908:
1497:
1836:
2020:
907:
683:
2122:
2208:
366:
1307:
6887:
2338:
548:
8303:
1540:
1470:
338:
8327:
350:
8074:
8339:
1669:
8315:
323:
417:(fine-grained) igneous rock is classified as basalt when its QAPF fraction is composed of less than 10% feldspathoid and less than 20% quartz, and plagioclase makes up at least 65% of its feldspar content. This places basalt in the basalt/andesite field of the QAPF diagram. Basalt is further distinguished from andesite by its silica content of under 52%.
671:
1482:
56:
1525:, are predominantly hexagonal in cross-section, but polygons with three to twelve or more sides can be observed. The size of the columns depends loosely on the rate of cooling; very rapid cooling may result in very small (<1 cm diameter) columns, while slow cooling is more likely to produce large columns.
3714:; Leonid V. Danyushevsky; Tim Elliott; Frederick A. Frey; Michael O. Garcia; Andrey A. Gurenko; Vadim S. Kamenetsky; Andrew C. Kerr; Nadezhda A. Krivolutskaya; Vladimir V. Matvienkov; Igor K. Nikogosian; Alexander Rocholl; Ingvar A. Sigurdsson; Nadezhda M. Sushchevskaya & Mengist Teklay (20 April 2007).
1574:
shape, through which the hot lava breaks to form another pillow. This "pillow" texture is very common in underwater basaltic flows and is diagnostic of an underwater eruption environment when found in ancient rocks. Pillows typically consist of a fine-grained core with a glassy crust and have radial
2178:
The common corrosion features of underwater volcanic basalt suggest that microbial activity may play a significant role in the chemical exchange between basaltic rocks and seawater. The significant amounts of reduced iron, Fe(II), and manganese, Mn(II), present in basaltic rocks provide potential
1547:
The character of submarine basalt eruptions is largely determined by depth of water, since increased pressure restricts the release of volatile gases and results in effusive eruptions. It has been estimated that at depths greater than 500 metres (1,600 ft), explosive activity associated with
1607:
is a basalt volcano which breached the ocean surface in 1963. The initial phase of
Surtsey's eruption was highly explosive, as the magma was quite fluid, causing the rock to be blown apart by the boiling steam to form a tuff and cinder cone. This has subsequently moved to a typical pāhoehoe-type
1999:
spacecraft indicate that these flows are composed of basaltic lava with mafic to ultramafic compositions. This conclusion is based on temperature measurements of Io's "hotspots", or thermal-emission locations, which suggest temperatures of at least 1,300 K and some as high as 1,600 K.
1065:
The majority of tholeiitic basalts are formed at approximately 50–100 km depth within the mantle. Many alkali basalts may be formed at greater depths, perhaps as deep as 150–200 km. The origin of high-alumina basalt continues to be controversial, with disagreement over whether it is a
2031:
weather relatively rapidly. This reflects their content of minerals that crystallized at higher temperatures and in an environment poorer in water vapor than granite. These minerals are less stable in the colder, wetter environment at the Earth's surface. The finer grain size of basalt and the
1930:
landers successfully reached the surface of Venus and carried out geochemical measurements using X-ray fluorescence and gamma-ray analysis. These returned results consistent with the rock at the landing sites being basalts, including both tholeiitic and highly alkaline basalts. The landers are
3169:
Hou, Tong; Zhang, Zhaochong; Kusky, Timothy; Du, Yangsong; Liu, Junlai; Zhao, Zhidan (October 2011). "A reappraisal of the high-Ti and low-Ti classification of basalts and petrogenetic linkage between basalts and mafic–ultramafic intrusions in the
Emeishan Large Igneous Province, SW China".
893:
include both tholeiites and alkali basalts; the tholeiites predominate early in the eruptive history of the island. These basalts are characterized by elevated concentrations of incompatible elements, which suggests that their source mantle rock has produced little magma in the past (it is
1931:
thought to have landed on plains whose radar signature is that of basaltic lava flows. These constitute about 80% of the surface of Venus. Some locations show high reflectivity consistent with unweathered basalt, indicating basaltic volcanism within the last 2.5 million years.
509:; they are formed when dissolved gases bubble out of the magma as it decompresses during its approach to the surface; the erupted lava then solidifies before the gases can escape. When vesicles make up a substantial fraction of the volume of the rock, the rock is described as
745:
above the descending slab. The slab releases water vapor and other volatiles as it descends, which further lowers the melting point, further increasing the amount of decompression melting. Each tectonic setting produces basalt with its own distinctive characteristics.
2267:
in basalt has been studied as a means of removing carbon dioxide, produced by human industrialization, from the atmosphere. Underwater basalt deposits, scattered in seas around the globe, have the added benefit of the water serving as a barrier to the re-release of
806:. Although all MORBs are chemically similar, geologists recognize that they vary significantly in how depleted they are in incompatible elements. When they are present in close proximity along mid-ocean ridges, that is seen as evidence for mantle inhomogeneity.
420:
It is often not practical to determine the mineral composition of volcanic rocks, due to their very small grain size, in which case geologists instead classify the rocks chemically, with particular emphasis on the total content of alkali metal oxides and silica
809:
Enriched MORB (E-MORB) is defined as MORB that is relatively undepleted in incompatible elements. It was once thought to be mostly located in hot spots along mid-ocean ridges, such as
Iceland, but it is now known to be located in many other places along those
1496:
1408:
rocks are less common than basaltic lava flows. Usually basalt is too hot and fluid to build up sufficient pressure to form explosive lava eruptions but occasionally this will happen by trapping of the lava within the volcanic throat and buildup of
4720:
Ling, Zongcheng; Jolliff, Bradley L.; Wang, Alian; Li, Chunlai; Liu, Jianzhong; Zhang, Jiang; Li, Bo; Sun, Lingzhi; Chen, Jian; Xiao, Long; Liu, Jianjun; Ren, Xin; Peng, Wenxi; Wang, Huanyu; Cui, Xingzhu; He, Zhiping; Wang, Jianyu (December 2015).
1516:
forces build up. While a flow can shrink in the vertical dimension without fracturing, it cannot easily accommodate shrinking in the horizontal direction unless cracks form; the extensive fracture network that develops results in the formation of
5893:
1237:, its compositions have been much studied. Although MORB compositions are distinctive relative to average compositions of basalts erupted in other environments, they are not uniform. For instance, compositions change with position along the
1212:(REE) can be a useful diagnostic tool to help explain the history of mineral crystallisation as the melt cooled. In particular, the relative abundance of europium compared to the other REE is often markedly higher or lower, and called the
1887:, to about 13 wt.%. Traditionally, lunar basalts have been classified according to their titanium content, with classes being named high-Ti, low-Ti, and very-low-Ti. Nevertheless, global geochemical maps of titanium obtained from the
1283:/He, are also of great value: for instance, ratios for basalts range from 6 to 10 for mid-ocean ridge tholeiitic basalt (normalized to atmospheric values), but to 15–24 and more for ocean-island basalts thought to be derived from
425:); in that context, basalt is defined as volcanic rock with a content of between 45% and 52% silica and no more than 5% alkali metal oxides. This places basalt in the B field of the TAS diagram. Such a composition is described as
1241:, and the compositions also define different ranges in different ocean basins. Mid-ocean ridge basalts have been subdivided into varieties such as normal (NMORB) and those slightly more enriched in incompatible elements (EMORB).
1232:
values. In contrast, alkali basalts have normalized patterns highly enriched in the light REE, and with greater abundances of the REE and of other incompatible elements. Because MORB basalt is considered a key to understanding
1878:
Lunar basalts differ from their Earth counterparts principally in their high iron contents, which typically range from about 17 to 22 wt% FeO. They also possess a wide range of titanium concentrations (present in the mineral
2183:. Some Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria cultured from iron-sulfide surfaces are also able to grow with basaltic rock as a source of Fe(II). Fe- and Mn- oxidizing bacteria have been cultured from weathered submarine basalts of
1425:
volcanoes are typical of small basalt tuffs, formed by explosive eruption of basalt through the crust, forming an apron of mixed basalt and wall rock breccia and a fan of basalt tuff further out from the volcano.
4338:
Renne, P. R.; Ernesto, M.; Pacca, I. G.; Coe, R. S.; Glen, J. M.; Prevot, M.; Perrin, M. (6 November 1992). "The Age of Parana Flood
Volcanism, Rifting of Gondwanaland, and the Jurassic-Cretaceous Boundary".
1223:
Mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and their intrusive equivalents, gabbros, are the characteristic igneous rocks formed at mid-ocean ridges. They are tholeiitic basalts particularly low in total alkalis and in
3134:
Gibson, S. A.; Thompson, R. N.; Dickin, A. P.; Leonardos, O. H. (December 1995). "High-Ti and low-Ti mafic potassic magmas: Key to plume-lithosphere interactions and continental flood-basalt genesis".
5901:
2553:
2551:
463:
The physical properties of basalt result from its relatively low silica content and typically high iron and magnesium content. The average density of basalt is 2.9 g/cm, compared, for example, to
5114:
Moskovitz, Nicholas A.; Jedicke, Robert; Gaidos, Eric; Willman, Mark; Nesvorný, David; Fevig, Ronald; Ivezić, Željko (November 2008). "The distribution of basaltic asteroids in the Main Belt".
1062:
temperatures—values at the Earth's surface are near or above 1200 °C (liquidus) and near or below 1000 °C (solidus); these values are higher than those of other common igneous rocks.
4582:
Smithies, R. Hugh; Ivanic, Tim J.; Lowrey, Jack R.; Morris, Paul A.; Barnes, Stephen J.; Wyche, Stephen; Lu, Yong-Jun (April 2018). "Two distinct origins for
Archean greenstone belts".
2040:
or other iron oxides and hydroxides, staining the rock a brown to rust-red colour. Because of the low potassium content of most basalts, weathering converts the basalt to calcium-rich
2000:
Initial estimates suggesting eruption temperatures approaching 2,000 K have since proven to be overestimates because the wrong thermal models were used to model the temperatures.
2630:
Nozhkin, A.D.; Turkina, O.M.; Likhanov, I.I.; Dmitrieva, N.V. (February 2016). "Late
Paleoproterozoic volcanic associations in the southwestern Siberian craton (Angara-Kan block)".
3254:
Donnelly, Kathleen E.; Goldstein, Steven L.; Langmuir, Charles H.; Spiegelman, Marc (October 2004). "Origin of enriched ocean ridge basalts and implications for mantle dynamics".
1910:'s basalts erupted between about 3 and 3.5 billion years ago, but the oldest samples are 4.2 billion years old, and the youngest flows, based on the age dating method of
5171:; Milazzo, M.; Geissler, P.; Turtle, E. P.; Radebaugh, J.; Williams, D. A.; Simonelli, D. P.; Breneman, H. H.; Klaasen, K. P.; Levanas, G.; Denk, T. (25 December 2001).
2036:
sometimes found between the grains also hasten weathering. The high iron content of basalt causes weathered surfaces in humid climates to accumulate a thick crust of
846:. Augite in alkali basalts is titanium-enriched augite; low-calcium pyroxenes are never present. They are characteristic of continental rifting and hotspot volcanism.
1835:
861:) and is intermediate in composition between tholeiitic basalt and alkali basalt. Its relatively alumina-rich composition is based on rocks without phenocrysts of
5376:
440:
minerals, but can exhibit a wide range of shading. Some basalts are quite light-coloured due to a high content of plagioclase; these are sometimes described as
299:
are thick sequences of many such flows that can cover hundreds of thousands of square kilometres and constitute the most voluminous of all volcanic formations.
5660:
Templeton, Alexis S.; Staudigel, Hubert; Tebo, Bradley M. (April 2005). "Diverse Mn(II)-Oxidizing
Bacteria Isolated from Submarine Basalts at Loihi Seamount".
1552:
rather than basalt flows. These eruptions, described as
Surtseyan, are characterised by large quantities of steam and gas and the creation of large amounts of
1389:
are common in Hawaiʻi. Pāhoehoe is a highly fluid, hot form of basalt which tends to form thin aprons of molten lava which fill up hollows and sometimes forms
268:. The eruption of basalt lava is observed by geologists at about 20 volcanoes per year. Basalt is also an important rock type on other planetary bodies in the
1614:
may be present, particularly as rinds on rapidly chilled surfaces of lava flows, and is commonly (but not exclusively) associated with underwater eruptions.
4874:
Gilmore, Martha; Treiman, Allan; Helbert, Jörn; Smrekar, Suzanne (November 2017). "Venus
Surface Composition Constrained by Observation and Experiment".
8256:
2167:
6460:
5431:
4443:"From flood basalts to the inception of oceanization: Example from the 40 Ar/ 39 Ar high-resolution picture of the Karoo large igneous province"
6428:
4993:
Gattacceca, Jérôme; Hewins, Roger H.; Lorand, Jean-Pierre; Rochette, Pierre; Lagroix, France; Cournède, Cécile; Uehara, Minoru; Pont, Sylvain;
1991:
images led scientists to believe that these flows were composed mostly of various compounds of molten sulfur. However, subsequent Earth-based
714:
cause hot mantle rock to creep upwards, pressure on the ascending rock decreases, and this can lower its melting point enough for the rock to
6384:
6365:
6346:
6327:
6306:
6279:
6260:
6241:
6222:
6203:
6184:
6165:
6146:
6127:
6108:
6089:
6070:
4641:
4542:
4287:
4254:
3619:
3421:
2976:
1891:
demonstrate that the lunar maria possess a continuum of titanium concentrations, and that the highest concentrations are the least abundant.
