create a specific outcome of plants and potentially new plant varieties, and in the course of doing so, narrow down the genetic diversity of that variety to a specific few biotypes.
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and significantly constraining individuals (such as farmers) from developing and trading seed on a regional level. Efforts to strengthen breeders' rights, for example, by lengthening periods of variety protection, are ongoing.
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end-use quality characteristics such as taste or the concentrations of specific biological molecules (proteins, sugars, lipids, vitamins, fibers) and ease of processing (harvesting, milling, baking, malting, blending, etc.).
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that are favored under prevailing growing conditions, such as environment and inputs, contribute more seed to the next generation than less-adapted individuals. Evolutionary plant breeding has been successfully used by the
1516:. The range of related issues is complex. In the simplest terms, critics of the increasingly restrictive regulations argue that, through a combination of technical and economic pressures, commercial breeders are reducing
912:
Modern plant breeding may use techniques of molecular biology to select, or in the case of genetic modification, to insert, desirable traits into plants. Application of biotechnology or molecular biology is also known as
1511:
is an important and controversial issue. Production of new varieties is dominated by commercial plant breeders, who seek to protect their work and collect royalties through national and international agreements based in
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is a commonly used marker: Plants that have been successfully transformed will grow on media containing antibiotics; plants that have not been transformed will die. In some instances markers for selection are removed by
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speed breeding is also possible, using a procedure developed by
Richard et al. 2015. As of 2020 it is highly anticipated that SB and automated phenotyping will, combined, produce greatly improved outcomes – see
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may abort before maturation. If this does occur the embryo resulting from an interspecific or intergeneric cross can sometimes be rescued and cultured to produce a whole plant. Such a method is referred to as
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and a termination sequence to stop transcription of the new gene, and the gene or genes of interest must be introduced to the plant. A marker for the selection of transformed plants is also included. In the
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Modern plant breeding, whether classical or through genetic engineering, comes with issues of concern, particularly with regard to food crops. The question of whether breeding can have a negative effect on
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Another technique is the deliberate interbreeding (crossing) of closely or distantly related individuals to produce new crop varieties or lines with desirable properties. Plants are crossbred to introduce
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also found participatory plant breeding to have a better cost/benefit ratio than non-participatory approaches, and suggested incorporating participatory plant breeding with evolutionary plant breeding.
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was established in the 1890s by John Garton, who was one of the first to commercialize new varieties of agricultural crops created through cross-pollination. The firm's first introduction was the
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Ceccarelli, S.; Grando, S.; Maatougui, M.; Michael, M.; Slash, M.; Haghparast, R.; Rahmanian, M.; Taheri, A.; Al-Yassin, A.; Benbelkacem, A.; Labdi, M.; Mimoun, H.; Nachit, M. (December 2010).
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Ceccarelli, S.; Grando, S.; Maatougui, M.; Michael, M.; Slash, M.; Haghparast, R.; Rahmanian, M.; Taheri, A.; Al-Yassin, A.; Benbelkacem, A.; Labdi, M.; Mimoun, H.; Nachit, M. (December 2010).
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it will ingest the toxin and die. Herbicides usually work by binding to certain plant enzymes and inhibiting their action. The enzymes that the herbicide inhibits are known as the herbicide's "
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Conventional breeding intentionally limits phenotype plasticity within genotypes and limits variability between genotypes. Uniformity does not allow crops to adapt to climate change and other
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As of 2020, regulations in Nepal only allow uniform varieties to be registered or released. Evolutionary plant populations and many landraces are polymorphic and do not meet these standards.
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plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially early farmers simply selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics, and employed these as
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genotypes in a given population. This method can increase the selection accuracy and decrease the time of each breeding cycle. It has been used in different crops such as maize, wheat, etc.
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would have produced 20% fewer arable crops over the last 20 years, consuming an additional 21.6 million hectares (53 million acres) of land and emitting 4 billion tonnes (3.9
1821:
4124:; Godfray, H. Charles J.; Beddington, John R.; Crute, Ian R.; Lawrence, David; Muir, James F.; Pretty, Jules; Robinson, Sherman; Thomas, Sandy M.; Toulmin, Camilla (12 February 2010).
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but susceptible pea, to make the mildew resistant progeny of the cross most like the high-yielding parent, the progeny will be crossed back to that parent for several generations (See
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1441:(ICARDA) evolutionary plant breeding is combined with participatory plant breeding in order to allow farmers to choose which varieties suit their needs in their local environment.
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techniques to produce progeny from otherwise fruitless mating. Interspecific and intergeneric hybrids are produced from a cross of related species or genera that do not normally
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institutions, universities, crop-specific industry associations or research centers. International development agencies believe that breeding new crops is important for ensuring
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Evolutionary breeding populations have been used to establish self-regulating plant–pathogen systems. Examples include barley, where breeders were able to improve resistance to
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1149:. Sometimes genetic modification can produce a plant with the desired trait or traits faster than classical breeding because the majority of the plant's genome is not altered.
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can be engineered into crops by expressing a version of target site protein that is not inhibited by the herbicide. This is the method used to produce glyphosate resistant ("
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methods were also developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from variation caused by environment. In 1933 another important breeding technique,
1626:"We suggest that any real declines are generally most easily explained by changes in cultivated varieties between 1950 and 1999, in which there may be trade-offs between
1106:. The doubled haploid will be homozygous for the desired traits. Furthermore, two different homozygous plants created in that way can be used to produce a generation of
2601:
Wang, Wangxia; Vinocur, Basia; Altmann, Arie (2003). "Plant responses to drought, salinity and extreme temperatures: towards genetic engineering for stress tolerance".
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Mahlein, A.-K.; Kuska, M.T.; Behmann, J.; Polder, G.; Walter, A. (2018-08-25). "Hyperspectral
Sensors and Imaging Technologies in Phytopathology: State of the Art".
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The debate surrounding genetically modified food during the 1990s peaked in 1999 in terms of media coverage and risk perception, and continues today – for example, "
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hybrid. The cells in the plants derived from the first generation created from the cross contained an uneven number of chromosomes and as a result was sterile. The
1710:. For instance, controlled crosses between individuals allow desirable genetic variation to be recombined and transferred to seed progeny via natural processes.
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by developing new varieties that are higher yielding, disease resistant, drought tolerant or regionally adapted to different environments and growing conditions.
1270:. Overexpression of particular genes involved in cold acclimation has been shown to produce more resistance to freezing, which is one common cause of yield loss
3171:
Watt, Michelle; Fiorani, Fabio; Usadel, Björn; Rascher, Uwe; Muller, Onno; Schurr, Ulrich (2020-04-29). "Phenotyping: New
Windows into the Plant for Breeders".
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To genetically modify a plant, a genetic construct must be designed so that the gene to be added or removed will be expressed by the plant. To do this, a
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are currently being crossed with plants to create new varieties for northern France. Soy beans, which were previously grown predominantly in the south of
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and related species. Another limitation of viral vectors is that the virus is not usually passed on to the progeny, so every plant has to be inoculated.
411:, the process of selectively propagating plants with desirable characteristics and eliminating or "culling" those with less desirable characteristics.
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populations as a few varieties that became dominant in some locations almost disappeared in others; poorly-adapted varieties disappeared everywhere.
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a number of techniques were developed that allowed plant breeders to hybridize distantly related species, and artificially induce genetic diversity.
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4672:
2658:
3230:"Genomewide Selection versus Marker-assisted Recurrent Selection to Improve Grain Yield and Stover-quality Traits for Cellulosic Ethanol in Maize"
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1145:. If for genetic modification genes of the species or of a crossable plant are used under control of their native promoter, then they are called
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in order to develop both heterogeneous and homogeneous crop lines for low input agricultural systems that have unpredictable stress conditions.
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1992:
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841:). This process removes most of the genetic contribution of the mildew resistant parent. Classical breeding is therefore a cyclical process.
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It is practiced worldwide by individuals such as gardeners and farmers, and by professional plant breeders employed by organizations such as
3101:
Abdelfattah, Ahmed; Tack, Ayco J. M.; Wasserman, Birgit; Liu, Jia; Berg, Gabriele; Norelli, John; Droby, Samir; Wisniewski, Michael (2021).
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There are many classical and modern breeding techniques that can be utilized for crop improvement in organic agriculture despite the ban on
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expressed trait in the plant. The purpose of marker assisted selection, or plant genome analysis, is to identify the location and function (
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plants. There have been instances where plants bred using classical techniques have been unsuitable for human consumption, for example the
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to insert genetic constructs into plants is also a possibility, but the technique is limited by the host range of the virus. For example,
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Stage 1: Genetic diversity is created, for example by manual crosses of inbreeding species or mixing of cultivars in outcrossing species.
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Link, W.; Balko, C.; Stoddard, F.; Winter hardiness in faba bean: Physiology and breeding. Field Crops
Research (5 February 2010).
