206:, widely considered to be the ancestors of the O’odham, would inhabit the region from approximately AD 500 to AD 1450. While each indigenous group native to the Pimería Alta had its own cultural idiosyncrasies, it can be generalized that those residing in the region were mostly semi-nomadic, relied on crops such as beans, squash and maize to subsist in addition to wild native plants, and were master artisans and pottery makers. There is evidence that those in the region also participated in trade networks that spanned hundreds of kilometers. For instance, evidence indicates trade initiating in the region was done as far west as the Gulf of California and as far south as Central Mexico. Items traded included (but were not limited to) copper bells, precious stones, and shells. Besides settlement of the region by the ancestors of groups such as the Hohokam, this region would also become occupied by
439:, the government's policy involved the three tenants of “individual landholding, compulsory education, and religious replacement”. Prior Mexican residents of the region staked out their claim within US settlements, despite the existence of legal racial barriers. Significantly, the landholding claims of Mexican settlers in the region were, while technically respected under the clauses of the Gadsden Purchase, frequently violated and conceded to Anglo-settlers. US settlement in the region was followed by later settlement by African-Americans, Chinese, and other migrant groups who would become attracted to the region's economic opportunities brought on in part by the copper mining boom of the late 19th century and by increased agricultural development in the region. Reservations continue to be a facet of life for many Indian nations in the US and their members to the present-day.
388:
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came in contrast to the settlements and presidios in the region, many of which kept expanding throughout the colonial period and into the independence period (often at the expense of the missions). Upon the decline of mission settlements, many of the indigenous peoples whose communities were based around the physical and administrative structure of the mission found their lands increasingly encroached upon by private
Spanish interests. The expansion of Spanish private land claims often came at the expense of the historic right to commons that characterized indigenous life on missions. Despite this change, several indigenous communities continued to work the land originally allocated to them while living on the mission. As Radding points out:
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which both hypothetically granted political rights to indigenous peoples of the region while simultaneously stripping them of their political status as ‘Indians’. The second meant attempts to assimilate indigenous peoples into the local
Mexican political system, followed thirdly by distribution of small, individual land plots to indigenous families. These policies collectively went against practices established by missionaries in the colonial period, such as communal agricultural production and political organization with a relative degree of autonomy from Spanish authorities. When these policies failed, the Mexican state often used deportations of indigenous peoples of the region (see
354:). Attempts at agricultural production here were common, and haciendas were often worked by native indigenous workers. Agricultural production was accompanied with efforts to graze cattle in the region and small-scale mining efforts. However, in part due to the scarcity of water, large-scale flooding, and the geography of the desert region, these efforts never produced as much comparable wealth as other parts of New Spain further south. Because of this, these efforts proved to be of relatively little economic significance to the crown.
235:). The missions of the Pimería Alta had several functions. While proselytizing to indigenous people was one, it also served as a place where the previously nomadic people of the region were settled into sedentary, agricultural lifestyles and became influenced by Spanish religion and culture, at the behest of the Jesuits. Relatedly, the converted indigenous people became a source of economic support for the missions through their labor (directed by missionaries), which was necessary to the success of the mission.
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492:, the second largest Indian reservation in Arizona, is situated in this region, as are the physical vestiges of mission structures and several presidios in both Arizona and Sonora. The ecological impact of European and American colonization in the region has been heavy, with many sources of water (including rivers) having dried out over time due to overuse, manipulation of the environment, and climate change.
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419:) to other parts of the country as a last response to resistance. This response by the Mexican government was coupled with active military aggression. Only in the early 20th century did Mexican government policy shift to include more co-operational approaches to indigenous communities, shifting away from the attempts to institute ‘democratic individualism’ in the 19th century.
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to handle the weapons with certainty, of all their great numbers, and obstinate rage with which they wanted to drink their blood, and to the fathers Jacobo
Sedelmayr and the padre rector Juan Nentuig they attacked for two days the house of the missionary of Tubutama, until leaving it with its new and well-built church reduced to rubble.