1009:
has augite and orthopyroxene or pigeonite with abundant olivine, but olivine may have rims of pyroxene and is unlikely to be present in the
3496:"The evolution of high-alumina basalts of the Klyuchevskoy volcano, Kamchatka, Russia, based on microprobe analyses of mineral inclusions"
682:
6409:
7932:
6923:
1464:
1975:, which have basaltic characteristics. Vesta is the main contributor to the inventory of basaltic asteroids of the main Asteroid Belt.
295:
content (between 45% and 52%), resulting in rapidly moving lava flows that can spread over great areas before cooling and solidifying.
1803:
As well as forming large parts of the Earth's crust, basalt also occurs in other parts of the Solar System. Basalt commonly erupts on
993:-rich plagioclase are common phenocryst minerals. Olivine may also be a phenocryst, and when present, may have rims of pigeonite. The
8343:
2504:
1216:. It arises because Eu can substitute for Ca in plagioclase feldspar, unlike any of the other lanthanides, which tend to only form
5173:"Imaging of volcanic activity on Jupiter's moon Io by Galileo during the Galileo Europa Mission and the Galileo Millennium Mission"
4997:; Scorzelli, Rosa. B.; Hombourger, Chrystel; Munayco, Pablo; Zanda, Brigitte; Chennaoui, Hasnaa; Ferrière, Ludovic (October 2013).
570:
of Earth's history, the chemistry of erupted magmas was significantly different from what it is today, due to immature crustal and
5695:
Martin, William; Baross, John; Kelley, Deborah; Russell, Michael J. (November 2008). "Hydrothermal vents and the origin of life".
2914:
2019:
1570:
When basalt erupts underwater or flows into the sea, contact with the water quenches the surface and the lava forms a distinctive
6700:
6401:
5468:
Gillman, G. P.; Burkett, D. C.; Coventry, R. J. (August 2002). "Amending highly weathered soils with finely ground basalt rock".
2487:
3526:
4390:
Renne, P. R.; Basu, A. R. (12 July 1991). "Rapid
Eruption of the Siberian Traps Flood Basalts at the Permo-Triassic Boundary".
5773:"Shading in the outdoor environments of climate-friendly hot and dry historical streets: The passageways of Sanliurfa, Turkey"
5243:
Keszthelyi, Laszlo; Jaeger, Windy; Milazzo, Moses; Radebaugh, Jani; Davies, Ashley Gerard; Mitchell, Karl L. (December 2007).
4303:
Bevier, Mary Lou (1 April 1983). "Regional stratigraphy and age of Chilcotin Group basalts, south-central British Columbia".
3989:
Head, James W.; Wilson, Lionel (2003). "Deep submarine pyroclastic eruptions: theory and predicted landforms and deposits".
2783:
2121:
802:
basalt (MORB) is a tholeiitic basalt that has almost exclusively erupted at ocean ridges; it is characteristically low in
4693:
4533:
Reich, Ronny; Katzenstein, Hannah (1992). "Glossary of Archaeological Terms". In Kempinski, Aharon; Reich, Ronny (eds.).
4245:
Walker, G.P.L. (1993). "Basaltic-volcano systems". In Prichard, H.M.; Alabaster, T.; Harris, N.B.W.; Neary, C.R. (eds.).
4059:
Kokelaar, B.Peter; Durant, Graham P. (December 1983). "The submarine eruption and erosion of Surtla (Surtsey), Iceland".
2152:. Basalts are important rocks within metamorphic regions because they can provide vital information on the conditions of
2132:
in Michigan, US. The minerals that gave the original basalt its black colour have been metamorphosed into green minerals.
5038:
Binzel, Richard P; Gaffey, Michael J; Thomas, Peter C; Zellner, Benjamin H; Storrs, Alex D; Wells, Eddie N (July 1997).
2184:
1225:
789:
5361:
5079:
Mittlefehldt, David W. (June 2015). "Asteroid (4) Vesta: I. The howardite-eucrite-diogenite (HED) clan of meteorites".
788:(Ti) content in High-Ti and Low-Ti varieties. High-Ti and Low-Ti basalt have been distinguished from each other in the
6453:
6317:
5503:
McGrail, B. Peter; Schaef, H. Todd; Ho, Anita M.; Chien, Yi-Ju; Dooley, James J.; Davidson, Casie L. (December 2006).
3543:
Irvine, T. N.; Baragar, W. R. A. (1 May 1971). "A Guide to the Chemical Classification of the Common Volcanic Rocks".
2362:
778:
706:) raises the melting point of mantle rock, so that almost all of the upper mantle is solid. However, mantle rock is
8286:
8281:
6791:
1742:
1019:
typically have mineral assemblages that lack orthopyroxene but contain olivine. Feldspar phenocrysts typically are
866:
622:
495:
1634:
Basalt is the most common volcanic rock type on Earth, making up over 90% of all volcanic rock on the planet. The
1775:
basalts are usually only found in fold and thrust belts, and are often heavily metamorphosed. These are known as
644:
370:
264:
on Earth is basalt. Rapid-cooling, fine-grained basalt is chemically equivalent to slow-cooling, coarse-grained
6530:
6517:
2238:
2187:(formerly Loihi). The impact of bacteria on altering the chemical composition of basaltic glass (and thus, the
1687:
2207:
6438:
5950:
1371:, imparting a lightweight "frothy" texture to the rock. Basaltic cinders are often red, coloured by oxidized
377:
Basalt is composed mostly of oxides of silicon, iron, magnesium, potassium, aluminum, titanium, and calcium.
7925:
6976:
6956:
6916:
6786:
3602:
Hofmann, A.W. (2014). "Sampling Mantle Heterogeneity through Oceanic Basalts: Isotopes and Trace Elements".
2373:
1548:
basaltic magma is suppressed. Above this depth, submarine eruptions are often explosive, tending to produce
657:
486:) that formed before the extrusion event that brought the magma to the surface, embedded in a finer-grained
31:
5924:
4152:
3659:
Class, Cornelia; Goldstein, Steven L. (August 2005). "Evolution of helium isotopes in the Earth's mantle".
3223:"Perspective on the Genesis of E-MORB from Chemical and Isotopic Heterogeneity at 9–10°N East Pacific Rise"
532:(also called dolerite) or — when they are more coarse-grained (having crystals over 2 mm across) — as
7401:
6446:
2431:
1956:
1730:
1683:
475:, but that is still several orders of magnitude higher than the viscosity of water, which is about 1 cP).
1318:
of a basalt is diagnostic of how and where it erupted—for example, whether into the sea, in an explosive
7366:
695:
502:
that can typically crystallize from the melt, and which are therefore the first to form solid crystals.
457:
8319:
5362:"A stratigraphic section in the Yakima Basalt and the Ellensburg Formation in south-central Washington"
3894:
Weaire, D.; Rivier, N. (January 1984). "Soap, cells and statistics—random patterns in two dimensions".
5420:
6693:
6011:
5561:
5477:
5393:
5291:
5256:
5222:
5184:
5133:
5088:
5051:
5010:
4930:
4883:
4846:
4793:
4734:
4666:
4591:
4491:
4454:
4399:
4348:
4312:
4211:
4103:
4068:
3998:
3938:
3903:
3860:
3730:
3668:
3552:
3510:
3450:
3263:
3179:
3143:
3029:
2956:
2639:
2423:
2281:
2264:
1027:
in composition. Augite is rich in titanium compared to augite in tholeiitic basalt. Minerals such as
827:
803:
307:
2436:
467:’s typical density of 2.7 g/cm. The viscosity of basaltic magma is relatively low — around 10 to 10
6734:
6423:
5168:
3710:
Alexander V. Sobolev; Albrecht W. Hofmann; Dmitry V. Kuzmin; Gregory M. Yaxley; Nicholas T. Arndt;
3218:
1907:
1618:
1474:
1315:
1059:
890:
703:
675:
639:
365:
8326:
7651:
4094:
Moore, James G. (November 1985). "Structure and eruptive mechanisms at Surtsey Volcano, Iceland".
8307:
8251:
8038:
8013:
7918:
7197:
6909:
6418:
5856:
5821:
5720:
5677:
5642:
5626:
5587:
5315:
5149:
5123:
4899:
4698:
4515:
4423:
4372:
4227:
4119:
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3047:
2449:
2258:
2192:
2092:
1895:
1888:
1734:
1534:
1339:
1238:
1209:
1110:
422:
342:
311:
273:
253:
2744:
2302: – Geological theory that Earth's igneous rocks formed by solidification of molten material
1690:, the most voluminous basalts found on land. Examples of continental flood basalts included the
5282:
McEwen, A. S.; et al. (1998). "High-temperature silicate volcanism on Jupiter's moon Io".
8246:
8105:
8043:
7152:
6406:
6380:
6361:
6342:
6323:
6302:
6275:
6256:
6237:
6218:
6199:
6180:
6161:
6142:
6123:
6104:
6085:
6066:
6039:
5712:
5634:
5579:
5307:
4967:
4948:
4762:
4637:
4538:
4507:
4415:
4364:
4283:
4250:
3746:
3684:
3615:
3476:
3417:
2972:
2305:
2293:
2212:
2103:
1968:
1944:
1903:
1518:
1513:
1458:
1430:
1368:
1272:
1126:
974:
750:
730:
634:
506:
329:
with basalt/andesite field highlighted in yellow. Basalt is distinguished from andesite by SiO
257:
249:
6433:
5505:"Potential for carbon dioxide sequestration in flood basalts: Sequestration in flood basalts"
4025:, Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History Global Volcanism Program (2013).
2541:
8331:
8261:
8230:
8225:
8008:
7849:
7561:
7348:
7217:
6572:
6029:
6019:
5848:
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5569:
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4938:
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4797:
4752:
4742:
4674:
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4462:
4407:
4356:
4320:
4275:
4219:
4111:
4076:
4006:
3946:
3929:
Spry, Alan (January 1962). "The origin of columnar jointing, particularly in basalt flows".
3911:
3868:
3738:
3676:
3607:
3560:
3518:
3466:
3458:
3409:
3271:
3267:
3234:
3187:
3151:
3147:
3037:
2964:
2904:
2868:
2647:
2610:
2441:
2137:
1703:
1549:
1405:
1248:
1213:
1166:. Contents of CaO are commonly near 10 wt%, those of MgO commonly in the range 5 to 12 wt%.
1145:
1010:
813:
Normal MORB (N-MORB) is defined as MORB that has an average amount of incompatible elements.
738:
721:
Decompression melting can occur in a variety of tectonic settings, including in continental
699:
487:
453:
165:
159:
118:
4999:"Opaque minerals, magnetic properties, and paleomagnetism of the Tissint Martian meteorite"
4657:
Lucey, P. (1 January 2006). "Understanding the Lunar Surface and Space-Moon Interactions".
816:
D-MORB, depleted MORB, is defined as MORB that is highly depleted in incompatible elements.
8365:
8200:
8063:
7975:
7965:
7661:
7421:
7274:
6755:
6729:
6686:
6552:
6539:
6522:
6509:
6496:
6491:
6474:
6413:
5213:
4202:
Upton, B. G. J.; Wadsworth, W. J. (July 1965). "Geology of Réunion Island, Indian Ocean".
2396:
2140:
equivalents. Depending on the temperature and pressure of metamorphism, these may include
2129:
2088:
2052:). Further weathering, particularly in tropical climates, converts the montmorillonite to
2045:
1911:
1872:
1776:
1765:
1699:
1654:
1635:
1509:
1501:
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1234:
1102:
1087:
1079:
911:
835:
799:
734:
726:
715:
651:
575:
398:
112:
5898:
Italian national agency for new technologies, energy and sustainable economic development
4723:"Correlated compositional and mineralogical investigations at the Chang'e-3 landing site"
2508:
1711:
1672:
6015:
5565:
5481:
5295:
5260:
5226:
5188:
5137:
5092:
5055:
4934:
4887:
4850:
4738:
4670:
4495:
4458:
4403:
4352:
4316:
4215:
4107:
4072:
4002:
3942:
3907:
3864:
3734:
3672:
3556:
3514:
3454:
3183:
3033:
2960:
2643:
2427:
1665:. The eruption of basalt lava is observed by geologists at about 20 volcanoes per year.
1306:
8276:
8205:
8023:
8003:
7854:
7696:
7289:
7212:
6891:
6816:
6590:
6034:
5999:
5221:. 50th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 18–22 March 2019. The Woodlands, Texas.
4806:
4781:
4757:
4722:
3611:
3471:
3438:
3413:
2889:
2342:
2311:
2196:
2096:
2033:
1864:
1784:
1715:
1650:
1642:
1611:
1604:
1418:
1152:
967:
884:
793:
770:
582:) contents below 45% and high magnesium oxide (MgO) content, are usually classified as
547:
521:
449:
5489:
4833:
Hiesinger, Harald; Jaumann, Ralf; Neukum, Gerhard; Head, James W. (25 December 2000).
4780:
Giguere, Thomas A.; Taylor, G. Jeffrey; Hawke, B. Ray; Lucey, Paul G. (January 2000).
4010:
3522:
2677:
2472:
1575:
jointing. The size of individual pillows varies from 10 cm up to several metres.