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Stage 4: The seed can be used for continued evolutionary plant breeding or as a starting point for a conventional breeding effort.
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3415:
Elings, A.; Almekinders, C. J. M.; Stam, P. (December 2001). "Introduction: Why focus thinking on participatory plant breeding".
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With classical breeding techniques, the breeder does not know exactly what genes have been introduced to the new cultivars. Some
154:
is sensitive to salinity, plants resulting from a hybrid cross with cultivar W4910 (left) show greater tolerance to high salinity
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Liu, Jia; Abdelfattah, Ahmed; Norelli, John; Burchard, Erik; Schena, Leonardo; Droby, Samir; Wisniewski, Michael (2018-01-27).
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Costa-Font, J.; Mossialos, E. (2007). "Are perceptions of 'risks' and 'benefits' of genetically modified food (in)dependent?".
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CGIAR Systemwide
Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis for Technology Development and Institutional Innovation
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fusion. In this case protoplasts are fused, usually in an electric field. Viable recombinants can be regenerated in culture.
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Wang, Liyang; Rengel, Zed; Zhang, Kai; Jin, Kemo; Lyu, Yang; Zhang, Lin; Cheng, Lingyun; Zhang, Fusuo; Shen, Jianbo (2022).
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rice while reducing its susceptibility to blast disease. These practices have also been used in Nepal with bean landraces.
82:
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Tester, Mark; Langridge, Peter (February 2010). "Breeding technologies to increase crop production in a changing world".
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Davis, D.R.; Epp, M.D.; Riordan, H.D. (2004). "Changes in USDA Food
Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999".
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2200:"Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium B.P. maize from the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico"
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4224:"The need to breed crop varieties suitable for organic farming, using wheat, tomato and broccoli as examples: A review"
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Shimelis, Hussein; Laing, Mark. "Timelines in conventional crop improvement: pre-breeding and breeding procedures".
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therefore argue that plants produced by classical breeding methods should undergo the same safety testing regime as
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4524:"From indica and japonica splitting in common wild rice DNA to the origin and evolution of Asian cultivated rice"
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and other local varieties which have diversity that may have useful genes for climate adaptation in the future.
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3041:"Apple endophytic microbiota of different rootstock/scion combinations suggests a genotype-specific influence"
2905:"Maize germplasm chronosequence shows crop breeding history impacts recruitment of the rhizosphere microbiome"
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may perform very differently in each environment due to an interaction between genes and the environment (see
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starting plants, if a haploid cell with the alleles for those traits can be produced, and then used to make a
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1936:"Precise plant breeding using new genome editing techniques: opportunities, safety and regulation in the EU"
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Sometimes many different genes can influence a desirable trait in plant breeding. The use of tools such as
805:. Classical plant breeders also generate genetic diversity within a species by exploiting a process called
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Lammerts van Bueren, E.T.; S.S. Jones; L. Tamm; K.M. Murphy; J.R. Myers; C. Leifert; M.M. Messmer (2010).
2102:"Study published: The socio-economic and environmental values of plant breeding in the EU – hffa research"
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to predict the frequencies of different types. Wheat hybrids were bred to increase the crop production of
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are not currently available for many important traits, especially complex ones controlled by many genes.
797:. Mutagenesis is the generation of mutants. The breeder hopes for desirable traits to be bred with other
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Ceccarelli 2001. Decentralized-Participatory Plant Breeding: Adapting Crops to Environments and Clients
3270:"Use of Genomic Estimated Breeding Values Results in Rapid Genetic Gains for Drought Tolerance in Maize"
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CGIAR Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis, Working Document No.4, CIAT: Cali. 150pp.
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of plants is achieved by adding a specific gene or genes to a plant, or by knocking down a gene with
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Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domestication of the first
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Concise Encyclopedia of Crop Improvement: Institutions, Persons, Theories, Methods, and Histories
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Evolution Made to Order: Plant Breeding and Technological Innovation in Twentieth-Century America
4257:"The role of molecular markers and marker assisted selection in breeding for organic agriculture"
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2982:"The Cucurbita pepo seed microbiome: genotype-specific composition and implications for breeding"
2962:
2884:
2813:
2634:
2492:
2476:
2325:
2261:"Simulation-based Economic Feasibility Analysis of Grafting Technology for Propagation Operation"
2180:
1796:
1771:
1247:
1153:
1010:
914:
786:
487:
416:
3837:"Enhancing Freedom to Operate for Plant Breeders and Farmers through Open Source Plant Breeding"
3502:
Döring, Thomas F.; Knapp, Samuel; Kovacs, Geza; Murphy, Kevin; Wolfe, Martin S. (October 2011).
2122:
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3013:
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Adam, Eveline; Bernhart, Maria; Müller, Henry; Winkler, Johanna; Berg, Gabriele (2018-01-01).
2954:
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1988:
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802:
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265:
3814:"Addressing the potential for a selective breeding-based approach in sustainable agriculture"
3740:
6026:
6021:
6001:
5875:
5715:
5689:
5443:
5207:
5130:
4932:
4880:
4733:
4652:
A Breed Apart: The Plant Breeder's Guide to Preventing Patents through Defensive Publication
4560:
4539:
4500:
4492:
4449:
4374:
4363:"A Comparison between Crop Domestication, Classical Plant Breeding, and Genetic Engineering"
4362:
4317:
4307:
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4235:
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4147:
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1949:
1364:
Speed breeding is introduced by Watson et al. 2018. Classical (human performed) phenotyping
1103:
1090:
1006:
891:
782:
658:
609:
254:
231:
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103:
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in the early 20th century. Similar yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after
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5140:
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3190:
3107:
2825:"Ensuring future food security and resource sustainability: insights into the rhizosphere"
2337:
1883:
1344:
1267:
1239:
1217:
1019:
879:
445:
142:
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target plant species. These methods will work even better with large, publicly available
264:
Modern plant breeding is applied genetics, but its scientific basis is broader, covering
4143:
4083:
3934:
3732:
3611:
2999:
2924:
2846:
2614:
2587:
2217:
809:, which occurs in plants produced from tissue culture, particularly plants derived from
737:
incompatibility. If fertilization is possible between two species or genera, the hybrid
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6375:
6006:
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5771:
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Successful commercial plant breeding concerns were founded from the late 19th century.
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1836:
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1758:
1617:
1353:
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1018:) of various genes within the genome. If all of the genes are identified it leads to
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734:
715:
650:
589:
468:
246:
182:
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4203:
4018:
Breeding for drought and nitrogen stress tolerance in maize: from theory to practice
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3798:
3701:
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475:(see below) to generate diversity and produce hybrid plants that would not exist in
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5217:
4942:
4910:
4688:
4471:
4107:
3985:
3395:"Biotechnology-assisted Participatory Plant Breeding: Complement or Contradiction?"
3344:
2738:
2718:
1875:
1517:
1171:
1099:
838:
757:
752:
692:
687:
When distantly related species are crossed, plant breeders make use of a number of
681:
654:
433:
269:
4179:
261:. Genetics stimulated research to improve crop production through plant breeding.
4540:
Biotechnology assisted participatory plant breeding: Complement or contradiction?
4432:), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Taylor & Francis Group, Inc., New York, USA, pp 584
4312:
3870:"Accomplishments and impact from breeding for increased forage nutritional value"
2405:
6354:
6319:
5955:
5855:
5520:
5515:
5300:
5187:
5182:
5172:
5167:
5095:
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4641:
3853:
3245:
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1841:
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and was able to increase the proportion of resistant plants from 5% to 40%. The
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643:
601:
509:
472:
437:
396:
313:
273:
223:
45:
4240:
4223:
3903:
3619:
3596:"Evolutionary Plant Breeding as a Response to the Complexity of Climate Change"
3345:"A framework for analyzing participatory plant breeding approaches and results"
2932:
2854:
2783:
2205:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6405:
5840:
5835:
5237:
5120:
5055:
5040:
4998:
4875:
4775:
4607:– education and training materials for plant breeders and allied professionals
4564:
4273:
4256:
4195:
3782:
3684:
3667:
3548:"Concept and rationale of evolutionary plant breeding and its status in Nepal"
3428:
3360:
3057:
3008:
2981:
2838:
2622:
2307:
2167:
2150:
1776:
1669:
1627:
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1601:
1316:
1162:
1146:
1095:
883:
834:
814:
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767:
723:
719:
669:
642:. This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor-intensive
627:
494:
297:
293:
285:
277:
227:
178:
4657:
4637:
The Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building – GIPB
4582:
4496:
4379:
3942:
3790:
3748:
3693:
3627:
3569:
3529:
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3295:
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3017:
2940:
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2791:
2671:
2488:
2480:
2176:
2052:
2044:
859:
was unintentionally increased to unacceptable levels in certain varieties of
383:) over hundreds of years, resulting in dozens of today's agricultural crops.