431:, with the southern portion remaining part of Mexico. The relationship of the US government towards the native residents of the Pimería Alta was radically different from that of the Mexican government. The main tenet of US policy was the forced settlement of indigenous peoples on government demarcated
412:
As scholar Edward H. Spencer has articulated, Mexican government policies towards indigenous peoples in the region could be grouped into three categories, all of which had as their primary goal assimilation of indigenous people into
Mexican society. The first involved granting of Mexican citizenship,
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Even prior to the settlement of these groups in what would come to be the Pimería Alta, humans had settled in the region more than three thousand years before. According to archaeological records, settlements and irrigation canals have been found in the river valleys of the region as far back as 2100
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In valor all of the Pimas are very inferior to the Opatas, since often only their large numbers fill them with audacity and daring, which has been seen clearly in their last, numerously cited uprising in 1751, when first only ten men defended themselves, and of these half of them without knowing how
264:
both entrenched
Spanish control while also granting indigenous peoples living on missions a certain degree of autonomy within the colonial structure. This fact is also significant since, while Jesuit missionaries were the administrators of indigenous lands, they were not the legal proprietors. Under
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Much of the Pimería Alta region spans the
Sonoran Desert, one of the most ecologically diverse and wettest deserts in the world. Cultural and economic exchanges across national frontiers persisted even after US incorporation of the northern Pimeria Alta region, especially as the result of migration
346:
Significantly, however, not all indigenous peoples openly rebelled against
Spanish colonization. Many indigenous peoples in the Pimeria Alta found ways to adapt within the new conditions imposed by Spanish settlement and conquest and made use of official institutions to seek redress when necessary.
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En el valor son todos los pimas muy inferiores a los ópatas, pues solo su número suele a veces infundirles osadía y atrevimiento, lo que se ha visto claramente en su último ya varias veces citado alzamiento de 1751, cuando primero solo se defendieron solo diez hombres, y de estos la mitad sin saber
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of the late colonial period. Many of the missions previously run by the
Jesuits were turned over to members of the secular clergy. Despite this change in administration, the missions underwent a general state of decline in both structure and in the number of indigenous peoples rooted to them. This
219:
While the southern section of the
Sonoran province of New Spain (or Pimería Baja) had been explored by missionaries and begun to be settled by colonists at the first half of the 17th century, incursions into the Pimería Alta can be traced to several decades later. The first known Spanish incursion
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From the mountain peaks they are able to do whatever they wish, and the
Spaniards are unable to punish them because the rebels have united for this purpose on these fronteirs and those of Sonora. We have seen the pride of these tribes , and we have also seen that due to their instigation the Pima
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Despite the local character of the economy of the Pimería Alta, the social stratification increasingly produced by Spanish private land claims and associated enterprises (agricultural production, cattle grazing, and small-scale mining) created a division between Spanish hacendados and indigenous
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he mission system in the Pimería Alta had two fundamental duties: to represent the Spanish Crown and convert native groups to Christianity. Throughout their history, these missions relied on Native American labor for economic support. As the Pimería Alta became more economically and politically
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The primary response to native resistance was force. This was best manifested in Spanish military expeditions into the region (sent from further south), of which the establishment of presidios (or military fortifications) were a fundamental component. In the region, a total of 8 presidios were
282:
Despite the initial success of several missions in the area at converting indigenous peoples to Christianity and turning them to sedentary lifestyles, the incursion of the Spanish in the region was oftentimes met with native resistance. A clear example of this is in the fear expressed by many
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modeled on Hispanic norms of municipal government and carrying canes of office as insignia of their authority, enforced law and order in the mission pueblos. Missionaries governed through the councils, in a form of indirect rule, and their presence was indispensable in implementing religious
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The impact of colonization in the region cannot be overestimated. Through its inhabitants, remnants of Spanish and native indigenous cultural customs would become a part of life in the Pimería Alta even after the end of the colonial period in 1821. Many of the customs and economic practices
361:
Provincial markets remained small and basically local in scope, shifting with different mining bonanzas. The slow and uneven growth of marketing networks in Sonora, in contrast with Nueva Vizcaya and Nueva Galicia where urban centers developed more steadily, retarded the advance of private
104:) to designate an ethno-territorial expanse that spanned much of what is now southern Arizona and northern Sonora. The term derives from the name of the Pima indigenous peoples native to the region. This term, along with the term ‘Pimería Baja’, was a designation used by the Spanish in the
426:
in 1848, the Pimería Alta remained part of Mexican state of Sonora and the region continued to be impacted by Mexican political reforms. It was not until 1853 with the signing of the Gadsden Purchase that the northern portion of what was the Pimería Alta was incorporated into the
342:
Indians have frequently rebelled against the royal crown, killing the missionary padres of the Society of Jesus, some Spaniards, and some natives of this same province. (Note: the Pima rebellions happened independently of those occurring in the eastern Pimería Alta.)
435:, physically separate from US settlements at large. This approach was in line with patterns of settlement by Anglo-Americans in the newly incorporated Southwestern territories, which alienated indigenous peoples from their prior landholdings. Through the
396:
peasants. This was compounded by the fact that landholding (in turn determined by access to water) became “an instrument of social control.” The problems that this stratification produced proceeded well into the independence period.
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beginning in the 17th century, whose presence would be detailed in Spanish colonial documents recounting the first expeditions northward. The remains of many pre-contact indigenous settlements in the area persist to this day.