8359:
8271:
8175:
8082:
8058:
8033:
8028:
8018:
7899:
7814:
7779:
7626:
7187:
7092:
6796:
6565:
5825:
5591:
4903:
4123:
4080:
3880:
3711:
3495:
3155:
2599:"The Meshik Arc – an eocene to earliest miocene magmatic arc on the Alaska Peninsula"
2188:
1972:
1746:
1658:
1589:
1290:
Source rocks for the partial melts that produce basaltic magma probably include both
1083:
1016:
982:
951:
823:
610:
571:
567:
354:
261:
5976:
5894:"Basalt fiber: from earth an ancient material for innovative and modern application"
5681:
5319:
5153:
4376:
4249:. Geological Society Special Publication 76. The Geological Society. pp. 3–38.
3715:
3191:
3051:
2833:
2453:
2391:
1539:
1469:
8266:
8210:
8048:
7980:
7824:
7804:
7676:
7323:
7301:
7242:
7142:
7087:
7072:
6938:
6886:
6867:
6801:
6739:
6724:
6646:
6642:
6470:
6177:
Parks and plates : the geology of our national parks, monuments, and seashores
5977:"Underwater rocks could be used for massive carbon storage on America's East Coast"
5724:
5646:
4629:
4519:
4427:
4231:
3696:
2414:
Le Bas, M. J.; Streckeisen, A. L. (1991). "The IUGS systematics of igneous rocks".
2337:
2323:
2287:
2160:
2153:
1927:
1868:
1860:
1780:
1726:
1691:
1522:
1410:
1353:
1284:
1228:
trace elements, and they have relatively flat REE patterns normalized to mantle or
1186:
1130:
1094:
1002:
926:
The mineralogy of basalt is characterized by a preponderance of calcic plagioclase
915:
870:
831:
784:
High- and low-titanium basalt rocks, which are sometimes classified based on their
774:
758:
742:
410:
406:
382:
337:
326:
296:
269:
226:
94:
4503:
5738:
Raj, Smriti; Kumar, V Ramesh; Kumar, B H Bharath; Iyer, Nagesh R (January 2017).
5268:
5145:
5100:
4411:
4360:
8160:
8115:
8090:
7998:
7970:
7960:
7713:
7604:
7584:
7574:
7501:
7451:
7376:
7222:
7157:
7127:
7082:
7040:
7013:
7008:
6998:
6961:
6842:
5606:
5303:
4279:
2242:
2145:
2141:
1772:
1646:
1565:
1364:
1323:
1114:
1020:
887:; it is distinguished by its low titanium content and trace-element composition.
862:
674:
Large masses must cool slowly to form a polygonal joint pattern, as here at the
564:
479:
402:
75:
5817:
5789:
5772:
4603:
4023:
3275:
3239:
3222:
1645:
are composed predominantly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below the
1592:, a small cone-shaped accumulation of tuffaceous debris formed when the blocky
349:
8185:
8135:
8110:
7879:
7864:
7839:
7834:
7744:
7729:
7646:
7614:
7579:
7569:
7551:
7531:
7476:
7456:
7411:
7333:
7318:
7294:
7254:
7227:
7207:
7177:
7137:
7112:
7102:
7097:
7077:
6986:
6595:
5756:
5739:
5673:
4895:
4115:
3950:
3915:
3872:
2651:
2320: – Fine-grained igneous rock, resulting from alteration of oceanic basalt
2314: – Low-profile volcano usually formed almost entirely of fluid lava flows
2254:
2014:
1856:
1788:
1662:
1295:
1291:
1205:
1044:
994:
943:
843:
839:
595:
537:
525:
483:
468:
378:
358:
277:
5607:"Geomicrobiology of the Ocean Crust: A Role for Chemoautotrophic Fe-Bacteria"
5583:
2445:
2296: – Eruption of both mafic and felsic lavas from a single volcanic centre
2191:) and seawater suggest that these interactions may lead to an application of
385:
by its mineral content whenever possible; the relative volume percentages of
17:
8170:
8155:
8140:
8073:
7988:
7894:
7884:
7874:
7859:
7829:
7809:
7794:
7789:
7754:
7749:
7708:
7701:
7666:
7636:
7621:
7599:
7541:
7521:
7516:
7506:
7491:
7471:
7446:
7441:
7436:
7426:
7416:
7391:
7356:
7269:
7237:
7182:
7172:
7147:
7122:
7117:
7057:
7018:
6981:
6872:
6852:
6847:
6811:
6024:
4943:
4918:
2299:
2250:
2084:
2053:
1984:
1844:
1804:
1414:
1394:
1390:
1345:
1276:
1256:
1252:
1229:
1182:
1036:
998:
986:
963:
947:
919:
880:
762:
711:
687:
643:. Agricola applied the term "basalt" to the volcanic black rock beneath the
583:
414:
281:
237:
230:
223:
79:
6043:
5804:
Aldred, Cyril (December 1955). "A Statue of King Neferkarē c Ramesses IX".
5716:
5638:
5343:
5341:
5245:"New estimates for Io eruption temperatures: Implications for the interior"
5064:
5039:
4952:
4766:
4511:
4419:
4368:
3851:
Smalley, I. J. (April 1966). "Contraction Crack Networks in Basalt Flows".
3750:
3688:
3480:
2603:
Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Professional Report
524:
with a composition typical of basalt, but rocks of this composition with a
5874:
5311:
4678:
2377:
1668:
8215:
8190:
8165:
8095:
7869:
7844:
7769:
7739:
7734:
7656:
7641:
7609:
7589:
7486:
7461:
7338:
7313:
7306:
7284:
7279:
7232:
7167:
7052:
7003:
6993:
6951:
6857:
6837:
6806:
6770:
6655:
6621:
5521:
5504:
5197:
5172:
4859:
4834:
4467:
4442:
3042:
3017:
2180:
2149:
2065:
2057:
2037:
1992:
1964:
1960:
1880:
1580:
1376:
1178:
1122:
1118:
1055:
1040:
1028:
1024:
955:
931:
927:
876:
785:
606:
541:
445:
437:
432:
Basalt is usually dark grey to black in colour, due to a high content of
219:
83:
5708:
3680:
3439:"Origin of magmas in subduction zones: a review of experimental studies"
2909:
2873:
2860:
2075:
Chemical weathering also releases readily water-soluble cations such as
444:. It can be difficult to distinguish between lighter-colored basalt and
322:
55:
8145:
8130:
7955:
7941:
7889:
7819:
7784:
7759:
7691:
7526:
7466:
7406:
7371:
7264:
7192:
7107:
7067:
7035:
7030:
6946:
6832:
6663:
6659:
6629:
6625:
6608:
5860:
5630:
5023:
4998:
4747:
4441:
Jourdan, F.; Féraud, G.; Bertrand, H.; Watkeys, M. K. (February 2007).
2968:
2329:
2317:
2126:
2076:
2069:
2028:
1840:
1824:
1808:
1792:
1600:
1446:
1438:
1434:
1357:
1264:
1244:
1156:
1078:
Relative to most common igneous rocks, basalt compositions are rich in
1048:
1032:
990:
939:
935:
850:
707:
670:
647:
560:
529:
499:
491:
472:
464:
98:
46:
3742:
3462:
1271:
in basalts have been much studied to learn about the evolution of the
8195:
8180:
8150:
8125:
8120:
8053:
7799:
7774:
7671:
7631:
7594:
7496:
7361:
7259:
7249:
7202:
7162:
7132:
7062:
7047:
7025:
6966:
6862:
6638:
6612:
6579:
6547:
6534:
5605:
Edwards, Katrina J.; Bach, Wolfgang; Rogers, Daniel R. (April 2003).
4223:
2951:
Green, D. H.; Ringwood, A. E. (2013). "The Origin of Basalt Magmas".
2367:
2246:
2080:
2049:
1967:
derived from the crust. Evidence from Earth-based telescopes and the
1923:
1754:
1750:
1738:
1719:
1707:
1676:
1553:
1490:
1442:
1349:
1327:
1319:
1280:
1268:
1217:
978:
556:
533:
510:
433:
390:
386:
292:
265:
6194:
Macdonald, Gordon A.; Abbott, Agatin T.; Peterson, Frank L. (1983).
5852:
5622:
5574:
5549:
5244:
4324:
3564:
1943:, as determined by data sent back from the planet's surface, and by
1764:
Basalt also is common around volcanic arcs, specially those on thin
1385:
types of blocky cinder and breccia flows of thick, viscous basaltic
310:. The chemistry of basalts thus provides clues to processes deep in
6678:
5839:
Roobaert, Arlette (1996). "A Neo-Assyrian Statue from Til Barsib".
5428:
Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources Open File Report
5040:"Geologic Mapping of Vesta from 1994 Hubble Space Telescope Images"
4274:. Petrology and Structural Geology. Vol. 3. pp. 151–194.
3102:
3100:
3087:
3085:
1741:. Basalt is also prevalent across extensive regions of the Eastern
1584:
lava enters the sea it usually forms pillow basalts. However, when
1512:
or fractures form. If a flow cools relatively rapidly, significant
1481:
7764:
7686:
7681:
7546:
7511:
7431:
7386:
7381:
6504:
5128:
2615:
2598:
2524:
2522:
2520:
2518:
2237:
Basalt is used in construction (e.g. as building blocks or in the
2230:
2206:
2120:
2027:
Compared to granitic rocks exposed at the Earth's surface, basalt
2018:
1899:
1834:
1820:
1758:
1723:
1695:
1667:
1639:
1538:
1495:
1480:
1468:
1305:
1190:
1067:
959:
906:
766:
681:
669:
546:
426:
364:
348:
336:
321:
303:
245:
71:
6901:
5550:"The role of metamorphic fluids in the formation of ore deposits"
5369:
Washington Division of Mines and Geology Report of Investigations
3716:"The Amount of Recycled Crust in Sources of Mantle-Derived Melts"
3217:
Waters, Christopher L.; Sims, Kenneth W. W.; Perfit, Michael R.;
3117:
3115:
1863:
lava flows. These rocks were sampled both by the crewed American
291:
Molten basalt lava has a low viscosity due to its relatively low
8220:
7993:
7536:
7481:
7396:
7328:
6765:
2955:. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 13. pp. 489–495.
2685:
2061:
2041:
1940:
1894:
Lunar basalts show exotic textures and mineralogy, particularly
1852:
1816:
1812:
1422:
1401:
1386:
1382:
1372:
1260:
1137:
754:
722:
630:
285:
241:
233:
7914:
6905:
6682:
6442:
5998:
Goldberg, D. S.; Takahashi, T.; Slagle, A. L. (22 July 2008).
4135:
4133:
3786:
3784:
2163:
650:, believing it to be the same as the "basaniten" described by
145:
6232:
Parfitt, Elisabeth Ann; Parfitt, Liz; Wilson, Lionel (2008).
4482:
Hooper, P. R. (19 March 1982). "The Columbia River Basalts".
528:(coarser) groundmass are more properly referred to either as
204:
180:
133:
7910:
1914:, are estimated to have erupted only 1.2 billion years ago.
1169:
High-alumina basalts have aluminium contents of 17–19 wt% Al
6255:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
5421:"Geologic map of the Goldendale 15' quadrangle, Washington"
4919:"Analysis of Surface Materials by the Curiosity Mars Rover"
3291:
3289:
3287:
3285:
2159:
Metamorphosed basalts are important hosts for a variety of
1348:) forms three distinct types of lava or volcanic deposits:
198:
171:
6080:
Blatt, Harvey; Middleton, Gerard; Murray, Raymond (1980).
2568:
2566:
2332: – Rupture in a planet's crust where material escapes
2136:
Intense heat or great pressure transforms basalt into its
1129:. Basalt has a lower total content of alkali oxides than
127:
5215:
A Jökulhlaup-like Model for Secondary Sulfur Flows on Io
2409:
2407:
1596:
lava enters the water and explodes from built-up steam.
1417:
volcano erupted in this way in the 19th century, as did
710:(the solid rock slowly deforms under high stress). When
6360:(3rd ed.). Springer Science & Business Media.
5740:"Basalt: structural insight as a construction material"
4634:
Volcanic Worlds: Exploring The Solar System's Volcanoes
4046:
1902:
typical of terrestrial basalts, and a complete lack of
1508:
During the cooling of a thick lava flow, contractional
456:
for this purpose, classifying it as basalt if it has a
6198:(2nd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
6084:(2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
4537:. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. p. 312.
6377:
Mind over magma : the story of igneous petrology
6356:
Siegesmund, Siegfried; Snethlage, Rolf, eds. (2013).
2480:
British Geological Survey: Rock Classification Scheme
1649:. Basalt is also the principal volcanic rock in many
1070:
or derived from other basalt types by fractionation.
633:-derived rock, became standard because of its use by
276:, which cover ~80% of the surface, are basaltic; the
201:
177:
130:
6319:
Igneous rocks and processes : a practical guide
5455:
5347:
4968:"Meteorite's Black Glass May Reveal Secrets of Mars"
3976:
210:
207:
195:
186:
183:
168:
148:
139:
136:
124:
8239:
8081:
7948:
7722:
7560:
7347:
6937:
6825:
6779:
6748:
6717:
6137:Klein, Cornelis; Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Jr. (1993).
192:
174:
121:
89:
67:
62:
5548:Yardley, Bruce W. D.; Cleverley, James S. (2015).