6359:
6334:
6324:
6309:
5684:
5647:
5594:
5574:
5569:
5227:
4713:
4700:
4692:
4627:
Glossary of plant breeding terminology by the Open Plant Breeding Foundation
4152:
4125:
4091:
3560:
2762:"Rhizosphere microbiome: Functional compensatory assembly for plant fitness"
2226:
1589:
1574:
1486:
1243:
1225:
1138:
1107:
1051:. In particular, some explanation of reverse breeding is still missing here.
1015:
845:
703:
613:
541:
400:
289:
281:
4514:
4463:
4331:
4161:
4099:
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3950:
3645:
3303:
3206:
3146:
3084:
2958:
2880:
2809:
2689:
2630:
2536:
2245:
1963:
1695:
difference between organic and conventional environments is large, a given
638:. CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the plant produce sterile
4255:
Lammerts van Bueren, E. T.; G. Backes; H. de Vriend; H. Ostergard (2010).
3343:
Sperling, L.; Ashby, J.A.; Smith, M.E.; Weltzien, E.; McGuire, S. (2001).
2198:
Piperno, D. R.; Ranere, A. J.; Holst, I.; Iriarte, J.; Dickau, R. (2009).
920:
624:
was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids.
6400:
6390:
6385:
6329:
6304:
5880:
5798:
5543:
5470:
5398:
5135:
5010:
4800:
2829:
2018:
1801:
1696:
1665:
1593:
1404:
1194:
868:
856:
798:
597:
581:
variety. It is one of the first agricultural grain varieties bred from a
528:
505:
482:
Traits that breeders have tried to incorporate into crop plants include:
392:
250:
237:
151:
35:
31:
4454:
4437:
4389:
The Origins of Agriculture and Crop Domestication – The Harlan Symposium
649:
These early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the
6380:
6252:
5763:
5652:
5614:
5604:
5480:
5157:
5115:
5005:
1605:
1597:
1592:
done in 1950 and in 1999, and found substantial decreases in six of 13
1586:
Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999
1542:
1538:
1235:
875:
774:
568:
513:
423:
from one variety or line into a new genetic background. For example, a
384:
338: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
201:
3835:
Luby, C. H.; Kloppenburg, J.; Michaels, T. E.; Goldman, I. L. (2015).
3520:
3503:
3228:
Massman, Jon M.; Jung, Hans-Joachim G.; Bernardo, Rex (January 2013).
3120:
1954:
1935:
1292:
by banning the planting of a widely grown pest-resistant corn variety.
924:
Modern facilities in molecular biology are now used in plant breeding.
817:, and the addition or removal of chromosomes using a technique called
377:
Selective breeding enlarged desired traits of the wild cabbage plant (
5344:
5337:
5332:
4748:
1228:. Insect resistance is achieved through incorporation of a gene from
860:
853:
738:
700:
639:
534:
524:
476:
424:
230:
for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of valuable
205:
189:
162:
2528:
1687:
Early maturity (as a mechanism for avoidance of particular stresses)
1620:
were also found. The study, conducted at the Biochemical Institute,
1288:
Germany has thrown its weight behind a growing European mutiny over
1220:
are currently limited to plants that have introduced resistance to
1141:. The plants resulting from adding a gene are often referred to as
5809:
5794:
5433:
2259:
Meng, Chao; Xu, Dong; Son, Young-Jun & Kubota, Chieri (2012).
1456:
Evolutionary plant breeding has been delineated into four stages:
1202:
823:
707:
668:
621:
605:
554:
520:
372:
147:
141:
3546:
Joshi, B. K.; Ayer, D. K.; Gauchan, D.; Jarvis, D. (2020-10-13).
1852:
Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction
1429:
scald over 45 generations. An evolutionary breeding project grew
490:, such as increased nutrition, improved flavor, or greater beauty
165:
in order to produce desired characteristics. It has been used to
5354:
4969:
4647:
FDA Statement of Policy – Foods Derived from New Plant Varieties
4631:
1781:
1613:
1134:
661:
increased crop production in the developing world in the 1960s.
420:
388:
366:
For the role of crossing and plant breeding in viticulture, see
5767:
4661:
4626:
4178:
Murphy, Kevin M.; K.G. Campbell; S.R. Lyon; S.S. Jones (2007).
2760:
Xun, Weibing; Shao, Jiahui; Shen, Qirong; Zhang, Ruifu (2021).
1439:
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
459:. The classical plant breeder may also make use of a number of
5282:
4424:
Schlegel, Rolf (2014) Dictionary of Plant Breeding, 2nd ed., (
2652:
Suzie Key; Julian K-C Ma & Pascal MW Drake (1 June 2008).
1029:
927:
711:
578:
428:
307:
39:
2293:
Mudge, K.; Janick, J.; Scofield, S.; Goldschmidt, E. (2009).
1977:
Willy H. Verheye, ed. (2010). "Plant Breeding and Genetics".
1715:
of many resistance genes pyramided into a single individual.
4479:
Schouten, Henk J.; Krens, Frans A.; Jacobsen, Evert (2006).
4436:
Schouten, Henk J.; Krens, Frans A.; Jacobsen, Evert (2006).
4180:"Evidence of varietal adaptation to organic farming systems"
2572:
Moreland, D E (1980). "Mechanisms of Action of Herbicides".
1370:
4605:
Plant Breeding and Genomics eXtension Community of Practice
4481:"Cisgenic plants are similar to traditionally bred plants"
4126:"Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people"
2513:
Kasha, Ken (1999). "Biotechnology and world food supply".
2508:
2506:
2437:"Unfairly demonized GMO crops can help fight malnutrition"
2075:"Doriane | Blog — Climate-Smart Plant Breeding Objectives"
1525:
quality of a crop remains across locations and over time.
3760:
3758:
1690:
Abiotic stress tolerance (i.e. drought, salinity, etc...)
3589:
3587:
1822:
International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants
588:
In the early 20th century, plant breeders realized that
243:
By 500 BCE grafting was well established and practiced.
240:
technology had been practiced in China before 2000 BCE.
3504:"Evolutionary Plant Breeding in Cereals—Into a New Era"
3497:
3495:
3493:
3491:
1921:
Breeding Field Crops. 1995. Sleper and Poehlman. Page 3
733:
Failure to produce a hybrid may be due to pre- or post-
4438:"Do cisgenic plants warrant less stringent oversight?"
3594:
Ceccarelli, Salvatore; Grando, Stefania (2020-12-18).
3450:
Ceccarelli, Salvatore; Grando, Stefania (2019-10-02).
2460:
2458:
2267:
Industrial and Systems Engineering Research Conference
2123:"French firm breeds plants that resist climate change"
3541:
3539:
1177:
The construct can be inserted in the plant genome by
3103:"Evidence for host–microbiome co-evolution in apple"
878:-assisted conventional breeding, incorporation of a
200:
10 short tons) of carbon. Wheat species created for
6368:
6243:
6040:
5889:
5823:
5625:
5562:
5529:
5291:
4834:
4699:
3767:"Evolutionary plant breeding for low input systems"
3661:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3452:"From participatory to evolutionary plant breeding"
3096:
3094:
2009:van Hintum; Helmut Knüpffer; Kazuhiro Sato (eds.).
1174:with the parent plant prior to commercial release.
766:Hybrids may also be produced by a technique called
70:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4618:– large practical reference on plant hybridization
3166:
3164:
2767:Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal
1283:, is a rather radical new area of plant breeding.
1098:plants with desirable traits can be produced from
695:with each other. These crosses are referred to as
188:A recent study shows that without plant breeding,
2903:Favela, Alonso; O., Martin; Kent, Angela (2021).
2407:Hybrid: The History and Science of Plant Breeding
2399:
2397:
1433:bulk soybean populations on soil infested by the
730:and thus allow the production of a fertile line.
4559:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 2072.
1980:Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume I
1296:ecological impact of genetically modified plants
1273:Genetic modification of plants that can produce
1238:that is toxic to some insects. For example, the
4654:by Cydnee V. Bence & Emily J. Spiegel, 2019
4622:Infography about the History of Plant Breeding
3818:International Journal of Agricultural Research
3552:Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University
2654:"Genetically modified plants and human health"
1929:
1927:
1371:§ Phenotyping and artificial intelligence
5779:
4673:
4632:National Association of Plant Breeders (NAPB)
4217:
4215:
4213:
3868:Casler, Vogal, M.K. (January–February 1999).
3765:Phillips, S. L.; Wolfe, M. S. (August 2005).
1648:Role of plant breeding in organic agriculture
1335:As of 2020 machine learning – and especially
1302:and concepts used for safety evaluation like
1277:(and industrial chemicals), sometimes called
300:). It has also developed its own technology.
8:
5549:List of organic gardening and farming topics
4342:. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York.