141:
Before the first Spanish incursions into the region in the late 17th century, what would come to be the Pimería Alta was home to a diverse array of indigenous tribes. Upon the arrival of the Spaniards, these tribes included:
336:
An example of an account depicting such a military expedition is from a campaign journal written by Spanish commanders embarking on a military expedition against the Pimas in the Pimería Alta for four months in 1695:
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characteristic of the region would become entrenched into the independence period. Still it is important to reflect on the differences brought about during both the Mexican independence period and the US after the
238:
Within the framework of the missions, indigenous peoples were not only instruments of colonization, but also had access to a certain degree of authority within native councils based on these missions, termed
228:
sent to the region to establish various missionary settlements, began establishing what would come to be a network of over a dozen missions in the region, not all of which are solely attributable to him (see
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important to colonial efforts in the early 1700s, settlements and military posts called presidios were also established by colonial administrators, as were mining enterprises and small support settlements.
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established during the colonial period as a direct response to raids by the Apache and Seris in the region. These presidios often served as a precursor to permanent settlements (as was the case with the
108:
to create a geographic distinction between where the different dialects of the Pima language were spoken. While the region was not a political entity, its geographic contours have been described as:
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The Jesuit missions of the Pimeria Alta functioned as a fundamental part of Spanish settlement and colonization in the region. In the words of scholars John G. Douglass and William M. Graves:
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As the region became increasingly colonized by the Spanish settlers, they began to establish themselves around increasingly sparse water-bound areas (especially on the riverine areas of the
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maintained by community labor. These walled adobe villages, situated on terraces overlooking the riverbed, conserved their pre-Hispanic legacy, reinforced by the mission experience.
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observance and work discipline; that is, for Christian indoctrination and the production of surpluses destined for circulation among the missions and for sale in colonial markets.
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patterns. This exchange persisted despite US restrictions on cross-border economic exchanges and migration, many of which were first implemented in the early 20th century (see
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In the 1790s, nearly a quarter century after the expulsion of the Jesuits, Opata family milpas and village laborers were irrigated from the same network of earthen
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y padre rector Juan Nentuig asaltaron por dos días la casa del misionero de Tubutama, hasta dejarla con su nueva y bien alhajada iglesia reducida en cenizas...
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530:
Douglass, John G.; Graves, William M. (2017), "New Mexico and the Pimería Alta: A Brief Introduction to the Colonial Period in the American Southwest",
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Albrecht Classen, "Transcultural Encounters: German Jesuit Missionaries in the Pimería Alta," in Martinson, Steven D. / Schulz, Renate A. (eds./Hrsg.),
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Adding to this was the local nature of economic production and exchange in the region throughout the colonial period. As noted by Cynthia Radding:
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Detailed map of presidio and mission sites in the Pimería Alta can be found on the National Park Service website (with links to all the sites) at
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Teja, Jesús F. de la; Frank, Ross; Radding, Radding Murrieta, Cynthia (2005). "The Común, Local Governance, and Defiance in Colonial Sonora".
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Spaniards – missionaries, colonists, and military men alike – of Apache raids throughout the time period. These raids, along with occasional
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197:. Produced by the Hohokam, it is one example of pre-contact indigenous settlements in the region built before the Colonial period.
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1955:
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224:, who in 1687 settled his first mission, Nuestra Señora de los Dolores de Cósari, in what is now northern Sonora. Father Kino, a
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Additionally, it was not uncommon for indigenous peoples on missions to be attacked during Apache raids against the Spanish.
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manejar las armas con acierto, de todo su gran numero, y porfiada rabia con que quisieron beberles la sangre, y a los padres
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In the words of a Spanish traveler recounting his observations of the region during the second half of the 18th century:
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2013:
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Cycles of Conquest : the Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on Indians of the Southwest, 1533–1960
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Cycles of Conquest : the Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on Indians of the Southwest, 1533–1960
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reservations) as well as those who settled in the region from the colonial period to the present day. Today, the
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Wandering peoples : colonialism, ethnic spaces, and ecological frontiers in northwestern Mexico, 1700–1850
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654:"Nuestra Señora de los Dolores de Cósari – Tumacácori National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)"
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723:. Descripción geográfica, natural y curiosa de la Provincia de Sonora, 1764. México: SEP INAH. p. 78.
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near Tucson, Arizona. It is one of several missions founded in the Pimería Alta that continue to function.
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2003:
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The term Pimería Alta first appeared in Spanish colonial documents (especially produced by those in the
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505:(Bern etc., Peter Lang, 2008) (Jahrbuch für Internationale Germanistik, Reihe A: Kongressberichte, 94),
472:). Also present is the persistent cultural influence of indigenous peoples (including those within the
33:(translated to 'Upper Pima Land'/'Land of the Upper Pima' in English) was an area of the 18th century
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the mission structure, these lands were still legally tied to the indigenous peoples of the mission.