5238:
5236:
2023:Kaolinized basalt near Hungen, Vogelsberg, Germany
6301:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6196:Volcanoes in the sea : the geology of Hawaii
6139:Manual of mineralogy : (after James D. Dana)
6000:"Carbon dioxide sequestration in deep-sea basalt"
2290: – Structural fibres spun from melted basalt
1983:Lava flows represent a major volcanic terrain on
938:can also be a significant constituent. Accessory
6322:. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
6063:Petrology: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
5554:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
702:. The high pressure in the upper mantle (due to
490:. These phenocrysts are usually made of augite,
284:; and basalt is a common rock on the surface of
6379:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
6253:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
6004:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1963:has a basaltic crust covered with a brecciated
1939:Basalt is also a common rock on the surface of
1363:Basalt in the tops of subaerial lava flows and
306:within Earth are thought to originate from the
27:Magnesium- and iron-rich extrusive igneous rock
6341:. Harlow: Longman Scientific & Technical.
4061:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3991:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3931:Journal of the Geological Society of Australia
3503:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
2473:"Rock Classification Scheme - Vol 1 - Igneous"
7926:
6917:
6694:
6454:
4782:"The titanium contents of lunar mare basalts"
4569:
4557:
4177:
3838:
3646:
3634:
3589:
3577:
3404:Condie, Kent C. (1997). "Tectonic settings".
3391:
3343:
3319:
3307:
3121:
3106:
3091:
3076:
3003:
2938:
2820:
2788:Department of Geology & Planetary Science
2718:
2706:
2664:
2528:
594:The word "basalt" is ultimately derived from
551:Columnar basalt at Szent György Hill, Hungary
8:
6358:Stone in architecture properties, durability
6251:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
5509:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
4835:"Ages of mare basalts on the lunar nearside"
2730:
1421:, New Zealand in its violent 1886 eruption.
1344:Basalt that erupts under open air (that is,
1136:Basalt generally has a composition of 45–52
942:present in relatively minor amounts include
883:form of basalt that is erupted generally in
865:. These represent the low-silica end of the
494:, or a calcium-rich plagioclase, which have
39:
6297:Francis, Peter; Oppenheimer, Clive (2003).
5925:"Composites: Higher Properties, Lower Cost"
5875:"Research surveys for basalt rock quarries"
2859:Tietz, O.; Büchner, J. (29 December 2018).
1429:Amygdaloidal structure is common in relict
1397:are common features of pāhoehoe eruptions.
970:studies have made extensive use of basalt.
826:is relatively rich in alkali metals. It is
655:
7933:
7919:
7911:
6924:
6910:
6902:
6701:
6687:
6679:
6484:
6461:
6447:
6439:
6217:. San Francisco, Calif.: Freeman, Cooper.
6120:Petrology of igneous and metamorphic rocks
5535:
4616:
4139:
3802:
3790:
3775:
3443:Proceedings of the Japan Academy, Series B
3295:
3204:
2994:, pp. 151–156, 191–195, 162–163, 200.
2991:
2769:
2572:
2308: – A mode of origin of basaltic magma
1375:from weathered iron-rich minerals such as
1193:rocks, akin to alkali basalts, may have Na
54:
6429:Petrology of Lunar Rocks and Mare Basalts
6160:(9th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley.
6033:
6023:
5788:
5755:
5573:
5520:
5332:
5196:
5127:
5063:
5022:
4942:
4858:
4805:
4756:
4746:
4466:
4270:Mahoney, John J. (1988). "Deccan Traps".
4189:
4034:
3826:
3763:
3470:
3238:
3041:
2908:
2872:
2614:
2435:
2257:, which has potential to be an excellent
2215:was engraved on a 2.25 m (7 ft
2166:, including deposits of gold, copper and
2060:. This produces the distinctive tropical
1185:(MgO) contents of up to 15 percent. Rare
849:High-alumina basalt has greater than 17%
629:, describing a particular composition of
272:. For example, the bulk of the plains of
6065:(2nd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman.
6061:Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996).
5900:(in English and Italian). Archived from
5177:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
4839:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
4694:"New Type of Rock Is Discovered on Moon"
3379:
3331:
2326: – Vitreous basaltic volcanic glass
1971:suggest that Vesta is the source of the
6179:(1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton.
4917:Grotzinger, J. P. (26 September 2013).
2682:USGS Volcano Hazards program – Glossary
2557:
2354:
1617:Pillow basalt is also produced by some
5951:"Basalt Fibers: Alternative To Glass?"
5777:Environmental Impact Assessment Review
4692:Bhanoo, Sindya N. (28 December 2015).
4659:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry
4247:Magmatic Processes and Plate Tectonics
3814:
1543:Pillow basalts on the Pacific seafloor
38:
5437:from the original on 20 December 2009
5382:from the original on 24 January 2010.
4820:
4047:Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983
3406:Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution
3367:
3355:
3064:
2808:
2584:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2245:(from columnar basalt) and in making
2087:, which give basaltic areas a strong
2068:. The ultimate weathering product is
1144:, 2–5 wt% total alkalis, 0.5–2.0 wt%
229:formed from the rapid cooling of low-
7:
8314:
6234:Fundamentals of Physical Volcanology
4966:Choi, Charles Q. (11 October 2012).
4447:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
2888:Tietz, Olaf; Büchner, Joerg (2018).
2095:. Calcium released by basalts binds
962:minerals, basalt can acquire strong
8338:
6760:
5806:The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
5212:Battaglia, Steven M. (March 2019).
5003:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
4786:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
4584:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3256:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3136:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2840:. Comenius University in Bratislava
2493:from the original on 29 March 2018.
2048:) rather than potassium-rich clay (
1883:), ranging from less than 1 wt% TiO
1682:Basalt is the rock most typical of
1465:List of places with columnar basalt
1113:. Basalt contains more silica than
694:On Earth, most basalt is formed by
6141:(21st ed.). New York: Wiley.
5771:Yıldırım, Mücahit (January 2020).
5456:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980
5348:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980
4807:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01985.x
4535:The Architecture of Ancient Israel
4305:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences
4159:. The University of Auckland. 2005
3977:Parfitt, Parfitt & Wilson 2008
3965:Volcanoes: A Planetary Perspective
3612:10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00203-5
3545:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences
3532:from the original on 6 March 2020.
2953:The Earth's Crust and Upper Mantle
2920:from the original on 28 April 2019
2072:, the principal ore of aluminium.
1995:studies and measurements from the
1851:The dark areas visible on Earth's
1729:province in South Africa, and the
1133:and most basanites and tephrites.
1051:may be present in the groundmass.
958:. Because of the presence of such
946:and iron-titanium oxides, such as
536:. Diabase and gabbro are thus the
248:lava) exposed at or very near the
25:
5400:. United States Geological Survey
3494:Ozerov, Alexei Y (January 2000).
3221:; Blusztajn, Jurek (March 2011).
2890:"The origin of the term 'basalt'"
2861:"The origin of the term 'basalt'"
2505:"CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS"
2416:Journal of the Geological Society
1326:lava flows, the classic image of
741:, where mantle rock rises into a
625:"). The modern petrological term
413:) are particularly important. An
8337:
8325:
8313:
8302:
8301:
8072:
6885:
6424:PetDB, the Petrological Database
5975:Hance, Jeremy (5 January 2010).
4636:. Springer-Praxis. p. 135.
3414:10.1016/B978-075063386-4/50003-3
2336:
1871:, and are represented among the
1799:Other bodies in the Solar System
997:contains interstitial quartz or
704:the weight of the overlying rock
609:stone", which was imported from
578:volcanic rocks, with silica (SiO
496:the highest melting temperatures
164:
117:
6270:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003).
6213:McBirney, Alexander R. (1984).
5167:Keszthelyi, L.; McEwen, A. S.;
3192:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2011.07.005
2156:that have affected the region.
574:differentiation. The resulting
520:is at times applied to shallow
5398:USGS Mineral Resources Program
2632:Russian Geology and Geophysics
2397:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
1959:images of Vesta suggests this
1811:), and has also formed on the
765:, include most basalts of the
753:, which is relatively rich in
482:, containing larger crystals (
471:— similar to the viscosity of
318:Definition and characteristics
1:
6122:(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
5923:Schut, Jan H. (August 2008).
5490:10.1016/S0883-2927(02)00078-1
4632:; Gregg, Tracy K. P. (2004).
4504:10.1126/science.215.4539.1463
4011:10.1016/S0377-0273(02)00425-0
3523:10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00118-3
2168:volcanogenic massive sulfides
2125:Metamorphosed basalt from an
1093:and the alkali oxides, i.e.,
280:are plains of flood-basaltic
5269:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.07.008
5229:. LPI Contribution No. 1189.
5146:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.07.006
5101:10.1016/j.chemer.2014.08.002
4412:10.1126/science.253.5016.176
4361:10.1126/science.258.5084.975
4081:10.1016/0377-0273(83)90112-9
3310:, pp. 368–370, 390–394.
3156:10.1016/0012-821X(95)00179-G
2102:from the atmosphere forming
1588:enters the ocean it forms a
966:signatures as it cools, and
718:, producing basaltic magma.
6718:Basalts by tectonic setting
6118:Hyndman, Donald W. (1985).
6082:Origin of sedimentary rocks
5697:Nature Reviews Microbiology
5304:10.1126/science.281.5373.87
4280:10.1007/978-94-015-7805-9_5
4157:Geology: rocks and minerals
1807:(the third largest moon of
1653:, including the islands of
1201:O contents of 12% or more.
8382:
6407:Basalt in Northern Ireland
6175:Lillie, Robert J. (2005).
5949:Ross, Anne (August 2006).
5818:10.1177/030751335504100102
5790:10.1016/j.eiar.2019.106318
4604:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.01.034
3967:, Oxford University Press.
3276:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.07.019
2790:. University of Pittsburgh
2751:. Georgia State University
2012:
1795:and other green minerals.
1563:
1532:
1462:
1456:
1337:
1310:An active basalt lava flow
869:and are characteristic of
867:calc-alkaline magma series
29:
8297:
8070:
6881:
6482:
6156:Levin, Harold L. (2010).
5757:10.1007/s12046-016-0573-9
5674:10.1080/01490450590945951
4896:10.1007/s11214-017-0370-8
4570:Philpotts & Ague 2009
4558:Philpotts & Ague 2009
4272:Continental Flood Basalts
4178:Philpotts & Ague 2009
4116:10.1017/S0016756800032052
3951:10.1080/14400956208527873
3916:10.1080/00107518408210979
3873:10.1017/S0016756800050482
3839:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3647:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3635:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3590:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3578:Irvine & Baragar 1971
3392:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3344:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3320:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3308:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3122:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3107:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3092:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3077:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3016:Stern, Robert J. (2002).
3004:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2939:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2821:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2745:"Bowen's Reaction Series"
2719:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2707:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2665:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2652:10.1016/j.rgg.2016.02.003
2544:. Schlumberger Ltd. 2021.
2529:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2185:Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount
1688:continental flood basalts
1314:The shape, structure and
1007:Olivine tholeiitic basalt
790:Paraná and Etendeka traps
601:, a misspelling of Latin
371:Yellowstone National Park
369:Columnar basalt flows in
341:Basalt is field B in the
53:
44:
7976:Cryptovolcanic structure
6749:Basalts by form and flow
6412:24 February 2021 at the
6375:Young, Davis A. (2003).
5419:Anderson, J. L. (1987).
3604:Treatise on Geochemistry
3240:10.1093/petrology/egq091
3006:, pp. 236, 593–595.
2731:Klein & Hurlbut 1993
2446:10.1144/gsjgs.148.5.0825
1922:From 1972 to 1985, five
1867:and the robotic Russian
1322:eruption or as creeping
1109:, consistent with their
8257:Eruptions by death toll
6977:Basaltic trachyandesite
6957:Alkali feldspar granite
6103:. London: Unwin Hyman.
6099:Crawford, A.J. (1989).
6025:10.1073/pnas.0804397105
5955:www.compositesworld.com
5662:Geomicrobiology Journal
5015:2013M&PS...48.1919G
4944:10.1126/science.1244258
4798:2000M&PS...35..193G
4596:2018E&PSL.487..106S
3268:2004E&PSL.226..347D
3148:1995E&PSL.136..149G
2838:Atlas of Magmatic Rocks
2374:Oxford University Press
1684:large igneous provinces
1521:. These structures, or
1302:Morphology and textures
873:above subduction zones.
737:. Basalt also forms in
686:Columns of basalt near
544:equivalents of basalt.
436:or other dark-coloured
260:. More than 90% of all
32:Basalt (disambiguation)
6730:Mid-ocean ridge basalt
6337:Hall, Anthony (1996).
6158:The earth through time
5536:Blatt & Tracy 1996
5065:10.1006/icar.1997.5734
4617:Blatt & Tracy 1996
4140:Blatt & Tracy 1996
3803:Blatt & Tracy 1996
3791:Blatt & Tracy 1996
3776:Blatt & Tracy 1996
3437:Kushiro, Ikuo (2007).
3296:Blatt & Tracy 1996
3205:Blatt & Tracy 1996
2992:Blatt & Tracy 1996
2897:Journal of Geosciences
2865:Journal of Geosciences
2770:Blatt & Tracy 1996
2597:Wilson, F. H. (1985).