3974:Journal of the American College of Nutrition
3904:https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2008.08.004
1581:Journal of the American College of Nutrition
1339:– has recently become more commonly used in
1057:. There might be a discussion about this on
634:(CMS), developed in maize, was described by
546:Longer storage period for the harvested crop
2391:Spring Seed Catalogue 1899, Gartons Limited
1934:Hartung, Frank; Schiemann, Joachim (2014).
962:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
5871:Smart breeding (Marker-assisted selection)
5786:
5772:
5764:
4680:
4666:
4658:
4642:FAO/IAEA Programme Mutant Variety Database
4421:), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 423
4406:), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 584
4296:"Diversifying Selection in Plant Breeding"
4228:NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences
2387:
2385:
2263:. In Lim, G. & Herrmann, J.W. (eds.).
1889:UPOV Convention on New Varieties of Plants
1405:Landrace § Plant_landrace_development
1026:Reverse breeding and doubled haploids (DH)
746:. This technique has been used to produce
18:Physiological and molecular wheat breeding
4504:
4453:
4396:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Plant Breeding
4378:
4321:
4311:
4272:
4239:
4173:
4171:
4151:
3886:10.2135/cropsci1999.0011183x003900010003x
3852:
3717:"An Evolutionary Plant Breeding Method 1"
3683:
3635:
3559:
3519:
3404:. Working Document No. 4 April 2000: 140.
3285:
3136:
3074:
3056:
3007:
2948:
2870:
2799:
2679:
2557:World International Property Organization
2235:
2225:
2166:
1953:
1077:Learn how and when to remove this message
982:Learn how and when to remove this message
407:One major technique of plant breeding is
354:Learn how and when to remove this message
161:is the science of changing the traits of
130:Learn how and when to remove this message
3741:10.2134/agronj1956.00021962004800040012x
2659:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
1448:to codify this approach coined the term
919:
871:levels before reaching the marketplace.
600:populations produced through deliberate
27:Humans changing traits, ornamental/crops
2917:Springer Science and Business Media LLC
1914:
1331:Phenotyping and artificial intelligence
1218:commercially released transgenic plants
750:, an interspecific cross of Asian rice
673:In vitro-culture of Vitis (grapevine),
585:cross, introduced to commerce in 1892.
249:(1822–84) is considered the "father of
4357:) U of Chicago Press, 2016. x, 285 pp.
4050:
4040:
2333:
2323:
2096:
2094:
1664:Nutrient use efficiency (particularly
1414:to preserve landrace diversity within
828:Agricultural research on potato plants
4338:Briggs, F.N. and Knowles, P.F. 1967.
3191:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042916-041124
451:Classical breeding relies largely on
208:, are now grown in southern Germany.
7:
5734:
3668:"Plant breeding and climate changes"
2151:"Plant breeding and climate changes"
1871:Access and Benefit Sharing Agreement
960:adding citations to reliable sources
336:adding citations to reliable sources
68:adding citations to reliable sources
6300:Selection methods in plant breeding
5746:
3935:10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-050100
3857:– via ACSESS Digital Library.
3771:The Journal of Agricultural Science
3672:The Journal of Agricultural Science
2588:10.1146/annurev.pp.31.060180.003121
2155:The Journal of Agricultural Science
1588:, compared nutritional analysis of
675:Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute
565:Gartons Agricultural Plant Breeders
4548:Breed Your Own Vegetable Varieties
2468:Australian Journal of Crop Science
2353:Breed Your Own Vegetable Varieties
2302:. Vol. 35. pp. 449–475.
1903:Genetic resources (disambiguation)
1880:Convention on Biological Diversity
25:
2575:Annual Review of Plant Physiology
2280:Institute of Industrial Engineers
1242:, a common cotton pest, feeds on
722:was used to double the number of
5745:
5733:
5722:
5721:
5709:
4555:Vaschetto, Luis M., ed. (2020).
4538:Thro, A.M.; Spillane, C. (1999)
3393:Thro A & Spillane C (2000).
2734:"Germany deals blow to GM crops"
1463:Stage 2: Multiplication of seeds
1193:, or by direct methods like the
1034:
932:
594:non-random nature of inheritance
455:between chromosomes to generate
312:
167:improve the quality of nutrition
44:
3918:Annual Review of Phytopathology
3715:Suneson, Coit A. (April 1956).
3287:10.3835/plantgenome2016.07.0070
1827:Marker-assisted selection (MAS)
1559:Maintaining specific conditions
323:needs additional citations for
253:". His experiments with plant
55:needs additional citations for
4340:Introduction to Plant Breeding
3986:10.1080/07315724.2004.10719409
3174:Annual Review of Plant Biology
2719:10.1016/j.foodqual.2005.09.013
1723:List of notable plant breeders
1708:genetically modified organisms
1444:An influential 1956 effort by
1:
2435:Norero, Daniel (2018-06-20).
2027:10.1016/S0168-7972(03)80012-9
1622:University of Texas at Austin
1294:" The debate encompasses the
874:Even with the very latest in
4616:Hybridization of Crop Plants
4313:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020347
2732:Connoly, Kate (2009-04-14).
1701:gene–environment interaction
1514:intellectual property rights
1386:Participatory plant breeding
863:through plant breeding. New
559:Garton's catalogue from 1902
504:of environmental pressures (
5580:Index of pesticide articles
4550:. Chelsea Green Publishing.
3854:10.2135/cropsci2014.10.0708
3246:10.2135/cropsci2012.02.0112
2706:Food Quality and Preference
2412:University of Chicago Press
1450:evolutionary plant breeding
1399:Evolutionary plant breeding
1310:Breeding and the microbiome
442:Pollinators may be excluded
6468:
4724:Climate-friendly gardening
4241:10.1016/j.njas.2010.04.001
3620:10.1016/j.isci.2020.101815
3456:Farmers and Plant Breeding
2933:10.1038/s41396-021-00923-z
2855:10.1016/j.isci.2022.104168
2784:10.1016/j.csbj.2021.09.035
1867:Bioprospecting / biopiracy
1862:Composite cross population
1596:measured, including 6% of
1480:Breeding and food security
1402:
1290:genetically modified crops
1123:
1088:
998:
905:
882:takes an average of seven
632:cytoplasmic male sterility
365:
215:
29:
6258:Marker-assisted selection
5846:Marker-assisted selection
5805:
5703:
5600:Plant disease forecasting
5554:Vegan organic agriculture
5404:Genetically modified tree
4565:10.1007/978-1-4939-9865-4
4274:10.1007/s10681-010-0169-0
4196:10.1016/j.fcr.2007.03.011
3783:10.1017/S0021859605005009
3685:10.1017/S0021859610000651
3058:10.1186/s40168-018-0403-x
3009:10.1007/s11104-016-3113-9
2623:10.1007/s00425-003-1105-5
2473:Southern Cross Publishing
2308:10.1002/9780470593776.ch9
2168:10.1017/S0021859610000651
1817:Genomics of domestication
1792:Cultivated plant taxonomy
1712:Marker assisted selection
1300:genetically modified food
1184:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
1137:, to produce a desirable
1001:Marker assisted selection
995:Marker assisted selection
368:Propagation of grapevines
218:History of plant breeding
4528:Agricultural Archaeology
4497:10.1038/sj.embor.7400769
4380:10.2135/cropsci2002.1780
3902:(3): 287-296, page. 289|
3464:10.4324/9780429507335-15
2672:10.1258/jrsm.2008.070372
2357:Chelsea Green Publishing
2265:Proceedings of the 2012
2128:European Investment Bank
1807:Family based QTL mapping
1624:, concluded in summary:
1412:Nepal National Gene Bank
1207:Cauliflower mosaic virus
453:homologous recombination
304:Classical plant breeding
257:led to his establishing
4409:Schlegel, Rolf (2007)
4153:10.1126/science.1185383
4092:10.1126/science.1183700
3561:10.3126/jafu.v4i1.47023
3429:10.1023/A:1017923423714
3361:10.1023/A:1017505323730
2404:Noel Kingsbury (2009).
2227:10.1073/pnas.0812525106
1684:Pest/disease resistance
1680:mechanical weed control
1532:Environmental stressors
1304:substantial equivalence
1113:vegetative reproduction
908:New Breeding Techniques
867:are often screened for
540:Increased tolerance of
533:Increased tolerance to
6452:Pollination management
6340:Outbreeding depression
5539:Biodynamic agriculture
5476:Postharvest physiology
5424:Landscape architecture
5121:Indonesian home garden
4611:Plant Breeding Updates
4394:Schlegel, Rolf (2009)
1787:Crop breeding in Nepal
1630:and nutrient content."