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162:, or Pee Posh). Neighboring groups along the region’s periphery included Jocomes, Apaches, Yumas (
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Nentvig, Juan; Flores, América.; Martínez Peñaloza, Teresa.; Nolasco Armas, Margarita. (1977).
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The Presidio and militia on the northern frontier of New Spain : a documentary history
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Choice, persuasion, and coercion : social control on Spain's North American frontiers
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El rudo ensayo: descripción geográfica, natural y curiosa de la Provincia de Sonora, 1764
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Transcultural German Studies / Deutsch als Fremdsprache: Building Bridges / Brücken bauen
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792:. A Social and Legal History, 1550–1850. University of Arizona Press. pp. 75–102.
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Map of the Pimería Alta, 1687-1711 (historical map produced by Herbert E. Bolton, 1918)
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Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)
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New Mexico and the Pimería Alta: The Colonial Period in the American Southwest
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565:"Places – Tumacácori National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)"
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U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Pimeria Alta
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The landscape of Spanish colonization in the region changed upon the
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859:(Tenth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 314.
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Radding Murrieta, Cynthia (1997). "Land and the Indian Camlin".
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987:
916:
Spicer, Edward Holland (1962). "The Anglo-American Program".
154:, and Gileños (Akimel O’odham); Sobas and Areneños (possibly
287:, made the region a hostile place for Spanish colonization.
629:"Tucson Underground: The Archaeology of a Desert Community"
834:. Latin America otherwise. Durham: Duke University Press.
590:"The Structure and Organization of Hohokam Shell Exchange"
247:
Indigenous officers of these councils, bearing titles of
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in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. A significant
744:
https://www.nps.gov/tuma/learn/historyculture/places.htm
588:
McGuire, Randall H.; Howard, Ann Valdo (January 1987).
883:
Spicer, Edward Holland (1962). "The Mexican Program".
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Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France
16:
Viceroyalty of New Spain area now called Pimeria Alta
786:"The Social, Economic, and Military Impact of Water"
41:, that encompassed parts of what are today southern
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158:); and the Yuman-speaking Coco-maricopas and Opas (
146:Pápagos (now considered a derogatory term for the
855:Johnson, Lyman L.; Burkholder, Mark A. (2019).
684:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
377:
359:
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759:Naylor, Thomas H.; Polzer, Charles W. (1986).
1518:, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)
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8:
1193:Independence of Spanish continental Americas
704:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
534:, University Press of Colorado, p. 25,
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370:in 1767, a change widely grouped with the
3312:Colonial universities in Hispanic America
627:H. Doelle, William (Winter–Spring 2010).
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523:
521:
519:
3317:Colonial universities in the Philippines
18:
2308:Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia
920:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
887:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
763:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
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92:against Spanish rule occurred in 1751.
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232:Spanish missions in the Sonoran Desert
78:Spanish missions in the Sonoran Desert
23:Spanish missions in the Sonoran Desert
7:
1589:Captaincy General of the Philippines
1081:New Laws in favour of the indigenous
3292:Indochristian painting in New Spain
269:Colonial period of the Pimería Alta
191:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument
76:. Pimería Alta was the site of the
2259:Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires
14:
1233:Independence of Equatorial Guinea
243:. As Cynthia Radding points out:
3411:Pre-statehood history of Arizona
3344:Criollos in the colonial society
3272:Spanish missions in the Americas
2394:Charles Bonaventure de Longueval
60:The area took its name from the
3371:Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649
790:Water in the Hispanic Southwest
331:Presidio San Agustín del Tucson
318:Presidio San Agustín del Tucson
303:Translated, the account reads:
120:Valley, and on the west by the
3406:Historical geography of Mexico
1423:Captaincy General of Guatemala
1131:Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)
606:10.1080/00231940.1987.11758070
1:
3322:General Archive of the Indies
2583:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado
2254:Camino Real de Tierra Adentro
2239:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas
1188:Third Treaty of San Ildefonso
1141:War of the Spanish Succession
1106:Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
490:San Xavier Indian Reservation
1394:Captaincy General of Yucatan
1324:Union with Holy Roman Empire
1303:Southern Italy (Kingdoms of
1218:German–Spanish Treaty (1899)
249:alcaldes, fiscales, topiles,
112:bounded on the north by the
1874:Administrative subdivisions
1071:War of the League of Cognac
3442:
2588:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar
2573:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
2475:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
1373:), Western United States (
1136:Portuguese Restoration War
784:Meyer, Michael C. (1984).