2573:Blatt & Tracy 1996
2284: – Rock formation
2234:
2229: in) tall basalt
2174:Life on basaltic rocks
2133:
2024:
1957:Hubble Space Telescope
1848:
1731:Columbia River Plateau
1679:
1544:
1505:
1493:
1478:
1449:are frequently found.
1311:
1204:The abundances of the
923:
779:Columbia River Plateau
691:
679:
656:
552:
505:Basalt often contains
374:
362:
346:
334:
7367:Banded iron formation
5360:Mackin, J.H. (1961).
4876:Space Science Reviews
4727:Nature Communications
4679:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.2
3022:Reviews of Geophysics
2772:, pp. 27, 42–44.
2511:on 30 September 2011.
2370:UK English Dictionary
2272:into the atmosphere.
2210:
2124:
2022:
1838:
1671:
1542:
1499:
1484:
1472:
1367:will often be highly
1309:
1275:. Isotopic ratios of
910:
828:silica-undersaturated
804:incompatible elements
696:decompression melting
685:
673:
637:in 1546, in his work
550:
368:
352:
340:
325:
6792:Calc-alkaline basalt
6780:Basalts by chemistry
6419:Lava–water interface
6316:Gill, Robin (2010).
6274:. Berlin: Springer.
5522:10.1029/2005JB004169
5470:Applied Geochemistry
5198:10.1029/2000JE001383
5183:(E12): 33025–33052.
4860:10.1029/2000JE001244
4845:(E12): 29239–29275.
4468:10.1029/2006GC001392
3896:Contemporary Physics
3227:Journal of Petrology
3219:Blichert-Toft, Janne
3043:10.1029/2001RG000108
2282:Basalt fan structure
2265:Carbon sequestration
2004:Alteration of basalt
1843:basalt collected by
1779:, because low-grade
1621:volcanic eruptions.
891:Ocean island basalts
353:Vesicular basalt at
333: < 52%.
30:For other uses, see
6740:Volcanic arc basalt
6735:Ocean island basalt
6016:2008PNAS..105.9920G
5709:10.1038/nrmicro1991
5611:Biological Bulletin
5566:2015GSLSP.393..117Y
5482:2002ApGC...17..987G
5458:, pp. 263–264.
5350:, pp. 254–257.
5296:1998Sci...281...87M
5261:2007Icar..192..491K
5227:2019LPI....50.1189B
5189:2001JGR...10633025K
5138:2008Icar..198...77M
5093:2015ChEG...75..155M
5056:1997Icar..128...95B
4935:2013Sci...341.1475G
4888:2017SSRv..212.1511G
4851:2000JGR...10529239H
4739:2015NatCo...6.8880L
4671:2006RvMG...60...83L
4630:Lopes, Rosaly M. C.
4619:, pp. 366–367.
4572:, pp. 398–399.
4560:, pp. 374–380.
4496:1982Sci...215.1463H
4490:(4539): 1463–1468.
4459:2007GGG.....8.2002J
4404:1991Sci...253..176R
4353:1992Sci...258..975R
4317:1983CaJES..20..515B
4216:1965Natur.207..151U
4180:, pp. 366–368.
4108:1985GeoM..122..649M
4096:Geological Magazine
4073:1983JVGR...19..239K
4003:2003JVGR..121..155H
3963:Francis, P. (1993)
3943:1962AuJES...8..191S
3908:1984ConPh..25...59W
3865:1966GeoM..103..110S
3853:Geological Magazine
3735:2007Sci...316..412S
3681:10.1038/nature03930
3673:2005Natur.436.1107C
3667:(7054): 1107–1112.
3606:. pp. 67–101.
3557:1971CaJES...8..523I
3515:2000JVGR...95...65O
3455:2007PJAB...83....1K
3408:. pp. 69–109.
3382:, pp. 366–367.
3346:, pp. 368–370.
3322:, pp. 375–376.
3207:, pp. 156–158.
3184:2011OGRv...41..133H
3172:Ore Geology Reviews
3109:, pp. 365–370.
3094:, pp. 143–146.
3079:, pp. 356–361.
3034:2002RvGeo..40.1012S
2961:1969GMS....13..489G
2910:10.3190/jgeosci.273
2874:10.3190/jgeosci.273
2823:, pp. 399–400.
2784:"Scoria and Pumice"
2733:, pp. 558–560.
2644:2016RuGG...57..247N
2542:"Oilfield Glossary"
2531:, pp. 139–143.
2428:1991JGSoc.148..825L
2380:on 3 February 2020.
2179:energy sources for
2109:acting thus as a CO
1823:, and the asteroid
1783:of basalt produces
1529:Submarine eruptions
1500:Columnar basalt at
1477:in Northern Ireland
1360:); and lava flows.
1334:Subaerial eruptions
1210:rare-earth elements
1155:and 14 wt% or more
731:geological hotspots
678:in Northern Ireland
658:Naturalis Historiae
645:Bishop of Meissen's
640:De Natura Fossilium
41:
8252:Lists of volcanoes
8039:Subglacial volcano
8014:Pyroclastic shield
7723:Specific varieties
6892:Geology portal
6826:Important minerals
6609:Diabase (Dolerite)
5024:10.1111/maps.12172
4882:(3–4): 1511–1540.
4748:10.1038/ncomms9880
4699:The New York Times
3018:"Subduction zones"
2969:10.1029/GM013p0489
2400:. Merriam-Webster.
2343:Geology portal
2235:
2233:in around 1750 BC.
2193:hydrothermal vents
2134:
2025:
1987:. Analysis of the
1945:Martian meteorites
1896:shock metamorphism
1889:Clementine mission
1849:
1680:
1545:
1535:Submarine eruption
1506:
1494:
1479:
1340:Subaerial eruption
1330:basalt eruptions.
1312:
1239:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
1111:TAS classification
924:
773:, and continental
769:floor, most large
692:
680:
553:
460:of 35 or greater.
375:
363:
347:
343:TAS classification
335:
8353:
8352:
8106:Basaltic andesite
8044:Submarine volcano
7908:
7907:
7153:Nepheline syenite
6899:
6898:
6787:Tholeiitic basalt
6676:
6675:
6671:
6670:
6643:Microgranodiorite
6573:Subvolcanic rocks
6386:978-0-691-10279-5
6367:978-3-662-10070-7
6348:978-0-582-23080-4
6339:Igneous petrology
6329:978-1-4443-3065-6
6308:978-0-19-925469-9
6281:978-3-540-43650-8
6262:978-0-521-88006-0
6243:978-0-632-05443-5
6224:978-0-19-857810-9
6215:Igneous petrology
6205:978-0-8248-0832-7
6186:978-0-393-92407-7
6167:978-0-470-38774-0
6148:978-0-471-57452-1
6129:978-0-07-031658-4
6110:978-0-04-445003-0
6091:978-0-13-642710-0
6072:978-0-7167-2438-4
6010:(29): 9920–9925.
5892:De Fazio, Piero.
5009:(10): 1919–1936.
4995:Sautter, Violaine
4643:978-3-540-00431-8
4544:978-965-221-013-5
4398:(5016): 176–179.
4347:(5084): 975–979.
4289:978-90-481-8458-3
4256:978-0-903317-94-8
4210:(4993): 151–154.
4142:, pp. 24–25.
3805:, pp. 43–44.
3793:, pp. 22–23.
3778:, pp. 27–28.
3743:10.1126/science.x
3729:(5823): 412–417.
3621:978-0-08-098300-4
3463:10.2183/pjab.83.1
3423:978-0-7506-3386-4
3124:, pp. 52–59.
2978:978-1-118-66897-9
2941:, pp. 16–17.
2811:, pp. 58–60.
2721:, pp. 23–25.
2306:Polybaric melting
2294:Bimodal volcanism
2259:thermal insulator
2213:Code of Hammurabi
1459:Columnar jointing
1127:basaltic andesite
975:tholeiitic basalt
751:Tholeiitic basalt
635:Georgius Agricola
617:), from βάσανος (
450:field researchers
361:(24mm) for scale.
104:
103:
16:(Redirected from
8373:
8341:
8340:
8329:
8317:
8316:
8305:
8304:
8262:Decade Volcanoes
8240:Lists and groups
8231:Pyroclastic flow
8226:Pyroclastic fall
8076:
8009:Pyroclastic cone
7935:
7928:
7921:
7912:
7850:Rapakivi granite
7562:Metamorphic rock
7349:Sedimentary rock
7218:Quartz monzonite
6926:
6919:
6912:
6903:
6890:
6889:
6703:
6696:
6689:
6680:
6485:
6463:
6456:
6449:
6440:
6434:Pillow lava USGS
6390:
6371:
6352:
6333:
6312:
6285:
6266:
6247:
6228:
6209:
6190:
6171:
6152:
6133:
6114:
6095:
6076:
6048:
6047:
6037:
6027:
5995:
5989:
5988:
5986:
5984:
5972:
5966:
5965:
5963:
5961:
5946:
5940:
5939:
5937:
5935:
5929:www.ptonline.com
5920:
5914:
5913:
5911:
5909:
5889:
5883:
5882:
5871:
5865:
5864:
5836:
5830:
5829:
5801:
5795:
5794:
5792:
5768:
5762:
5761:
5759:
5735:
5729:
5728:
5692:
5686:
5685:
5668:(3–4): 127–139.
5657:
5651:
5650:
5602:
5596:
5595:
5577:
5545:
5539:
5533:
5527:
5526:
5524:
5500:
5494:
5493:
5465:
5459:
5453:
5447:
5446:
5444:
5442:
5436:
5425:
5416:
5410:
5409:
5407:
5405:
5394:"Holyoke Basalt"
5390:
5384:
5383:
5381:
5366:
5357:
5351:
5345:
5336:
5330:
5324:
5323:
5279:
5273:
5272:
5240:
5231:
5230:
5220:
5209:
5203:
5202:
5200:
5164:
5158:
5157:
5131:
5111:
5105:
5104:
5076:
5070:
5069:
5067:
5035:
5029:
5028:
5026:
4990:
4984:
4983:
4981:
4979:
4974:. Future US, Inc
4963:
4957:
4956:
4946:
4914:
4908:
4907:
4871:
4865:
4864:
4862:
4830:
4824:
4818:
4812:
4811:
4809:
4777:
4771:
4770:
4760:
4750:
4717:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4706:
4689:
4683:
4682:
4654:
4648:
4647:
4626:
4620:
4614:
4608:
4607:
4579:
4573:
4567:
4561:
4555:
4549:
4548:
4530:
4524:
4523:
4479:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4387:
4381:
4380:
4335:
4329:
4328:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4242:
4236:
4235:
4224:10.1038/207151a0
4199:
4193:
4187:
4181:
4175:
4169:
4168:
4166:
4164:
4149:
4143:
4137:
4128:
4127:
4091:
4085:
4084:
4067:(3–4): 239–246.
4056:
4050:
4044:
4038:
4032:
4026:
4021:
4015:
4014:
3997:(3–4): 155–193.
3986:
3980:
3974:
3968:
3961:
3955:
3954:
3926:
3920:
3919:
3891:
3885:
3884:
3848:
3842:
3836:
3830:
3824:
3818:
3812:
3806:
3800:
3794:
3788:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3761:
3755:
3754:
3720:
3707:
3701:
3700:
3656:
3650:
3644:
3638:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3599:
3593:
3587:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3568:
3540:
3534:
3533:
3531:
3500:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3474:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3401:
3395:
3389:
3383:
3377:
3371:
3365:
3359:
3353:
3347:
3341:
3335:
3329:
3323:
3317:
3311:
3305:
3299:
3293:
3280:
3279:
3262:(3–4): 347–366.
3251:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3214:
3208:
3202:
3196:
3195:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3142:(3–4): 149–165.
3131:
3125:
3119:
3110:
3104:
3095:
3089:
3080:
3074:
3068:
3067:, p. 22–24.
3062:
3056:
3055:
3045:
3013:
3007:
3001:
2995:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2948:
2942:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2919:
2912:
2894:
2885:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2830:
2824:
2818:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2795:
2779:
2773:
2767:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2756:
2740:
2734:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2710:
2704:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2674:
2668:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2627:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2594:
2588:
2582:
2576:
2570:
2561:
2555:
2546:
2545:
2538:
2532:
2526:
2513:
2512:
2507:. Archived from
2501:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2477:
2469:
2458:
2457:
2439:
2411:
2402:
2401:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2376:. Archived from
2359:
2341:
2340:
2228:
2227:
2223:
2220:
2138:metamorphic rock
1873:lunar meteorites
1859:, are plains of
1777:greenstone belts
1704:British Columbia
1686:. These include
1550:pyroclastic rock
1475:Giant's Causeway
1433:and beautifully
1214:europium anomaly
1054:Basalt has high
830:and may contain
739:subduction zones
727:mid-ocean ridges
676:Giant's Causeway
661:
478:Basalt is often
312:Earth's interior
217:
216:
213:
212:
209:
206:
203:
200:
197:
194:
189:
188:
185:
182:
179:
176:
173:
170:
163:
155:
154:
151:
150:
147:
142:
141:
138:
135:
132:
129:
126:
123:
116:
58:
42:
21:
8381:
8380:
8376:
8375:
8374:
8372:
8371:
8370:
8356:
8355:
8354:
8349:
8293:
8235:
8201:Tephriphonolite
8077:
8068:
8064:Harmonic tremor
7966:Complex volcano
7944:
7939:
7909:
7904:
7718:
7662:Pseudotachylite
7556:
7343:
7275:Tephriphonolite
6933:
6930:
6900:
6895:
6884:
6877:
6821:
6775:
6756:Columnar basalt
6744:
6713:
6707:
6677:
6672:
6667:
6662:
6658:
6650:
6645:
6641:
6633:
6628:
6624:
6616:
6611:
6607:
6599:
6594:
6593:
6585:
6577:
6570:
6556:
6550:
6543:
6537:
6526:
6520:
6513:
6507:
6500:
6494:
6478:
6475:silicon dioxide
6467:
6414:Wayback Machine
6398:
6393:
6387:
6374:
6368:
6355:
6349:
6336:
6330:
6315:
6309:
6296:
6292:
6290:Further reading
6282:
6269:
6263:
6250:
6244:
6231:
6225:
6212:
6206:
6193:
6187:
6174:
6168:
6155:
6149:
6136:
6130:
6117:
6111:
6098:
6092:
6079:
6073:
6060:
6057:
6052:
6051:
5997:
5996:
5992:
5982:
5980:
5974:
5973:
5969:
5959:
5957:
5948:
5947:
5943:
5933:
5931:
5922:
5921:
5917:
5907:
5905:
5891:
5890:
5886:
5879:Basalt Projects
5873:
5872:
5868:
5853:10.2307/4200420
5838:
5837:
5833:
5803:
5802:
5798:
5770:
5769:
5765:
5737:
5736:
5732:
5703:(11): 805–814.