1509:Plant breeders' rights
1504:Plant breeders' rights
1377:Genomic selection (GS)
1231:Bacillus thuringiensis
925:
829:
819:chromosome engineering
779:ethyl methanesulfonate
677:
608:during the so-called "
560:
404:
155:
6345:Inbreeding depression
5861:Preservation breeding
4786:Historic conservation
4546:Deppe, Carol (2000).
2351:Deppe, Carol (2000).
2296:A History of Grafting
2272:IIE Annual Conference
2011:Diversity in Barley (
1503:
1435:soybean cyst nematode
1427:Rynchosporium secalis
1337:deep machine learning
1179:genetic recombination
1167:antibiotic resistance
923:
902:Modern plant breeding
827:
801:– a process known as
672:
636:Marcus Morton Rhoades
618:George Harrison Shull
558:
376:
145:
5716:Gardening portal
5615:Aquamog weed remover
5590:List of insecticides
4442:Nature Biotechnology
4184:Field Crops Research
2442:Alliance for Science
2021:. pp. 201–226.
2017:. Amsterdam Boston:
1749:Niels Ebbesen Hansen
1729:Thomas Andrew Knight
1675:Weed competitiveness
1661:Water use efficiency
1264:transcription factor
1252:Herbicide resistance
1234:(Bt) that encodes a
1209:(CaMV) only infects
1131:Genetic modification
1120:Genetic modification
1047:confusing or unclear
956:improve this section
894:, and seventeen for
850:genetically modified
807:somaclonal variation
689:plant tissue culture
596:could be applied to
332:improve this article
64:improve this article
6032:Designer crossbreed
4455:10.1038/nbt0706-753
4345:Curry, Helen Anne.
4144:2010Sci...327..812G
4084:2010Sci...327..818T
3733:1956AgrJ...48..188S
3612:2020iSci...23j1815C
3000:2018PlSoi.422...35A
2925:2021ISMEJ..15.2454F
2893:...cite this study:
2847:2022iSci...25j4168W
2615:2003Plant.218....1W
2218:2009PNAS..106.5019P
1744:Nazareno Strampelli
1654:organic agriculture
1475:Issues and concerns
1181:using the bacteria
1055:clarify the section
888:clonally propagated
748:new rice for Africa
699:. For example, the
592:'s findings on the
551:Before World War II
463:techniques such as
444:through the use of
259:laws of inheritance
6447:Plant reproduction
5866:Selective breeding
5815:Lists of cultivars
5585:List of fungicides
5350:Companion planting
4361:Gepts, P. (2002).
2551:"Reverse Breeding"
1797:Double-pair mating
1772:Bioactive compound
1584:in 2004, entitled
1011:DNA fingerprinting
926:
915:molecular breeding
830:
821:may also be used.
693:sexually reproduce
678:
665:After World War II
561:
405:
156:
6442:Molecular biology
6419:
6418:
6263:Natural selection
6244:Selection methods
5851:Mutation breeding
5761:
5760:
5633:Community orchard
5459:drought tolerance
4574:978-1-4939-9864-7
4138:(5967): 812–818.
4078:(5967): 818–822.
4015:Bänziger (2000).
3521:10.3390/su3101944
3514:(10): 1944–1971.
3121:10.1111/nph.17820
2758:These reviews...
2276:Norcross, Georgia
2212:(13): 5019–5024.
2036:978-0-444-50585-9
1994:978-1-84826-367-3
1955:10.1111/tpj.12413
1941:The Plant Journal
1847:Recalcitrant seed
1717:Molecular markers
1568:Nutritional value
1550:Long-term process
1143:transgenic plants
1126:Transgenic plants
1087:
1086:
1079:
1007:molecular markers
992:
991:
984:
896:cross-pollinating
803:mutation breeding
616:was explained by
465:protoplast fusion
457:genetic diversity
380:Brassica oleracea
364:
363:
356:
266:molecular biology
196:10 long tons; 4.4
140:
139:
132:
114:
16:(Redirected from
6459:
6027:Captive breeding
6022:Breeding program
6002:Backyard breeder
5788:
5781:
5774:
5765:
5749:
5748:
5737:
5736:
5725:
5724:
5714:
5713:
5690:Plant collecting
5626:Related articles
5563:Plant protection
4744:French intensive
4682:
4675:
4668:
4659:
4594:
4551:
4535:
4518:
4508:
4475:
4457:
4384:
4382:
4373:(6): 1780–1790.
4335:
4325:
4315:
4279:
4278:
4276:
4252:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4234:(3–4): 193–205.
4219:
4208:
4207:
4175:
4166:
4165:
4155:
4122:Haddad, Lawrence
4118:
4112:
4111:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4052:
4048:
4046:
4038:
4036:
4035:
4021:. pp. 7–9.
4012:
4006:
4005:
3969:
3963:
3962:
3912:
3906:
3896:
3890:
3889:
3865:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3847:(6): 2481–2488.
3832:
3826:
3825:
3809:
3803:
3802:
3762:
3753:
3752:
3721:Agronomy Journal
3712:
3706:
3705:
3687:
3663:
3650:
3649:
3639:
3591:
3582:
3581:
3563:
3543:
3534:
3533:
3523:
3499:
3486:
3485:
3447:
3441:
3440:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3399:
3390:
3384:
3379:
3373:
3372:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3289:
3274:The Plant Genome
3264:
3258:
3257:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3168:
3159:
3158:
3140:
3115:(6): 2088–2100.
3098:
3089:
3088:
3078:
3060:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3011:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2952:
2909:The ISME Journal
2900:
2894:
2892:
2874:
2821:
2803:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2746:
2729:
2723:
2722:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2683:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2569:
2563:
2562:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2510:
2501:
2500:
2462:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2449:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2401:
2392:
2389:
2380:
2379:
2374:. Archived from
2372:"Plant breeding"
2368:
2362:
2360:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2335:
2331:
2329:
2321:
2301:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2239:
2229:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2170:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2109:
2098:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2085:
2071:
2065:
2064:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1985:Eolss Publishers
1974:
1968:
1967:
1957:
1931:
1922:
1919:
1898:Peasants' rights
1652:Some critics of
1604:. Reductions in
1498:abiotic stresses
1298:, the safety of
1258:") crop plants.
1216:The majority of
1091:Doubled haploidy
1082:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1062:
1038:
1037:
1030:
987:
980:
976:
973:
967:
936:
928:
892:self-fertilising
890:crops, nine for
865:potato varieties
783:dimethyl sulfate
659:Green Revolution
610:Battle for Grain
576:
575:
446:pollination bags
438:inbred varieties
359:
352:
348:
345:
339:
316:
308:
199:
195:
135:
128:
124:
121:
115:
113:
79:"Plant breeding"
72:
48:
40:
21:
6467:
6466:
6462:
6461:
6460:
6458:
6457:
6456:
6422:
6421:
6420:
6415:
6364:
6350:Recessive trait
6288:selective sweep
6245:
6239:
6042:Plant cultivars
6036:
5885:
5819:
5810:Lists of breeds
5801:
5792:
5762:
5757:
5708:
5699:
5695:Turf management
5680:Lists of plants
5675:List of gardens
5621:
5558:
5525:
5287:
4837:
4830:
4695:
4686:
4601:
4575:
4557:Cereal Genomics
4554:
4545:
4521:
4478:
4435:
4360:
4290:
4287:
4282:
4254:
4253:
4249:
4221:
4220:
4211:
4177:
4176:
4169:
4120:
4119:
4115:
4067:
4066:
4062:
4049:
4039:
4033:
4031:
4029:
4014:
4013:
4009:
3971:
3970:
3966:
3914:
3913:
3909:
3897:
3893:
3867:
3866:
3862:
3834:
3833:
3829:
3812:Rhodes (2013).
3811:
3810:
3806:
3764:
3763:
3756:
3714:
3713:
3709:
3665:
3664:
3653:
3593:
3592:
3585:
3545:
3544:
3537:
3501:
3500:
3489:
3474:
3449:
3448:
3444:
3414:
3413:
3409:
3397:
3392:
3391:
3387:
3380:
3376:
3342:
3341:
3337:
3324:
3323:
3319:
3266:
3265:
3261:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3170:
3169:
3162:
3108:New Phytologist
3100:
3099:
3092:
3038:
3037:
3033:
2979:
2978:
2974:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2822:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2744:
2742:
2731:
2730:
2726:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2651:
2650:
2646:
2600:
2599:
2595:
2571:
2570:
2566:
2549:
2548:
2544:
2529:10.1139/g99-043
2512:
2511:
2504:
2464:
2463:
2456:
2447:
2445:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2414:. p. 140.
2403:
2402:
2395:
2390:
2383:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2350:
2349:
2345:
2332:
2322:
2318:
2299:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2258:
2257:
2253:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2134:
2132:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2107:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2092:
2083:
2081:
2079:www.doriane.com
2073:
2072:
2068:
2037:
2013:Hordeum vulgare
2007:
2006:
2002:
1995:
1987:. p. 185.