541:10.5876/9781607325741.c001
453:Mission San Xavier del Bac
72:) peoples residing in the
3356:Slavery in Spanish Empire
3267:
3256:
3162:
3151:
2643:Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor
2384:Álvaro de Bazán the Elder
2286:
2275:
2244:Barcelona Trading Company
2164:
2153:
2009:New Andalusia (1501–1513)
1879:
1868:
1738:
1727:
1706:
1643:
1584:
1516:Venezuela, part of Guyana
1495:
1418:
1369:, Central United States (
1358:
1272:
1261:
1250:
1101:Bruneian–Spanish conflict
1086:Expulsion of the Moriscos
1032:
1021:
178:, Nébomes (Eudeves), and
128:, and to the east by the
35:Sonora y Sinaloa Province
3297:Quito painting tradition
3287:Cusco painting tradition
2648:García López de Cárdenas
2638:Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera
2545:Felipe González de Ahedo
2465:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés
1042:Conquest of the Americas
437:Bureau of Indian Affairs
368:expulsion of the Jesuits
215:First Spanish incursions
106:Viceroyalty of New Spain
39:Viceroyalty of New Spain
3426:Former states of Mexico
3082:Comuneros (New Granada)
2859:Balearic Islands (1558)
2578:Hernán Pérez de Quesada
2505:Ruy López de Villalobos
2460:Miguel López de Legazpi
2374:García de Toledo Osorio
1238:Western Sahara conflict
1228:Independence of Morocco
1168:Treaty of Madrid (1750)
1111:Piracy in the Caribbean
1096:French Wars of Religion
463:Immigration Act of 1924
202:BC. Groups such as the
3327:Colonial Spanish Horse
3001:Colonia del Sacramento
2224:Spanish treasure fleet
1801:Royal Decree of Graces
857:Colonial Latin America
456:
392:
385:
364:
344:
325:
316:Overhead photo of the
310:
301:
280:
258:
198:
184:
134:
116:, on the south by the
24:
2485:Vasco Núñez de Balboa
2445:Juan Sebastián Elcano
1760:Council of the Indies
1121:Spanish–Moro conflict
1091:Ottoman–Habsburg wars
1051:Treaty of Tordesillas
733:Personal translation.
636:Archaeology Southwest
450:
390:
315:
189:
22:
3282:Mesoamerican Codices
3006:Comuneros (Paraguay)
2844:Siege of Castelnuovo
2430:Christopher Columbus
2249:Consulate of the Sea
2229:Casa de Contratación
1820:Titles and positions
1213:Spanish–American War
1203:Liberal constitution
1046:Asia and the Pacific
451:Frontal view of the
424:Mexican–American War
422:Upon the end of the
400:Post-colonial period
64:and closely related
3416:Geography of Sonora
3011:Cartagena de Indias
2633:Diego de Mazariegos
2603:Pere Fages i Beleta
2470:Sebastián de Ocampo
1951:Provincias Internas
1923:Captaincies General
1837:Municipal president
1806:School of Salamanca
1577:Spanish East Indies
1556:Misiones Orientales
1428:Spanish West Indies
1392:, Central America (
1339:Pyrénées-Orientales
1292:Union with Portugal
1183:Napoleonic invasion
1163:War of Jenkins' Ear
965: /
433:Indian reservations
285:revolts by the Pima
220:was made by Father
137:Pre-contact history
80:established by the
3307:Academia Antártica
3262:Other civil topics
2628:Pánfilo de Narváez
2530:Sebastián Vizcaíno
2495:Andrés de Urdaneta
2455:Juan Ponce de León
2440:Ferdinand Magellan
2414:Bernardo de Gálvez
2313:Indian auxiliaries
1811:Trial of residence
1791:Laws of the Indies
1575:Asia and Oceania (
1436:Dominican Republic
457:
393:
326:
199:
126:Gulf of California
25:
3383:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3252:
3251:
3157:Spanish conquests
3147:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3135:
3134:
2932:
2931:
2613:Pedro de Alvarado
2598:Gaspar de Portolà
2593:Pedro de Valdivia
2568:Francisco Pizarro
2520:Nicolás de Ovando
2515:Alonso de Ercilla
2490:Alonso de Salazar
2323:Ships of the line
2271:
2270:
2267:
2266:
2149:
2148:
2145:
2144:
1864:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1723:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1695:
1694:
1652:Northern Africa (
1648:Equatorial Guinea
1632:
1631:
1569:
1568:
1484:
1483:
1407:
1406:
1398:Spanish Caribbean
1371:Spanish Louisiana
1347:
1346:
1282:Crown of Castille
1246:
1245:
1223:Spanish Civil War
1198:Adams–Onís Treaty
1178:Nootka Convention
1126:Thirty Years' War
1116:Eighty Years' War
1037:Catholic Monarchs
1027:Timeline–immersed
469:Mexican Americans
429:Arizona territory
195:Coolidge, Arizona
3433:
3258:
3224:Chibchan Nations
3153:
3122:Santiago de Cuba
2981:Guadalupe Island
2941:
2668:
2661:
2623:Diego de Almagro
2500:Antonio de Ulloa
2404:Ambrosio Spinola
2399:Pedro de Zubiaur
2369:Alfonso d'Avalos
2359:Antonio de Leyva
2303:Army of Flanders
2288:
2277:
2166:
2155:
1881:
1870:
1740:
1729:
1697:
1670:Peñón of Algiers
1634:
1571:
1486:
1409:
1391:
1349:
1263:
1252:
1173:Seven Years' War
1146:Queen Anne's War
1023:
1008:
1001:
994:
985:
980:
979:
977:
976:
975:
970:
966:
963:
962:
961:
958:
940:
939:
913:
907:
906:
880:
871:
870:
852:
846:
845:
827:
812:
811:
781:
775:
774:
756:
747:
740:
734:
731:
725:
724:
716:
710:
709:
703:
695:
677:
668:
667:
665:
664:
650:
644:
643:
633:
624:
618:
617:
585:
579:
578:
576:
575:
561:
555:
554:
543:
527:
407:Gadsden Purchase
297:Jacobo Sedelmayr
3441:
3440:
3436:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3431:
3430:
3401:Colonial Mexico
3386:
3385:
3384:
3375:
3351:Old inquisition
3263:
3248:
3158:
3131:
3087:Trinidad (1797)
3057:La Noche Triste
3045:
3041:San Juan (1797)
2991:San Juan (1595)
2928:
2817:
2657:Notable battles
2652:
2618:Martín de Ursúa
2549:
2480:Alonso de Ojeda