5694:
5693:
5689:
5659:
5658:
5654:
5623:10.2307/1543555
5604:
5603:
5599:
5575:10.1144/SP393.5
5547:
5546:
5542:
5534:
5530:
5502:
5501:
5497:
5476:(8): 987–1001.
5467:
5466:
5462:
5454:
5450:
5440:
5438:
5434:
5423:
5418:
5417:
5413:
5403:
5401:
5392:
5391:
5387:
5379:
5364:
5359:
5358:
5354:
5346:
5339:
5331:
5327:
5290:(5373): 87–90.
5281:
5280:
5276:
5242:
5241:
5234:
5218:
5211:
5210:
5206:
5169:Phillips, C. B.
5166:
5165:
5161:
5113:
5112:
5108:
5078:
5077:
5073:
5037:
5036:
5032:
4992:
4991:
4987:
4977:
4975:
4965:
4964:
4960:
4916:
4915:
4911:
4873:
4872:
4868:
4832:
4831:
4827:
4819:
4815:
4779:
4778:
4774:
4719:
4718:
4714:
4704:
4702:
4691:
4690:
4686:
4656:
4655:
4651:
4644:
4628:
4627:
4623:
4615:
4611:
4581:
4580:
4576:
4568:
4564:
4556:
4552:
4545:
4532:
4531:
4527:
4481:
4480:
4476:
4440:
4439:
4435:
4389:
4388:
4384:
4337:
4336:
4332:
4325:10.1139/e83-049
4302:
4301:
4297:
4290:
4269:
4268:
4264:
4257:
4244:
4243:
4239:
4201:
4200:
4196:
4188:
4184:
4176:
4172:
4162:
4160:
4151:
4150:
4146:
4138:
4131:
4093:
4092:
4088:
4058:
4057:
4053:
4045:
4041:
4033:
4029:
4022:
4018:
3988:
3987:
3983:
3975:
3971:
3962:
3958:
3928:
3927:
3923:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3850:
3849:
3845:
3837:
3833:
3825:
3821:
3813:
3809:
3801:
3797:
3789:
3782:
3774:
3770:
3762:
3758:
3718:
3709:
3708:
3704:
3658:
3657:
3653:
3645:
3641:
3633:
3629:
3622:
3601:
3600:
3596:
3588:
3584:
3576:
3572:
3565:10.1139/e71-055
3542:
3541:
3537:
3529:
3498:
3493:
3492:
3488:
3436:
3435:
3431:
3424:
3403:
3402:
3398:
3390:
3386:
3378:
3374:
3366:
3362:
3354:
3350:
3342:
3338:
3330:
3326:
3318:
3314:
3306:
3302:
3294:
3283:
3253:
3252:
3248:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3203:
3199:
3168:
3167:
3163:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3120:
3113:
3105:
3098:
3090:
3083:
3075:
3071:
3063:
3059:
3015:
3014:
3010:
3002:
2998:
2990:
2986:
2979:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2937:
2933:
2923:
2921:
2917:
2892:
2887:
2886:
2882:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2843:
2841:
2832:
2831:
2827:
2819:
2815:
2807:
2803:
2793:
2791:
2781:
2780:
2776:
2768:
2764:
2754:
2752:
2742:
2741:
2737:
2729:
2725:
2717:
2713:
2705:
2701:
2691:
2689:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2663:
2659:
2629:
2628:
2624:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2583:
2579:
2571:
2564:
2556:
2549:
2540:
2539:
2535:
2527:
2516:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2490:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2461:
2437:10.1.1.692.4446
2413:
2412:
2405:
2390:
2389:
2385:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2335:
2278:
2271:
2225:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2205:
2176:
2130:greenstone belt
2119:
2112:
2107:
2100:
2089:buffer capacity
2046:montmorillonite
2017:
2011:
2006:
1981:
1953:
1937:
1920:
1912:crater counting
1886:
1833:
1801:
1714:in Brazil, the
1700:Chilcotin Group
1651:oceanic islands
1643:tectonic plates
1632:
1627:
1568:
1562:
1537:
1531:
1502:Cape Stolbchaty
1467:
1461:
1455:
1453:Columnar basalt
1342:
1336:
1304:
1235:plate tectonics
1200:
1196:
1176:
1172:
1164:
1160:
1149:
1143:
1106:
1098:
1091:
1076:
1029:alkali feldspar
918:of basalt from
912:Photomicrograph
905:
885:back-arc basins
860:
856:
836:alkali feldspar
800:Mid-ocean ridge
771:oceanic islands
735:back-arc basins
712:tectonic forces
668:
652:Pliny the Elder
592:
581:
522:intrusive rocks
452:commonly use a
399:alkali feldspar
396:
332:
320:
222:(fine-grained)
191:
167:
158:
157:
144:
120:
111:
110:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8379:
8377:
8369:
8368:
8358:
8357:
8351:
8350:
8348:
8347:
8335:
8323:
8311:
8298:
8295:
8294:
8292:
8291:
8290:
8289:
8284:
8277:Volcanic field
8274:
8269:
8264:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8243:
8241:
8237:
8236:
8234:
8233:
8228:
8223:
8218:
8213:
8208:
8206:Trachyandesite
8203:
8198:
8193:
8188:
8183:
8178:
8173:
8168:
8163:
8158:
8153:
8148:
8143:
8138:
8133:
8128:
8123:
8118:
8113:
8108:
8103:
8098:
8093:
8087:
8085:
8083:Volcanic rocks
8079:
8078:
8071:
8069:
8067:
8066:
8061:
8056:
8051:
8046:
8041:
8036:
8031:
8026:
8024:Shield volcano
8021:
8016:
8011:
8006:
8004:Parasitic cone
8001:
7996:
7991:
7986:
7983:
7978:
7973:
7968:
7963:
7958:
7952:
7950:
7946:
7945:
7940:
7938:
7937:
7930:
7923:
7915:
7906:
7905:
7903:
7902:
7897:
7892:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7872:
7867:
7862:
7857:
7855:Rhomb porphyry
7852:
7847:
7842:
7837:
7832:
7827:
7822:
7817:
7812:
7807:
7802:
7797:
7792:
7787:
7782:
7777:
7772:
7767:
7762:
7757:
7752:
7747:
7742:
7737:
7732:
7726:
7724:
7720:
7719:
7717:
7716:
7711:
7706:
7705:
7704:
7697:Talc carbonate
7694:
7689:
7684:
7679:
7674:
7669:
7664:
7659:
7654:
7649:
7644:
7639:
7634:
7629:
7624:
7619:
7618:
7617:
7607:
7602:
7597:
7592:
7587:
7582:
7577:
7572:
7566:
7564:
7558:
7557:
7555:
7554:
7549:
7544:
7539:
7534:
7529:
7524:
7519:
7514:
7509:
7504:
7499:
7494:
7489:
7484:
7479:
7474:
7469:
7464:
7459:
7454:
7449:
7444:
7439:
7434:
7429:
7424:
7419:
7414:
7409:
7404:
7399:
7394:
7389:
7384:
7379:
7374:
7369:
7364:
7359:
7353:
7351:
7345:
7344:
7342:
7341:
7336:
7331:
7326:
7321:
7316:
7311:
7310:
7309:
7299:
7298:
7297:
7290:Trachyandesite
7287:
7282:
7277:
7272:
7267:
7262:
7257:
7252:
7247:
7246:
7245:
7240:
7230:
7225:
7220:
7215:
7213:Quartz diorite
7210:
7205:
7200:
7195:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7175:
7170:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7150:
7145:
7140:
7135:
7130:
7125:
7120:
7115:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7095:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7055:
7050:
7045:
7044:
7043:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7022:
7021:
7011:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6991:
6990:
6989:
6984:
6974:
6969:
6964:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6943:
6941:
6935:
6934:
6932:Types of rocks
6931:
6929:
6928:
6921:
6914:
6906:
6897:
6896:
6882:
6879:
6878:
6876:
6875:
6870:
6865:
6860:
6855:
6850:
6845:
6840:
6835:
6829:
6827:
6823:
6822:
6820:
6819:
6817:Picrite basalt
6814:
6809:
6804:
6799:
6794:
6789:
6783:
6781:
6777:
6776:
6774:
6773:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6752:
6750:
6746:
6745:
6743:
6742:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6721:
6719:
6715:
6714:
6708:
6706:
6705:
6698:
6691:
6683:
6674:
6673:
6669:
6668:
6653:
6651:
6636:
6634:
6619:
6617:
6602:
6600:
6591:Picrite basalt
6588:
6586:
6580:Plutonic rocks
6566:Volcanic rocks
6562:
6559:
6558:
6554:
6545:
6541:
6528:
6524:
6515:
6511:
6502:
6498:
6489:
6483:
6480:
6479:
6473:classified by
6468:
6466:
6465:
6458:
6451:
6443:
6437:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6404:
6402:Basalt Columns
6397:
6396:External links
6394:
6392:
6391:
6385:
6372:
6366:
6353:
6347:
6334:
6328:
6313:
6307:
6293:
6291:
6288:
6287:
6286:
6280:
6267:
6261:
6248:
6242:
6229:
6223:
6210:
6204:
6191:
6185:
6172:
6166:
6153:
6147:
6134:
6128:
6115:
6109:
6096:
6090:
6077:
6071:
6056:
6053:
6050:
6049:
5990:
5967:
5941:
5915:
5904:on 17 May 2019
5884:
5866:
5831:
5796:
5763:
5730:
5687:
5652:
5617:(2): 180–185.
5597:
5560:(1): 117–134.
5540:
5528:
5495:
5460:
5448:
5411:
5385:
5352:
5337:
5333:Battaglia 2019
5325:
5274:
5255:(2): 491–502.
5232:
5204:
5159:
5106:
5087:(2): 155–183.
5071:
5030:
4985:
4958:
4929:(6153): 1475.
4909:
4866:
4825:
4813:
4792:(1): 193–200.
4772:
4712:
4684:
4649:
4642:
4621:
4609:
4574:
4562:
4550:
4543:
4525:
4474:
4433:
4382:
4330:
4311:(4): 515–524.
4295:
4288:
4262:
4255:
4237:
4194:
4190:Schmincke 2003
4182:
4170:
4144:
4129:
4102:(6): 649–661.
4086:
4051:
4039:
4035:Schmincke 2003
4027:
4016:
3981:
3969:
3956:
3937:(2): 191–216.
3921:
3886:
3859:(2): 110–114.
3843:
3831:
3827:Schmincke 2003
3819:
3807:
3795:
3780:
3768:
3764:Schmincke 2003
3756:
3702:
3651:
3639:
3637:, p. 312.
3627:
3620:
3594:
3592:, p. 359.
3582:
3570:
3551:(5): 523–548.
3535:
3509:(1–4): 65–79.
3486:
3429:
3422:
3396:
3394:, p. 252.
3384:
3372:
3370:, p. 185.
3360:
3348:
3336:
3324:
3312:
3300:
3281:
3246:
3233:(3): 565–602.
3209:
3197:
3178:(1): 133–143.
3161:
3126:
3111:
3096:
3081:
3069:
3057:
3008:
2996:
2984:
2977:
2943:
2931:
2903:(4): 295–298.
2880:
2851:
2825:
2813:
2801:
2774:
2762:
2735:
2723:
2711:
2699:
2688:. 8 April 2015
2669:
2667:, p. 139.
2657:
2638:(2): 247–264.
2622:
2589:
2577:
2562:
2547:
2533:
2514:
2496:
2486:: 1–52. 1999.
2459:
2422:(5): 825–833.