1976:
1975:
1971:
1933:
1932:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1884:Nagoya Protocol
1767:
1725:
1650:
1641:
1570:
1561:
1552:
1534:
1506:
1494:biotic stresses
1482:
1477:
1446:Coit A. Suneson
1407:
1401:
1388:
1379:
1362:
1345:Computer vision
1333:
1317:nitrogen fixing
1312:
1275:pharmaceuticals
1268:gene expression
1240:cotton bollworm
1147:cisgenic plants
1128:
1122:
1104:doubled haploid
1093:
1083:
1072:
1066:
1063:
1052:
1039:
1035:
1028:
1020:genome sequence
1003:
997:
988:
977:
971:
968:
953:
937:
910:
904:
667:
612:" (1925–1940).
573:
572:
553:
371:
360:
349:
343:
340:
329:
317:
306:
220:
214:
197:
193:
136:
125:
119:
116:
73:
71:
61:
49:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6465:
6463:
6455:
6454:
6449:
6444:
6439:
6434:
6432:Plant breeding
6424:
6423:
6417:
6416:
6414:
6413:
6408:
6403:
6398:
6396:Heirloom plant
6393:
6388:
6383:
6378:
6376:Breed registry
6372:
6370:
6366:
6365:
6363:
6362:
6357:
6352:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6327:
6322:
6317:
6312:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6296:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6260:
6255:
6249:
6247:
6241:
6240:
6238:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6212:
6211:
6210:
6205:
6195:
6190:
6185:
6180:
6175:
6168:
6161:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6136:
6131:
6124:
6119:
6114:
6113:
6112:
6102:
6097:
6090:
6083:
6076:
6069:
6064:
6059:
6058:
6057:
6046:
6044:
6038:
6037:
6035:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6007:Breed standard
6004:
5998:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5982:
5977:
5976:
5975:
5965:
5960:
5959:
5958:
5948:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5928:
5923:
5922:
5921:
5911:
5906:
5901:
5895:
5893:
5887:
5886:
5884:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5827:
5825:
5821:
5820:
5818:
5817:
5812:
5806:
5803:
5802:
5793:
5791:
5790:
5783:
5776:
5768:
5759:
5758:
5756:
5755:
5743:
5731:
5719:
5704:
5701:
5700:
5698:
5697:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5670:Garden tourism
5667:
5662:
5660:Groundskeeping
5657:
5656:
5655:
5650:
5640:
5635:
5629:
5627:
5623:
5622:
5620:
5619:
5618:
5617:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5566:
5564:
5560:
5559:
5557:
5556:
5551:
5546:
5541:
5535:
5533:
5527:
5526:
5524:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5512:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5488:
5483:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5467:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5449:free-flowering
5446:
5441:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5401:
5396:
5391:
5390:
5389:
5384:
5374:
5369:
5364:
5363:
5362:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5330:
5325:
5324:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5297:
5295:
5289:
5288:
5286:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5165:
5160:
5155:
5150:
5145:
5144:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5037:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
5002:
5001:
4991:
4990:
4989:
4984:
4979:
4978:
4977:
4972:
4962:
4961:
4960:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4924:
4923:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4842:
4840:
4832:
4831:
4829:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4766:Groundskeeping
4763:
4762:
4761:
4759:computer-aided
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4705:
4703:
4697:
4696:
4687:
4685:
4684:
4677:
4670:
4662:
4656:
4655:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4613:
4608:
4600:
4599:External links
4597:
4596:
4595:
4573:
4552:
4543:
4536:
4519:
4491:(8): 750–753.
4476:
4433:
4430:978-1439802427
4422:
4407:
4392:
4385:
4358:
4343:
4336:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4280:
4247:
4209:
4190:(3): 172–177.
4167:
4113:
4060:
4051:|journal=
4027:
4007:
3980:(6): 669–682.
3964:
3927:Annual Reviews
3907:
3891:
3860:
3827:
3804:
3777:(4): 245–254.
3754:
3727:(4): 188–191.
3707:
3678:(6): 627–637.
3651:
3606:(12): 101815.
3583:
3535:
3508:Sustainability
3487:
3472:
3442:
3423:(3): 423–424.
3407:
3385:
3374:
3355:(3): 439–450.
3335:
3326:"PRGA Program"
3317:
3259:
3220:
3183:Annual Reviews
3160:
3090:
3031:
2987:Plant and Soil
2972:
2895:
2751:
2724:
2713:(2): 173–182.
2695:
2666:(6): 290–298.
2644:
2593:
2582:(1): 597–638.
2564:
2542:
2523:(4): 642–645.
2502:
2454:
2427:
2420:
2393:
2381:
2378:on 2013-10-21.
2363:
2343:
2334:|journal=
2316:
2285:
2251:
2190:
2161:(6): 627–637.
2141:
2114:
2090:
2066:
2035:
2000:
1993:
1969:
1948:(5): 742–752.
1923:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1900:
1894:Farmers rights
1891:
1886:
1873:
1864:
1859:
1857:Smart breeding
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1754:Norman Borlaug
1751:
1746:
1741:
1739:Luther Burbank
1736:
1731:
1724:
1721:
1692:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1676:
1673:
1662:
1649:
1646:
1640:
1637:
1569:
1566:
1560:
1557:
1551:
1548:
1533:
1530:
1505:
1502:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1464:
1461:
1400:
1397:
1387:
1384:
1378:
1375:
1361:
1360:Speed breeding
1358:
1354:open data sets
1332:
1329:
1319:taxa and more
1311:
1308:
1201:. Using plant
1199:microinjection
1124:Main article:
1121:
1118:
1089:Main article:
1085:
1084:
1042:
1040:
1033:
1027:
1024:
999:Main article:
996:
993:
990:
989:
940:
938:
931:
903:
900:
666:
663:
552:
549:
548:
547:
544:
538:
531:
519:Resistance to
517:
498:
491:
440:for breeding.
403:of this plant.
362:
361:
320:
318:
311:
305:
302:
216:Main article:
213:
210:
159:Plant breeding
138:
137:
52:
50:
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6464:
6453:
6450:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6429:
6427:
6412:
6411:Tree breeding
6409:
6407:
6404:
6402:
6399:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6389:
6387:
6384:
6382:
6379:
6377:
6374:
6373:
6371:
6367:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6323:
6321:
6318:
6316:
6313:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6298:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6265:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6256:
6254:
6251:
6250:
6248:
6242:
6236:
6235:Venus flytrap
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6209:
6206:
6204:
6201:
6200:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6173:
6169:
6167:
6166:
6162:
6160:
6158:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6141:
6137:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6129:
6125:
6123:
6120:
6118:
6115:
6111:
6108:
6107:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6095:
6091:
6089:
6088:
6084:
6082:
6081:
6077:
6075:
6074:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6056:
6053:
6052:
6051:
6048:
6047:
6045:
6043:
6039:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6017:Breeding pair
6015:
6013:
6012:Breeding back
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5999:
5996:
5995:Water buffalo
5993:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5974:
5971:
5970:
5969:
5966:
5964:
5961:
5957:
5954:
5953:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5920:
5917:
5916:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5896:
5894:
5892:
5891:Animal breeds
5888:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5828:
5826:
5822:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5807:
5804:
5800:
5796:
5789:
5784:
5782:
5777:
5775:
5770:
5769:
5766:
5754:
5753:
5744:
5742:
5741:
5732:
5730:
5729:
5720:
5718:
5717:
5712:
5706:
5705:
5702:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5665:Garden centre
5663:
5661:
5658:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5645:
5644:
5643:Floral design
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5630:
5628:
5624:
5616:
5613:
5612:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5567:
5565:
5561:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5536:
5534:
5532:
5528:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5510:
5509:reforestation
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5491:
5489:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5469:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5436:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5419:Intercropping
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5380:
5379:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5365:
5361:
5360:most valuable
5358:
5357:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5339:
5336:
5335:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5328:Arboriculture
5326:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5303:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5296:
5294:
5290:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5142:
5139:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5128:
5127:
5124:
5122:
5119:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5021:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5000:
4997:
4996:
4995:
4992:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4967:
4966:
4963:
4959:
4956:
4955:
4954:
4951:
4950:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4922:
4921:Garden square
4919:
4918:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4851:Ancient Egypt
4849:
4847:
4844:
4843:
4841:
4839:
4833:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4760:
4757:
4756:
4755:
4754:Garden design
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4706:
4704:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4683:
4678:
4676:
4671:
4669:
4664:
4663:
4660:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4606:
4603:
4602:
4598:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4553:
4549:
4544:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4434:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4420:
4419:9781560221463
4416:
4412:
4408:
4405:
4404:9781439802427
4401:
4397:
4393:
4391:
4390:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4359:
4356:
4355:9780226390116
4352:
4348:
4344:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4288:
4284:
4275:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4251:
4248:
4242:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4218:
4216:
4214:
4210:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4174:
4172:
4168:
4163:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4132:
4127:
4123:
4117:
4114:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4072:
4064:
4061:
4056:
4044:
4030:
4028:9789706480460
4024:
4020:
4019:
4011:
4008:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3968:
3965:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3919:
3911:
3908:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3892:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3864:
3861:
3855:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3831:
3828:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3808:
3805:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3761:
3759:
3755:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3711:
3708:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3647:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3542:
3540:
3536:
3531:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3498:
3496:
3494:
3492:
3488:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3473:9780429507335
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3446:
3443:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3411:
3408:
3403:
3396:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3378:
3375:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3339:
3336:
3331:
3327:
3321:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3263:
3260:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3224:
3221:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3175:
3167:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3109:
3104:
3097:
3095:
3091:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3035:
3032:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2976:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2919:: 2454–2464.