2450:Juan de la Cosa
2435:Pinzón brothers
2418:
2389:John of Austria
2364:Martín de Goiti
2342:
2282:
2263:
2207:
2160:
2141:
2053:
2049:Terra Australis
2044:Río de la Plata
1989:Castilla de Oro
1975:
1917:
1913:Río de la Plata
1875:
1856:
1815:
1774:
1770:Santa Hermandad
1734:
1715:
1711:Terra Australis
1702:
1691:
1658:Spanish Morocco
1639:
1628:
1619:Northern Taiwan
1580:
1565:
1536:Río de la Plata
1491:
1480:
1414:
1413:Central America
1403:
1385:
1354:
1343:
1287:Crown of Aragon
1268:
1257:
1242:
1158:Bourbon Reforms
1028:
1017:
1012:
973:
971:
967:
964:
959:
956:
954:
952:
951:
944:
943:
928:
915:
914:
910:
895:
882:
881:
874:
867:
854:
853:
849:
842:
829:
828:
815:
800:
783:
782:
778:
771:
758:
757:
750:
741:
737:
732:
728:
718:
717:
713:
696:
692:
679:
678:
671:
662:
660:
652:
651:
647:
631:
626:
625:
621:
587:
586:
582:
573:
571:
563:
562:
558:
552:
529:
528:
517:
512:
498:
445:
402:
372:Bourbon Reforms
322:Tucson, Arizona
271:
217:
156:Hia Ced O’odham
139:
130:San Pedro River
102:Catholic Church
98:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3439:
3437:
3429:
3428:
3423:
3421:Sonoran Desert
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3388:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3377:
3376:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3261:
3254:
3253:
3250:
3249:
3247:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3167:Canary Islands
3163:
3160:
3159:
3156:
3149:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3053:
3051:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3021:Túpac Amaru II
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2966:Bogotá savanna
2963:
2958:
2953:
2947:
2945:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2874:Spanish Armada
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2768:White Mountain
2765:
2763:Cape Celidonia
2760:
2758:English Armada
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2674:
2672:
2665:
2658:
2654:
2653:
2651:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2559:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2535:Juan Fernández
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2510:Diego Columbus
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2343:
2341:
2340:
2338:Army of Africa
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2318:Spanish Armada
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2294:
2292:
2284:
2283:
2280:
2273:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2219:Manila galleon
2215:
2213:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2174:
2172:
2162:
2161:
2158:
2151:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2063:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1985:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1927:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1916:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1889:
1887:
1877:
1876:
1873:
1866:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1746:
1744:
1736:
1735:
1733:Administration
1732:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1693:
1692:
1690:
1689:
1654:Western Sahara
1650:
1644:
1641:
1640:
1637:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1574:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1563:
1552:Banda Oriental
1533:
1519:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1489:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1425:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1412:
1405:
1404:
1402:
1401:
1367:Coastal Alaska
1359:
1356:
1355:
1352:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1266:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1248:
1247:
1244:
1243:
1241:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1029:
1026:
1019:
1018:
1015:Spanish Empire
1013:
1011:
1010:
1003:
996:
988:
982:
981:
942:
941:
927:978-0816532926
926:
908:
894:978-0816532926
893:
872:
866:978-0190642402
865:
847:
841:978-0822398943
840:
813:
808:j.ctt1h4mj71.7
799:978-0816508259
798:
776:
770:978-0816509034
769:
748:
735:
726:
711:
691:978-0826336460
690:
669:
645:
619:
580:
556:
551:978-1607325741
550:
514:
513:
511:
508:
507:
506:
497:
494:
474:Tohono O’odham
444:
441:
401:
398:
352:Sonoran Desert
270:
267:
260:In this case,
216:
213:
166:); Quíquimas (
148:Tohono O’odham
138:
135:
122:Colorado River
97:
94:
90:Pima rebellion
74:Sonoran Desert
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3438:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3345:
3342:
3341:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3330:
3329:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3302:Tapada limeña
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3266:
3259:
3255:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3164:
3161:
3154:
3150:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2935:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2894:Montes Claros
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2834:Vienna (1529)
2832:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
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2564:
2563:Hernán Cortés
2561:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2555:Conquistadors
2552:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
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2528:
2526:
2525:Juan de Ayala
2523:
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2400:
2397:
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2379:Duke of Savoy
2377:
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2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
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2186:
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2181:
2179:
2178:Dollar (Peso)
2176:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2156:
2152:
2138:
2137:Santo Domingo
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
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2110:
2108:
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2100:
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2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2014:New Andalusia
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1961:Santo Domingo
1959:
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1954:
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1939:
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1934:
1932:
1929:
1928:
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1911:
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1899:
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1885:Viceroyalties
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1871:
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1490:South America
1487:
1477:
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1410:
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1395:
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1384:
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1376:
1375:Spanish Texas
1372:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1360:
1357:
1353:North America
1350:
1340:
1337:
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1334:Franche-Comté
1332:
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1298:
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1234:
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1199:
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1038:
1035:
1034:
1031:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1009:
1004:
1002:
997:
995:
990:
989:
986:
978:
949:
946:
945:
937:
933:
929:
923:
919:
912:
909:
904:
900:
896:
890:
886:
879:
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837:
833:
826:
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822:
820:
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772:
766:
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730:
727:
722:
715:
712:
707:
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637:
630:
623:
620:
615:
611:
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570:
566:
560:
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533:
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522:
520:
516:
509:
504:
500:
499:
495:
493:
491:
487:
483:
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454:
449:
442:
440:
438:
434:
430:
425:
420:
418:
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389:
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369:
363:
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348:
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332:
323:
319:
314:
309:
304:
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291:
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279:
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268:
266:
263:
257:
254:
250:
244:
242:
236:
234:
233:
227:
223:
214:
212:
209:
208:Apache groups
205:
196:
192:
188:
183:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
143:
136:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
109:
107:
103:
95:
93:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
58:
56:
52:
49:and northern
48:
47:United States
44:
40:
36:
32:
31:
21:
3277:Architecture
3172:The Americas
3036:Newfoundland
3026:Túpac Katari
3016:Cuerno Verde
2951:Tenochtitlan
2783:Valenciennes
2540:Luis Fajardo
2409:Blas de Lezo
2354:Duke of Alba
2234:Spanish Road
2072:Buenos Aires
1981:Governorates
1750:Ayuntamiento
1743:Organization
1208:Carlist Wars
1056:Italian Wars
936:j.ctv1220r6w
917:
911:
903:j.ctv1220r6w
884:
856:
850:
831:
789:
779:
760:
738:
729:
720:
714:
681:
661:. Retrieved
657:
648:
639:
635:
622:
597:
593:
583:
572:. Retrieved
568:
559:
531:
502:
496:Bibliography
478:Pascua Yaqui
467:
461:
458:
421:
414:
411:
403:
394:
378:
365:
362:landholding.
360:
356:
349:
345:
340:
335:
327:
306:
302:
293:
289:
281:
276:
272:
261:
259:
253:gobernadores
252:
248:
246:
240:
237:
230:
222:Eusebio Kino
218:
200:
145:
140:
111:
99:
86:Eusebio Kino
69:
59:
30:Pimería Alta
29:
28:
26:
3244:Philippines
3209:El Salvador
2829:Capo d'Orso
2713:St. Quentin
2688:Rome (1527)
2347:Strategists
2097:Guadalajara
2024:New Navarre
2019:New Castile
2004:La Luisiana
1956:Puerto Rico
1946:Philippines
1903:New Granada
1593:Philippines
1554:(Uruguay),
1550:(Bolivia),
1500:New Granada
1440:Puerto Rico
1386: [
1256:Territories
1076:Encomiendas
972: /
658:www.nps.gov
569:www.nps.gov
168:Halyikwamai
118:Altar River
96:Terminology
84:missionary
3390:Categories
2914:Somosierra
2904:Manila Bay
2778:Nördlingen
2718:Gravelines
2198:Columnario
2170:Currencies
2087:Concepción
2059:Audiencias
2034:New Toledo
1999:La Florida
1832:Corregidor
1796:Papal bull
1701:Antarctica
1609:Micronesia
1066:Golden Age
969:32°N 112°W
663:2020-11-27
600:(2): 119.