2403:
2383:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2345:
2333:
2327:
2321:
2315:
2312:Shield volcano
2309:
2303:
2297:
2291:
2285:
2277:
2274:
2269:
2253:basalt yields
2249:. Heating and
2204:
2201:
2197:origin of life
2175:
2172:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2098:
2034:volcanic glass
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
1980:
1977:
1973:HED meteorites
1952:
1949:
1936:
1933:
1919:
1916:
1906:. Most of the
1898:, lack of the
1884:
1865:Apollo program
1861:flood basaltic
1832:
1829:
1800:
1797:
1716:Siberian Traps
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1612:Volcanic glass
1605:Atlantic Ocean
1599:The island of
1564:Main article:
1561:
1560:Pillow basalts
1558:
1533:Main article:
1530:
1527:
1457:Main article:
1454:
1451:
1419:Mount Tarawera
1411:volcanic gases
1338:Main article:
1335:
1332:
1303:
1300:
1273:Earth's mantle
1198:
1194:
1174:
1170:
1162:
1158:
1147:
1141:
1125:but less than
1104:
1096:
1089:
1075:
1072:
1017:Alkali basalts
904:
901:
900:
899:
888:
874:
858:
854:
847:
821:
820:
819:
818:
817:
814:
811:
797:
794:Emeishan Traps
716:partially melt
667:
664:
648:Stolpen castle
591:
588:
579:
498:of any of the
394:
389:(crystalline
330:
319:
316:
102:
101:
91:
87:
86:
69:
65:
64:
60:
59:
51:
50:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8378:
8367:
8364:
8363:
8361:
8346:
8345:
8336:
8334:
8333:
8328:
8324:
8322:
8321:
8312:
8310:
8309:
8300:
8299:
8296:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8280:
8279:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8272:Volcanic belt
8270:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8244:
8242:
8238:
8232:
8229:
8227:
8224:
8222:
8219:
8217:
8214:
8212:
8209:
8207:
8204:
8202:
8199:
8197:
8194:
8192:
8189:
8187:
8184:
8182:
8179:
8177:
8176:Phonotephrite
8174:
8172:
8169:
8167:
8164:
8162:
8159:
8157:
8154:
8152:
8149:
8147:
8144:
8142:
8139:
8137:
8134:
8132:
8129:
8127:
8124:
8122:
8119:
8117:
8114:
8112:
8109:
8107:
8104:
8102:
8099:
8097:
8094:
8092:
8089:
8088:
8086:
8084:
8080:
8075:
8065:
8062:
8060:
8059:Volcanic cone
8057:
8055:
8052:
8050:
8047:
8045:
8042:
8040:
8037:
8035:
8034:Stratovolcano
8032:
8030:
8029:Somma volcano
8027:
8025:
8022:
8020:
8019:Rootless cone
8017:
8015:
8012:
8010:
8007:
8005:
8002:
8000:
7997:
7995:
7992:
7990:
7987:
7984:
7982:
7979:
7977:
7974:
7972:
7969:
7967:
7964:
7962:
7959:
7957:
7954:
7953:
7951:
7947:
7943:
7936:
7931:
7929:
7924:
7922:
7917:
7916:
7913:
7901:
7898:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7888:
7886:
7883:
7881:
7878:
7876:
7873:
7871:
7868:
7866:
7863:
7861:
7858:
7856:
7853:
7851:
7848:
7846:
7843:
7841:
7838:
7836:
7833:
7831:
7828:
7826:
7823:
7821:
7818:
7816:
7815:Litchfieldite
7813:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7791:
7788:
7786:
7783:
7781:
7780:Hyaloclastite
7778:
7776:
7773:
7771:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7761:
7758:
7756:
7753:
7751:
7748:
7746:
7743:
7741:
7738:
7736:
7733:
7731:
7728:
7727:
7725:
7721:
7715:
7712:
7710:
7707:
7703:
7700:
7699:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7680:
7678:
7675:
7673:
7670:
7668:
7665:
7663:
7660:
7658:
7655:
7653:
7650:
7648:
7645:
7643:
7640:
7638:
7635:
7633:
7630:
7628:
7627:Litchfieldite
7625:
7623:
7620:
7616:
7613:
7612:
7611:
7608:
7606:
7603:
7601:
7598:
7596:
7593:
7591:
7588:
7586:
7583:
7581:
7578:
7576:
7573:
7571:
7568:
7567:
7565:
7563:
7559:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7545:
7543:
7540:
7538:
7535:
7533:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7513:
7510:
7508:
7505:
7503:
7500:
7498:
7495:
7493:
7490:
7488:
7485:
7483:
7480:
7478:
7475:
7473:
7470:
7468:
7465:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7455:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7445:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7433:
7430:
7428:
7425:
7423:
7420:
7418:
7415:
7413:
7410:
7408:
7405:
7403:
7400:
7398:
7395:
7393:
7390:
7388:
7385:
7383:
7380:
7378:
7375:
7373:
7370:
7368:
7365:
7363:
7360:
7358:
7355:
7354:
7352:
7350:
7346:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7332:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7308:
7305:
7304:
7303:
7300:
7296:
7293:
7292:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7278:
7276:
7273:
7271:
7268:
7266:
7263:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7253:
7251:
7248:
7244:
7241:
7239:
7236:
7235:
7234:
7231:
7229:
7226:
7224:
7221:
7219:
7216:
7214:
7211:
7209:
7206:
7204:
7201:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7189:
7188:Phonotephrite
7186:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7141:
7139:
7136:
7134:
7131:
7129:
7126:
7124:
7121:
7119:
7116:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7093:Hyaloclastite
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7042:
7039:
7038:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7020:
7017:
7016:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6988:
6985:
6983:
6980:
6979:
6978:
6975:
6973:
6970:
6968:
6965:
6963:
6960:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6944:
6942:
6940:
6936:
6927:
6922:
6920:
6915:
6913:
6908:
6907:
6904:
6894:
6893:
6888:
6880:
6874:
6871:
6869:
6866:
6864:
6861:
6859:
6856:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6841:
6839:
6836:
6834:
6831:
6830:
6828:
6824:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6798:
6797:Alkali basalt
6795:
6793:
6790:
6788:
6785:
6784:
6782:
6778:
6772:
6771:Pahoehoe lava
6769:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6761:Pillow basalt
6759:
6757:
6754:
6753:
6751:
6747:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6722:
6720:
6716:
6712:
6704:
6699:
6697:
6692:
6690:
6685:
6684:
6681:
6666:
6665:
6661:
6657:
6652:
6649:
6648:
6644:
6640:
6635:
6632:
6631:
6627:
6623:
6618:
6615:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6601:
6598:
6597:
6592:
6587:
6584:
6583:
6581:
6576:
6574:
6569:
6567:
6561:
6560:
6557:
6549:
6546:
6544:
6536:
6532:
6529:
6527:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6506:
6503:
6501:
6493:
6490:
6487:
6486:
6481:
6476:
6472:
6471:igneous rocks
6464:
6459:
6457:
6452:
6450:
6445:
6444:
6441:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6411:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6399:
6395:
6388:
6382:
6378:
6373:
6369:
6363:
6359:
6354:
6350:
6344:
6340:
6335:
6331:
6325:
6321:
6320:
6314:
6310:
6304:
6300:
6295:
6294:
6289:
6283:
6277:
6273:
6268:
6264:
6258:
6254:
6249:
6245:
6239:
6235:
6230:
6226:
6220:
6216:
6211:
6207:
6201:
6197:
6192:
6188:
6182:
6178:
6173:
6169:
6163:
6159:
6154:
6150:
6144:
6140:
6135:
6131:
6125:
6121:
6116:
6112:
6106:
6102:
6097:
6093:
6087:
6083:
6078:
6074:
6068:
6064:
6059:
6058:
6054:
6045:
6041:
6036:
6031:
6026:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6005:
6001:
5994:
5991:
5978:
5971:
5968:
5956:
5952:
5945:
5942:
5930:
5926:
5919:
5916:
5903:
5899:
5895:
5888:
5885:
5880:
5876:
5870:
5867:
5862:
5858:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5835:
5832:
5827:
5823:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5800:
5797:
5791:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5767:
5764:
5758:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5734:
5731:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5691:
5688:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5667:
5663:
5656:
5653:
5648:
5644:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5601:
5598:
5593:
5589:
5585:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5551:
5544:
5541:
5538:, chapter 22.
5537:
5532:
5529:
5523:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5506:
5499:
5496:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5464:
5461:
5457:
5452:
5449:
5433:
5429:
5422:
5415:
5412:
5399:
5395:
5389:
5386:
5378:
5374:
5370:
5363:
5356:
5353:
5349:
5344:
5342:
5338:
5334:
5329:
5326:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5278:
5275:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5239:
5237:
5233:
5228:
5224:
5217:
5216:
5208:
5205:
5199:
5194:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5170:
5163:
5160:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5110:
5107:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5075:
5072:
5066:
5061:
5057:
5053:
5050:(1): 95–103.
5049:
5045:
5041:
5034:
5031:
5025:
5020:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4989:
4986:
4973:
4969:
4962:
4959:
4954:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4913:
4910:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4870:
4867:
4861:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4829:
4826:
4822:
4817:
4814:
4808:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4776:
4773:
4768:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4716:
4713:
4701:
4700:
4695:
4688:
4685:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4665:(1): 83–219.
4664:
4660:
4653:
4650:
4645:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4625:
4622:
4618:
4613:
4610:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4585:
4578:
4575:
4571:
4566:
4563:
4559:
4554:
4551:
4546:
4540:
4536:
4529:
4526:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4478:
4475:
4469:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4437:
4434:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4386:
4383:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4334:
4331:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4299:
4296:
4291:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4266:
4263:
4258:
4252:
4248:
4241:
4238:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4198:
4195:
4192:, p. 91.
4191:
4186:
4183:
4179:
4174:
4171:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4145:
4141:
4136:
4134:
4130:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4090:
4087:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4055:
4052:
4048:
4043:
4040:
4037:, p. 64.
4036:
4031:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4017:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3985:
3982:
3978:
3973:
3970:
3966:
3960:
3957:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3925:
3922:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3890:
3887:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3847:
3844:
3841:, p. 64.
3840:
3835:
3832:
3829:, Chapter 12.
3828:
3823:
3820:
3817:, p. 41.
3816:
3811:
3808:
3804:
3799:
3796:
3792:
3787:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3772:
3769:
3765:
3760:
3757:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3717:
3713:
3712:Sun-Lin Chung
3706:
3703:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3655:
3652:
3649:, Chapter 13.
3648:
3643:
3640:
3636:
3631:
3628:
3623:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3598:
3595:
3591:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3574:
3571:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3539:
3536:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3497:
3490:
3487:
3482:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3433:
3430:
3425:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3400:
3397:
3393:
3388:
3385:
3381:
3380:McBirney 1984
3376:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3361:
3358:, p. 62.
3357:
3352:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3332:Crawford 1989
3328:
3325:
3321:
3316:
3313:
3309:
3304:
3301:
3298:, p. 75.
3297:
3292:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3282:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3250:
3247:
3241:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3213:
3210:
3206:
3201:
3198:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3165:
3162:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3070:
3066:
3061:
3058:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3012:
3009:
3005:
3000:
2997:
2993:
2988:
2985:
2980:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2947:
2944:
2940:
2935:
2932:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2884:
2881:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2855:
2852:
2839:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2822:
2817:
2814:
2810:
2805:
2802:
2789:
2785:
2778:
2775:
2771:
2766:
2763:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2712:
2709:, p. 22.
2708:
2703:
2700:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2670:
2666:
2661:
2658:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2623:
2617:
2616:10.14509/2269
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2593:
2590:
2587:, p. 63.
2586:
2581:
2578:
2575:, p. 57.
2574:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2543:
2537:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2521:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2500:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2468:
2466:
2464:
2460:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2387:
2384:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2369:
2364:
2358:
2355:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2273:
2266:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2232:
2214:
2209:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2189:oceanic crust
2186:
2182:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2131:
2128:
2123:
2116:
2114:
2108:
2101:
2094:
2093:acidification
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2021:
2016:
2008:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1890:
1882:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1767:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1664:
1660:
1659:Faroe Islands
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1637:
1629:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1590:littoral cone
1587:
1583:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1567:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1541:
1536:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1523:basalt prisms
1520:
1515:
1511:
1503:
1498:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1460:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1341:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1308:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1285:mantle plumes
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1227:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1167:
1165:
1154:
1150:
1139:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1100:
1092:
1085:
1081:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
983:orthopyroxene
980:
976:
971:
969:
968:paleomagnetic
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
921:
917:
913:
909:
902:
897:
892:
889:
886:
882:
878:
875:
872:
871:volcanic arcs
868:
864:
852:
848:
845:
841:
837:
833:
832:feldspathoids
829:
825:
824:Alkali basalt
822:
815:
812:
808:
807:
805:
801:
798:
795:
791:
787:
783:
782:
780:
776:
775:flood basalts
772:
768:
764:
760:
759:alkali metals
756:
752:
749:
748:
747:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
719:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
689:
684:
677:
672:
665:
663:
660:
659:
653:
649:
646:
642:
641:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
611:Ancient Greek
608:
604:
600:
597:
589:
587:
585:
577:
573:
572:asthenosphere
569:
566:
562:
558:
549:
545:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
514:
512:
508:
503:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
476:
474:
470:
466:
461:
459:
455:
454:rule of thumb
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
430:
428:
424:
418:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
392:
388:
384:
380:
372:
367:
360:
356:
355:Sunset Crater
351:
344:
339:
328:
324:
317:
315:
313:
309:
305:
300:
298:
297:Flood basalts
294:
289:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
262:volcanic rock
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
232:
228:
225:
221:
215:
161:
153:
114:
108:
100:
96:
95:feldspathoids
92:
88:
85:
81:
77:
73:
70:
66:
61:
57:
52:
49:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
18:Pillow basalt
8342:
8330:
8318:
8306:
8267:Volcanic arc
8211:Trachybasalt
8100:
8049:Supervolcano
7981:Fissure vent
7825:Luxullianite
7805:Lapis lazuli
7750:Blue Granite
7677:Serpentinite
7652:Metapsammite
7402:Conglomerate
7324:Trondhjemite
7302:Trachybasalt
7243:Pantellerite
7143:Monzogranite
7088:Hornblendite
7073:Granodiorite
6971:
6939:Igneous rock
6883:
6868:Cristobalite
6802:Trachybasalt
6725:Flood basalt
6710:
6660:Microgranite
6654:
6647:Granodiorite
6637:
6626:Microdiorite
6620:
6604:
6603:
6589:
6578:
6571:
6564:
6563:
6531:Intermediate
6518:Intermediate
6376:
6357:
6338:
6318:
6298:
6271:
6252:
6233:
6214:
6195:
6176:
6157:
6138:
6119:
6100:
6081:
6062:
6007:
6003:
5993:
5981:. Retrieved
5970:
5958:. Retrieved
5954:
5944:
5932:. Retrieved
5928:
5918:
5906:. Retrieved
5902:the original
5897:
5887:
5878:
5869:
5844:
5840:
5834:
5809:
5805:
5799:
5780:
5776:
5766:
5750:(1): 75–84.