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2899:
2896:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2778:: 5487–5493.
2777:
2773:
2769:
2768:
2763:
2755:
2752:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2728:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2707:
2699:
2696:
2691:
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2682:
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2648:
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2597:
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2522:
2518:
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2509:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2494:
2490:
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2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2469:
2461:
2459:
2455:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2431:
2428:
2423:
2421:9780226437057
2417:
2413:
2409:
2408:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2367:
2364:
2361:|page=237-244
2358:
2354:
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2327:
2319:
2317:9780470593776
2313:
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2305:
2298:
2297:
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2268:
2262:
2255:
2252:
2247:
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2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2194:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2145:
2142:
2131:
2129:
2124:
2118:
2115:
2103:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2080:
2076:
2070:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2004:
2001:
1996:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1981:
1973:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1930:
1928:
1924:
1918:
1915:
1909:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1837:Orthodox seed
1835:
1833:
1832:Mating design
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1812:Food security
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1760:
1759:Yvonne Aitken
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1689:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:Tolerance of
1677:
1674:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1655:
1647:
1645:
1638:
1636:
1632:
1631:
1629:
1623:
1619:
1618:ascorbic acid
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1582:
1576:
1567:
1565:
1558:
1556:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1522:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1488:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1406:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1385:
1383:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1367:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1291:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1259:
1257:
1256:Roundup Ready
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1232:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1191:
1190:A. rhizogenes
1186:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1158:transcription
1155:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1127:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1081:
1078:
1070:
1060:
1059:the talk page
1056:
1050:
1048:
1043:This section
1041:
1032:
1031:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1002:
994:
986:
983:
975:
965:
961:
957:
951:
950:
946:
941:This section
939:
935:
930:
929:
922:
918:
916:
909:
901:
899:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
872:
870:
866:
862:
858:
855:
851:
847:
842:
840:
836:
826:
822:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
793:are used for
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
771:
769:
764:
762:
761:O. glaberrima
759:
755:
754:
749:
745:
744:embryo rescue
740:
736:
735:fertilization
731:
729:
725:
721:
717:
716:cell division
713:
709:
705:
702:
698:
694:
690:
685:
683:
676:
671:
664:
662:
660:
656:
652:
651:United States
647:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
590:Gregor Mendel
586:
584:
580:
574:Abundance Oat
570:
566:
557:
550:
545:
543:
539:
536:
532:
530:
526:
522:
518:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
496:
492:
489:
485:
484:
483:
480:
478:
474:
470:
469:embryo rescue
466:
462:
458:
454:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
430:
426:
422:
418:
412:
410:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
381:
375:
369:
358:
355:
347:
344:December 2011
337:
333:
327:
326:
321:This section
319:
315:
310:
309:
303:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
262:
260:
256:
255:hybridization
252:
248:
247:Gregor Mendel
244:
241:
239:
235:
233:
229:
225:
219:
211:
209:
207:
203:
191:
186:
184:
183:food security
180:
175:
171:
168:
164:
160:
153:
149:
144:
134:
131:
123:
112:
109:
105:
102:
98:
95:
91:
88:
84:
81: –
80:
76:
75:Find sources:
69:
65:
59:
58:
53:This article
51:
47:
42:
41:
37:
33:
19:
6246:and genetics
6220:Sweet potato
6171:
6164:
6156:
6139:
6127:
6093:
6086:
6079:
6072:
6041:
5831:Backcrossing
5750:
5738:
5726:
5707:
5610:Weed control
5499:horticulture
5438:
5429:Olericulture
5409:Hydroculture
5399:Fruticulture
5377:Floriculture
5306:Permaculture
5293:Horticulture
4689:Horticulture
4556:
4547:
4531:
4527:
4488:
4485:EMBO Reports
4484:
4445:
4441:
4387:
4370:
4367:Crop Science
4366:
4346:
4339:
4306:(10): e347.
4303:
4299:
4264:
4260:
4250:
4231:
4227:
4187:
4183:
4135:
4129:
4116:
4075:
4069:
4063:
4032:. Retrieved
4017:
4010:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3922:
3916:
3910:
3899:
3894:
3880:(1): 12–20.
3877:
3874:Crop Science
3873:
3863:
3844:
3841:Crop Science
3840:
3830:
3821:
3817:
3807:
3774:
3770:
3724:
3720:
3710:
3675:
3671:
3603:
3599:
3551:
3511:
3507:
3455:
3445:
3420:
3416:
3410:
3401:
3388:
3377:
3352:
3348:
3338:
3330:PRGA Program
3329:
3320:
3277:
3273:
3262:
3240:(1): 58–66.
3237:
3234:Crop Science
3233:
3223:
3178:
3172:
3112:
3106:
3048:
3044:
3034:
2994:(1): 35–49.
2991:
2985:
2975:
2912:
2908:
2898:
2834:
2828:
2771:
2765:
2754:
2743:. Retrieved
2739:The Guardian
2737:
2727:
2710:
2704:
2698:
2663:
2657:
2647:
2606:
2602:
2596:
2579:
2573:
2567:
2554:
2545:
2520:
2514:
2466:
2446:. Retrieved
2440:
2430:
2406:
2376:the original
2366:
2352:
2346:
2295:
2288:
2264:
2254:
2209:
2203:
2193:
2158:
2154:
2144:
2133:. Retrieved
2126:
2117:
2106:. Retrieved
2082:. Retrieved
2078:
2069:
2014:
2010:
2003:
1979:
1972:
1945:
1939:
1917:
1876:Plant Treaty
1734:Keith Downey
1705:
1693:
1651:
1642:
1633:
1625:
1585:
1579:
1571:
1562:
1553:
1535:
1527:
1523:
1518:biodiversity
1507:
1491:
1483:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1424:
1420:
1416:Jumli Marshi
1408:
1393:
1389:
1380:
1365:
1363:
1349:
1334:
1325:denitrifiers
1313:
1287:
1285:
1278:
1272:
1266:to regulate
1260:
1229:
1222:insect pests
1215:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1172:backcrossing
1151:
1129:
1100:heterozygous
1094:
1073:
1064:
1053:Please help
1044:
1004:
978:
969:
954:Please help
942:
911:
873:
843:
839:backcrossing
831:
772:
765:
760:
758:African rice
753:Oryza sativa
751:
732:
697:Wide crosses
696:
686:
682:World War II
679:
655:World War II
648:
626:
602:pollinations
587:
582:
562:
481:
460:
450:
434:backcrossing
413:
406:
378:
350:
341:
330:Please help
325:verification
322:
263:
245:
242:
236:
224:agricultural
221:
187:
176:
172:
158:
157:
126:
117:
107:
100:
93:
86:
74:
62:Please help
57:verification
54:
6355:Sex linkage
6320:Codominance
6293:stabilizing
6273:directional
6159:(daffodils)
6073:Callistemon
5856:Outcrossing
5752:WikiProject
5521:Monoculture
5516:Viticulture
5494:agriculture
5454:propagation
5394:Hügelkultur
5316:sustainable
5301:Agriculture
5243:Therapeutic
5223:Shakespeare
5034:Renaissance
4826:Xeriscaping
4821:Sustainable
4816:Square foot
4806:Proplifting
4771:Garden tool
4739:Foodscaping
4292:McCouch, S.
3929:: 535–558.
3458:: 231–244.
3185:: 689–712.
2776:Elsevier BV
2609:(1): 1–14.
2104:(in German)
1842:QTL mapping
1600:and 38% of
1575:nutritional
1341:phenotyping
1248:target site
1211:cauliflower
884:generations
795:mutagenesis
791:transposons
724:chromosomes
644:detasseling
628:Statistical
510:temperature
497:of the crop
473:mutagenesis
427:-resistant
397:cauliflower
274:systematics
234:over time.