574:2020-11-27
510:References
486:Gila River
416:Yaqui Wars
152:Sobaipuris
150:); Pimas,
114:Gila River
3396:New Spain
3219:Nicaragua
3197:Guatemala
3107:Pichincha
3092:Chacabuco
3031:Pensacola
2976:Mataquito
2956:Cajamarca
2937:New World
2909:Trafalgar
2813:Alhucemas
2693:Landriano
2678:Comuneros
2664:Old World
2608:Joan Orpí
2328:Royalists
2102:Guatemala
2029:New Spain
1966:Venezuela
1941:Guatemala
1898:New Spain
1893:Columbian
1786:Exequatur
1686:Cape Juby
1540:Argentina
1363:New Spain
1297:Gibraltar
1061:Habsburgs
700:cite book
614:0023-1940
160:Maricopas
3229:Colombia
3214:Honduras
3127:Asomante
3112:Ayacucho
3102:Carabobo
3077:Curalaba
2854:Ceresole
2748:Gembloux
2708:Mühlberg
2423:Mariners
2281:Military
2203:Doubloon
2188:Maravedí
2132:Santiago
2039:Paraguay
1765:Germania
1605:Caroline
1560:Malvinas
1544:Paraguay
1504:Colombia
1446:Trinidad
1313:Sardinia
1153:Bourbons
974:32; -112
381:acequias
262:cabildos
241:cabildos
124:and the
3361:Asiento
3332:Mustang
3192:Yucatán
3187:Chiapas
3067:Tucapel
2899:Passaro
2849:Algiers
2839:Preveza
2808:Tetouan
2803:Vitoria
2793:Bitonto
2733:Antwerp
2728:Lepanto
2683:Bicocca
2159:Economy
2082:Charcas
2077:Caracas
1971:Yucatán
1842:Regidor
1827:Alcalde
1755:Cabildo
1662:Tripoli
1601:Mariana
1548:Charcas
1524:(Peru,
1508:Ecuador
1471:Bonaire
1466:Curazao
1451:Jamaica
1379:Florida
482:Ak-Chin
204:Hohokam
193:, near
172:Cocopah
164:Quechan
132:Valley.
66:O'odham
45:in the
43:Arizona
37:in the
3339:Castas
3097:Boyacá
3072:Guiana
3062:Iguape
2986:Recife
2924:Mactan
2919:Annual
2884:Rocroi
2879:Leiden
2864:Djerba
2798:Bailén
2753:Ostend
2738:Azores
2333:Legión
2298:Tercio
2291:Armies
2193:Escudo
2122:Panamá
2117:Mexico
2112:Manila
2067:Bogotá
1852:Vecino
1847:Syndic
1678:Béjaïa
1638:Africa
1624:Tidore
1512:Panama
1476:Belize
1383:Mexico
1309:Sicily
1305:Naples
1267:Europe
950:
934:
924:
901:
891:
863:
838:
806:
796:
767:
688:
642:: 1–6.
612:
548:
443:Legacy
226:Jesuit
180:Ópatas
82:Jesuit
70:Papago
55:Mexico
51:Sonora
3234:Chile
3202:Petén
3177:Aztec
2996:Bahia
2971:Penco
2961:Cusco
2889:Downs
2869:Tunis
2788:Ceuta
2773:Breda
2723:Malta
2703:Tunis
2698:Pavia
2212:Trade
2127:Quito
2092:Cusco
1931:Chile
1666:Tunis
1613:Palau
1530:Chile
1461:Aruba
1456:Haiti
1390:]
1319:Milan
1277:Spain
960:112°W
932:JSTOR
899:JSTOR
804:JSTOR
632:(PDF)
176:Seris
3239:Inca
3182:Maya
3117:Guam
3050:Lost
2822:Lost
2743:Mons
2183:Real
2107:Lima
1994:Cuba
1936:Cuba
1908:Perú
1684:and
1682:Ifni
1674:Oran
1597:Guam
1526:Acre
1522:Peru
1432:Cuba
1311:and
957:32°N
922:ISBN
889:ISBN
861:ISBN
836:ISBN
794:ISBN
765:ISBN
706:link
686:ISBN
610:ISSN
594:KIVA
546:ISBN
484:and
466:and
251:and
62:Pima
27:The
2944:Won
2671:Won
1779:Law
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