5747:
5743:
5733:
5700:
5696:
5690:
5665:
5661:
5655:
5614:
5610:
5600:
5557:
5553:
5543:
5531:
5515:(B12): n/a.
5512:
5508:
5498:
5473:
5469:
5463:
5451:
5439:. Retrieved
5427:
5414:
5402:. Retrieved
5397:
5388:
5372:
5368:
5355:
5328:
5287:
5283:
5277:
5252:
5248:
5214:
5207:
5180:
5176:
5162:
5122:(1): 77–90.
5119:
5115:
5109:
5084:
5081:Geochemistry
5080:
5074:
5047:
5043:
5033:
5006:
5002:
4988:
4976:. Retrieved
4971:
4961:
4926:
4922:
4912:
4879:
4875:
4869:
4842:
4838:
4828:
4816:
4789:
4785:
4775:
4730:
4726:
4715:
4703:. Retrieved
4697:
4687:
4662:
4658:
4652:
4633:
4624:
4612:
4587:
4583:
4577:
4565:
4553:
4534:
4528:
4487:
4483:
4477:
4450:
4446:
4436:
4395:
4391:
4385:
4344:
4340:
4333:
4308:
4304:
4298:
4271:
4265:
4246:
4240:
4207:
4203:
4197:
4185:
4173:
4161:. Retrieved
4156:
4147:
4099:
4095:
4089:
4064:
4060:
4054:
4042:
4030:
4019:
3994:
3990:
3984:
3972:
3964:
3959:
3934:
3930:
3924:
3902:(1): 59–99.
3899:
3895:
3889:
3856:
3852:
3846:
3834:
3822:
3810:
3798:
3771:
3759:
3726:
3722:
3705:
3664:
3660:
3654:
3642:
3630:
3603:
3597:
3585:
3573:
3548:
3544:
3538:
3506:
3502:
3489:
3446:
3442:
3432:
3405:
3399:
3387:
3375:
3363:
3351:
3339:
3327:
3315:
3303:
3259:
3255:
3249:
3230:
3226:
3212:
3200:
3175:
3171:
3164:
3139:
3135:
3129:
3072:
3060:
3025:
3021:
3011:
2999:
2987:
2952:
2946:
2934:
2922:. Retrieved
2900:
2896:
2883:
2864:
2854:
2842:. Retrieved
2837:
2828:
2816:
2804:
2792:. Retrieved
2787:
2782:Jones, C.E.
2777:
2765:
2753:. Retrieved
2749:Hyperphysics
2748:
2738:
2726:
2714:
2702:
2690:. Retrieved
2681:
2672:
2660:
2635:
2631:
2625:
2606:
2602:
2592:
2580:
2558:Hyndman 1985
2536:
2509:the original
2499:
2483:
2479:
2419:
2415:
2395:
2386:
2378:the original
2366:
2357:
2324:Sideromelane
2288:Basalt fiber
2263:
2243:cobblestones
2236:
2177:
2161:hydrothermal
2158:
2154:metamorphism
2135:
2117:Metamorphism
2074:
2026:
1996:
1988:
1982:
1969:Dawn mission
1955:Analysis of
1954:
1938:
1921:
1893:
1877:
1869:Luna program
1850:
1802:
1781:metamorphism
1770:
1763:
1727:flood basalt
1712:Paraná Traps
1692:Deccan Traps
1681:
1673:Paraná Traps
1647:ocean ridges
1638:portions of
1633:
1625:Distribution
1616:
1610:
1598:
1593:
1585:
1579:
1577:
1571:
1569:
1546:
1507:
1435:crystallized
1428:
1413:. Hawaiʻi's
1399:
1381:
1365:cinder cones
1362:
1343:
1313:
1289:
1243:
1226:incompatible
1222:
1203:
1187:feldspathoid
1168:
1135:
1131:trachybasalt
1077:
1074:Geochemistry
1068:primary melt
1064:
1053:
1015:
1006:
1003:cristobalite
977:, pyroxene (
972:
925:
916:thin section
895:
777:such as the
757:and poor in
743:mantle wedge
720:
693:
654:in AD 77 in
638:
626:
618:
614:
602:
598:
593:
563:, and early
554:
517:
515:
504:
477:
462:
442:leucobasalts
441:
431:
419:
407:feldspathoid
383:igneous rock
376:
327:QAPF diagram
308:upper mantle
301:
290:
270:Solar System
254:rocky planet
227:igneous rock
106:
105:
47:Igneous rock
45:
36:
8344:WikiProject
8287:polygenetic
8282:monogenetic
8161:Nephelinite
8116:Blairmorite
8091:Agglomerate
7999:Mud volcano
7971:Cryovolcano
7961:Cinder cone
7714:Whiteschist
7605:Greenschist
7585:Cataclasite
7575:Amphibolite
7502:Phosphorite
7452:Itacolumite
7377:Calcarenite
7223:Quartzolite
7158:Nephelinite
7128:Lamprophyre
7083:Harzburgite
7041:Napoleonite
7014:Charnockite
7009:Carbonatite
6999:Blairmorite
6962:Anorthosite
6843:Plagioclase
5960:10 December
5934:10 December
5908:17 December
4733:(1): 8880.
4705:29 December
4590:: 106–116.
4049:, p. .
3979:, p. .
3815:Lillie 2005
3766:, p. .
3449:(1): 1–15.
3334:, p. .
3028:(4): 1012.
2867:: 295–298.
2834:"Komatiite"
2560:, p. .
2146:amphibolite
2142:greenschist
1857:lunar maria
1773:Precambrian
1608:behaviour.
1566:Pillow lava
1514:contraction
1437:species of
1406:pyroclastic
1369:vesiculated
1356:or cinder (
1346:subaerially
1277:noble gases
1151:, 5–14 wt%
1115:picrobasalt
1086:and low in
1021:labradorite
944:iron oxides
863:plagioclase
613:βασανίτης (
565:Proterozoic
555:During the
484:phenocrysts
480:porphyritic
458:color index
403:plagioclase
357:, Arizona.
278:lunar maria
76:plagioclase
63:Composition
8186:Rhyodacite
8136:Ignimbrite
8111:Benmoreite
7880:Teschenite
7865:Shonkinite
7840:Pietersite
7835:Novaculite
7745:Borolanite
7730:Adamellite
7647:Metapelite
7615:Calcflinta
7580:Blueschist
7570:Anthracite
7552:Wackestone
7532:Travertine
7477:Lumachelle
7457:Jaspillite
7412:Diamictite
7334:Websterite
7319:Troctolite
7295:Benmoreite
7255:Shonkinite
7228:Rhyodacite
7208:Pyroxenite
7178:Peridotite
7138:Lherzolite
7113:Kimberlite
7103:Ignimbrite
7098:Icelandite
7078:Granophyre
6987:Shoshonite
6596:Peridotite
6492:Ultramafic
5983:4 November
5979:. Mongabay
5812:(1): 3–8.
5783:: 106318.
4821:Lucey 2006
4453:(2): n/a.
3368:Levin 2010
3356:Levin 2010
3065:Stern 2002
2809:Levin 2010
2585:Levin 2010
2349:References
2255:stone wool
2241:), making
2239:groundwork
2015:Weathering
2013:See also:
2009:Weathering
1847:astronauts
1789:actinolite
1735:Washington
1619:subglacial
1489:basalt in
1463:See also:
1395:Lava tubes
1391:lava lakes
1296:pyroxenite
1292:peridotite
1279:, such as
1247:ratios of
1206:lanthanide
1047:mica, and
1045:phlogopite
1011:groundmass
995:groundmass
952:ulvöspinel
896:undepleted
879:is a high-
844:kaersutite
840:phlogopite
725:zones, at
623:touchstone
596:Late Latin
584:komatiites
576:ultramafic
538:hypabyssal
526:phaneritic
379:Geologists
359:US quarter
282:lava flows
93:Sometimes
8171:Phonolite
8156:Leucitite
8141:Komatiite
7989:Lava dome
7985:Lava cone
7942:Volcanoes
7895:Variolite
7885:Theralite
7875:Tachylite
7860:Rodingite
7830:Mangerite
7810:Larvikite
7795:Jasperoid
7790:Jadeitite
7755:Epidosite
7709:Tectonite
7702:Soapstone
7667:Quartzite
7637:Migmatite
7622:Itabirite
7600:Granulite
7542:Turbidite
7522:Sylvinite
7517:Siltstone
7507:Sandstone
7492:Oil shale
7472:Limestone
7447:Gritstone
7442:Greywacke
7437:Geyserite
7427:Evaporite
7417:Diatomite
7392:Claystone
7357:Argillite
7270:Tachylyte
7238:Comendite
7183:Phonolite
7173:Pegmatite
7148:Monzonite
7123:Lamproite
7118:Komatiite
7058:Foidolite
7019:Enderbite
6982:Mugearite
6873:Tridymite
6853:Magnetite
6848:Amphibole
6812:Mugearite
6709:Types of
6299:Volcanoes
6272:Volcanism
6236:. Wiley.
6101:Boninites
5847:: 79–87.
5826:192232554
5592:130626915
5584:0305-8719
5441:13 August
5430:. 87–15.
5404:13 August
5129:0807.3951
4972:Space.com
4904:126225959
4124:129242411
3881:131237003
2924:19 August
2743:Nave, R.
2609:: PR 88.
2432:CiteSeerX
2300:Plutonism
2251:extruding
2085:magnesium
2064:known as
2054:kaolinite
1904:hydration
1900:oxidation
1845:Apollo 15
1485:Columnar
1415:Mauna Loa
1400:Basaltic
1257:neodymium
1253:strontium
1230:chondrite
1183:magnesium
1179:boninites
1123:tephrites
1119:basanites
1117:and most
1037:nepheline
999:tridymite
987:pigeonite
948:magnetite
922:, Ukraine
920:Bazaltove
903:Petrology
881:magnesium
763:aluminium
733:, and in
690:, Ukraine
688:Bazaltove
615:basanites
603:basanites
590:Etymology
516:The term
415:aphanitic
381:classify
302:Basaltic
238:magnesium
231:viscosity
224:extrusive
220:aphanitic
90:Secondary
80:amphibole
8360:Category
8308:Category
8216:Trachyte
8191:Rhyolite
8166:Obsidian
8096:Andesite
7870:Taconite
7845:Pyrolite
7770:Ganister
7740:Aphanite
7735:Appinite
7657:Phyllite
7642:Mylonite
7610:Hornfels
7590:Eclogite
7487:Mudstone
7462:Laterite
7422:Dolomite
7339:Wehrlite
7314:Trachyte
7307:Hawaiite
7285:Tonalite
7280:Tephrite
7233:Rhyolite
7198:Porphyry
7168:Obsidian
7053:Essexite
7004:Boninite
6994:Basanite
6952:Andesite
6858:Ilmenite
6838:Pyroxene
6807:Hawaiite
6656:Rhyolite
6622:Andesite
6551:>69%
6495:<45%
6410:Archived
6044:18626013
5717:18820700
5682:17410610
5639:12700150
5432:Archived
5377:Archived
5320:28222050
5154:38925782
4978:24 March
4953:24072916
4767:26694712
4512:17788655
4420:17779134
4377:43246541
4369:17794593
4153:"Basalt"
3751:17395795
3689:16121171
3527:Archived
3481:24019580
3052:15347100
2915:Archived
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2678:"Basalt"
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2181:bacteria
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2029:outcrops
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1377:pyroxene
1328:Hawaiian
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1251:such as
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1056:liquidus
1041:sodalite
1025:andesine
964:magnetic
956:ilmenite
940:minerals
932:pyroxene
928:feldspar
877:Boninite
792:and the
786:titanium
729:, above
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542:plutonic
507:vesicles
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7407:Coquina
7372:Breccia
7265:Syenite
7193:Picrite
7108:Ijolite
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7036:Diorite
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