228:progenitors
146:The Yecoro
120:August 2018
6426:Categories
6406:Rare breed
6278:disruptive
6215:Strawberry
5946:Guinea pig
5841:Inbreeding
5836:Crossbreed
5414:Indigenous
5311:stock-free
5283:Zoological
5163:Pollinator
5056:Greenhouse
4999:Sharawadgi
4987:Vietnamese
4948:East Asian
4856:Australian
4811:Raised bed
4776:Green wall
4448:(7): 753.
4034:2013-11-07
3045:Microbiome
2841:: 104168.
2839:Cell Press
2745:2009-06-25
2475:: 1542–9.
2448:2021-09-12
2135:2023-01-25
2108:2023-01-25
2084:2023-03-01
2061:1865843830
1910:References
1777:Cisgenesis
1670:phosphorus
1610:phosphorus
1602:riboflavin
1590:vegetables
1403:See also:
1321:nitrifiers
1226:herbicides
1163:laboratory
1096:Homozygous
1067:March 2017
1049:to readers
972:March 2017
906:See also:
846:scientists
815:polyploidy
813:. Induced
781:(EMS) and
768:protoplast
720:colchicine
718:inhibitor
680:Following
583:controlled
542:herbicides
508:, extreme
500:Increased
493:Increased
298:biometrics
294:statistics
286:entomology
278:physiology
179:government
90:newspapers
30:See also:
6360:F1 hybrid
6335:Heterosis
6325:Epistasis
6315:Dominance
6310:Phenotype
6268:balancing
6225:Sweetcorn
6208:cultivars
6172:Nepenthes
6157:Narcissus
6140:Grevillea
6100:Cherimoya
5799:cultivars
5685:Perennial
5648:Floristry
5595:Pesticide
5575:Herbicide
5570:Fungicide
5464:hardiness
5228:Shrubbery
5208:Sculpture
5029:landscape
4958:Cantonese
4933:Container
4928:Community
4896:Byzantine
4891:Butterfly
4881:Botanical
4781:Guerrilla
4729:Community
4719:Butterfly
4714:Arboretum
4709:Allotment
4701:Gardening
4693:gardening
4583:1064-3745
4398:2nd ed. (
4300:PLOS Biol
4267:: 51–64.
4261:Euphytica
4053:ignored (
4043:cite book
3943:0066-4286
3791:1469-5146
3749:0002-1962
3694:1469-5146
3628:2589-0042
3578:231832089
3570:2594-3146
3530:2071-1050
3482:210580815
3417:Euphytica
3349:Euphytica
3296:1940-3372
3254:0011-183X
3215:211523980
3199:1543-5008
3155:244661193
3129:1469-8137
3067:2049-2618
3051:(1): 18.
3018:1573-5036
2967:232192480
2941:1751-7362
2889:247751213
2863:2589-0042
2818:240071295
2792:2001-0370
2489:1835-2693
2481:1835-2707
2336:ignored (
2326:cite book
2177:1469-5146
2053:162130976
2045:0168-7972
1594:nutrients
1487:landraces
1431:F5 hybrid
1244:Bt cotton
1156:to drive
1139:phenotype
1108:F1 hybrid
1016:phenotype
943:does not
799:cultivars
787:radiation
773:Chemical
704:triticale
614:Heterosis
502:tolerance
486:Improved
432:parent, (
409:selection
401:cultivars
290:chemistry
282:pathology
6437:Agronomy
6401:Landrace
6391:Germline
6386:Eugenics
6330:Dwarfing
6305:Genotype
6283:negative
6203:breeders
6122:Cucumber
6094:Capsicum
6087:Cannabis
6055:Japanese
5973:breeding
5956:breeding
5919:breeding
5881:Purebred
5728:Category
5638:Features
5544:Grafting
5504:forestry
5486:Tropical
5471:Pomology
5444:cuttings
5439:breeding
5273:Wildlife
5253:Tropical
5203:Scottish
5153:Pleasure
5141:Paradise
5136:Charbagh
5106:Monastic
5101:Medieval
5011:Floating
4965:Japanese
4916:Communal
4906:Colonial
4871:Biblical
4836:Types of
4801:Parterre
4591:82398463
4534:: 21–29.
4515:16880817
4464:16841052
4332:15486582
4294:(2004).
4204:54918142
4162:20110467
4100:20150489
4002:13595345
3994:15637215
3959:52096158
3951:30149790
3799:56219112
3702:86237270
3646:33305179
3600:iScience
3554:: 1–11.
3437:25146186
3369:14321630
3312:12760739
3304:28464061
3207:32097567
3147:34823272
3085:29374490
3026:25420169
2959:33692487
2881:35434553
2830:iScience
2810:34712394
2690:18515776
2639:24400025
2631:14513379
2537:10464788
2497:55486617
2246:19307570
2185:86237270
2019:Elsevier
1964:24330272
1802:EUCARPIA
1765:See also
1697:genotype
1666:nitrogen
1350:multiple
1280:pharming
1195:gene gun
1154:promoter
869:solanine
857:solanine
835:yielding
775:mutagens
598:seedling
529:bacteria
506:salinity
461:in vitro
399:are all
393:broccoli
270:cytology
251:genetics
238:Grafting
152:cultivar
150:(right)
36:Cultivar
32:Cultigen
6381:Breeder
6253:Culling
6165:Nemesia
6128:Gazania
6110:hybrids
5909:Chicken
5824:Methods
5740:Commons
5653:Ikebana
5605:Pruning
5531:Organic
5481:Roguing
5367:Cutting
5258:Victory
5233:Spanish
5213:Sensory
5158:Prairie
5126:Persian
5116:Orchard
5081:Kitchen
5076:Keyhole
5071:Italian
5066:Islamic
5061:Hanging
5020:French
5006:Fernery
4994:English
4953:Chinese
4938:Cottage
4866:Baroque
4838:gardens
4791:History
4506:1525145
4472:8087798
4285:General
4140:Bibcode
4131:Science
4108:9468220
4080:Bibcode
4071:Science
3729:Bibcode
3637:7708809
3608:Bibcode
3138:9299473
3076:5787276
2996:Bibcode
2950:8319409
2921:Bibcode
2872:9010633
2843:Bibcode
2801:8515068
2681:2408621
2611:Bibcode
2237:2664021
2214:Bibcode
1606:calcium
1598:protein
1543:Germany
1539:Iceland
1467:sowing.
1373:above.
1348:across
1236:protein
1203:viruses
1045:may be
964:removed
949:sources
876:biotech
785:(DMS),
726:in the
569:England
521:viruses
514:drought
488:quality
385:Cabbage
212:History
202:Morocco
104:scholar
6230:Tomato
6178:Olives
6117:Coffee
6105:Citrus
6062:Banana
5990:Turkey
5980:Rabbit
5968:Pigeon
5926:Donkey
5904:Cattle
5876:Hybrid
5795:Breeds
5490:Urban
5387:Taiwan
5382:Canada
5345:Botany
5338:Saikei
5333:Bonsai
5278:Winter
5263:Walled
5198:School
5193:Sacred
5148:Physic
5111:Mughal
5091:Market
5046:German
5024:formal
5016:Flower
4982:Korean
4901:Cactus
4886:Bottle
4846:Alpine
4796:Native
4749:Garden
4734:Forest
4589:
4581:
4571:
4513:
4503:
4470:
4462:
4428:
4417:
4402:
4353:
4330:
4323:521731
4320:
4202:
4160:
4106:
4098:
4025:
4000:
3992:
3957:
3949:
3941:
3797:
3789:
3747:
3700:
3692:
3644:
3634:
3626:
3576:
3568:
3528:
3480:
3470:
3435:
3367:
3310:
3302:
3294:
3252:
3213:
3205:
3197:
3153:
3145:
3135:
3127:
3083:
3073:
3065:
3024:
3016:
2965:
2957:
2947:
2939:
2887:
2879:
2869:
2861:
2816:
2808:
2798:
2790:
2688:
2678:
2637:
2629:
2603:Planta
2559:(WIPO)
2535:
2516:Genome
2495:
2487:
2479:
2418:
2314:
2244:
2234:
2183:
2175:
2059:
2051:
2043:
2033:
1991:
1962:
1366:during
861:potato
854:poison
811:callus
789:, and
739:embryo
701:cereal
657:, the
640:pollen
535:insect
477:nature
425:mildew
417:traits
395:, and
292:, and
232:traits
206:France
190:Europe
163:plants
106:
99:
92:
85:
77:
6369:Other
6183:Onion
6151:Mango
6134:Grape
6080:Canna
6067:Basil
6050:Apple
5985:Sheep
5951:Horse
5941:Goose
5434:Plant
5372:Flora
5321:urban
5268:Water
5248:Trial
5218:Shade
5178:Roman
5051:Greek
5041:Front
4943:Dutch
4911:Color
4587:S2CID
4522:Sun.
4468:S2CID
4200:S2CID
4104:S2CID
3998:S2CID
3955:S2CID
3925:(1).
3824:(12).
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