Plant breeding - Knowledge (XXG)

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science and technology gave breeders the ability to screen thousands of samples within a small amount of time, meaning breeders could identify a high performing hybrid quicker. The genetic improvement was mainly in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) resulting in 0.7-2.5% increase, at just 1% increase in IVDMD a single Bos Taurus also known as beef cattle reported 3.2% increase in daily gains. This improvement indicates plant breeding is an essential tool in gearing future agriculture to perform at a more advanced level.

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desirable traits that will increase the fitness of the individuals. Using this method decreases the need for breeding multiple generations of plants to get a generation that is homogeneous for the desired traits, thereby saving much time over the natural version of the same process. There are many plant tissue culturing techniques that can be used to achieve haploid plants, but microspore culturing is currently the most promising for producing the largest numbers of them.

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the production environments found in organic vs. conventional farming systems are vastly different due to their distinctive management practices. Most notably, organic farmers have fewer inputs available than conventional growers to control their production environments. Breeding varieties specifically adapted to the unique conditions of organic agriculture is critical for this sector to realize its full potential. This requires selection for traits such as:

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is no longer a viable option. New varieties of plants can in some cases be developed through plant breeding that generate an increase of yield without relying on an increase in land area. An example of this can be seen in Asia, where food production per capita has increased twofold. This has been achieved through not only the use of fertilisers, but through the use of better crops that have been specifically designed for the area.

5712: 1692:). If this interaction is severe enough, an important trait required for the organic environment may not be revealed in the conventional environment, which can result in the selection of poorly adapted individuals. To ensure the most adapted varieties are identified, advocates of organic breeding now promote the use of direct selection (i.e. selection in the target environment) for many agronomic traits. 923: 303: 35: 659: 5736: 1316:. Microbiomes of breeding lines showed that hybrid plants share much of their bacterial community with their parents, such as Cucurbita seeds and apple shoot endophytes. In addition, the proportional contribution of the microbiome from parents to offspring corresponds to the amount of genetic material contributed by each parent during breeding and domestication. 910: 5724: 1025: 1474:

allow worldwide access, which involves solving problems including drought tolerance. It has been suggested that global solutions are achievable through the process of plant breeding, with its ability to select specific genes allowing crops to perform at a level which yields the desired results. One issue facing agriculture is the loss of

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and concluded that 15 generations of natural selection are desirable to produce results that are competitive with conventional breeding. Evolutionary breeding allows working with much larger plant population sizes than conventional breeding. It has also been used in tandem with conventional practices

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Evolutionary plant breeding describes practices which use mass populations with diverse genotypes grown under competitive natural selection. Survival in common crop cultivation environments is the predominant method of selection, rather than direct selection by growers and breeders. Individual plants

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A 2019 review of participatory plant breeding indicated that it had not gained widespread acceptance despite its record of successfully developing varieties with improved diversity and nutritional quality, as well as greater likelihood of these improved varieties being adopted by farmers. This review

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Plant breeding can be performed through many different techniques ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for propagation, to methods that make use of knowledge of genetics and chromosomes, to more complex molecular techniques. Genes in a plant are what determine what type

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Hayes, Patrick M.; Castro, Ariel; Marquez-Cedillo, Luis; Corey, Ann; Henson, Cynthia; Jones, Berne L.; Kling, Jennifer; Mather, Diane; Matus, Ivan; Rossi, Carlos; Sato, Kazuhiro (2003). "Genetic diversity for quantitatively inherited agronomic and malting quality traits". In Roland von Bothmer; Theo

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breeds results. Isolation is necessary to prevent cross contamination with related plants or the mixing of seeds after harvesting. Isolation is normally accomplished by planting distance but in certain crops, plants are enclosed in greenhouses or cages (most commonly used when producing F1 hybrids).

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When new plant breeds or cultivars are bred, they must be maintained and propagated. Some plants are propagated by asexual means while others are propagated by seeds. Seed propagated cultivars require specific control over seed source and production procedures to maintain the integrity of the plant

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using ML has made great strides and is now being applied to leaf phenotyping and other phenotyping jobs typically performed by human eyes. Pound et al. 2017 and Singh et al. 2016 are especially salient examples of early successful application and demonstration of the general usability of the process

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can also be employed as a diagnostics tool to facilitate selection of progeny who possess the desired trait(s), greatly speeding up the breeding process. This technique has proven particularly useful for the introgression of resistance genes into new backgrounds, as well as the efficient selection

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claim it is too low-yielding to be a viable alternative to conventional agriculture in situations when that poor performance may be the result in part of growing poorly-adapted varieties. It is estimated that over 95% of organic agriculture is based on conventionally adapted varieties, even though

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With an increasing population, the production of food needs to increase with it. It is estimated that a 70% increase in food production is needed by 2050 in order to meet the Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security. But with the degradation of agricultural land, simply planting more crops

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Intellectual property legislation for plants often uses definitions that typically include genetic uniformity and unchanging appearance over generations. These legal definitions of stability contrast with traditional agronomic usage, which considers stability in terms of how consistent the yield or

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Issues facing plant breeding in the future include the lack of arable land, increasingly harsh cropping conditions and the need to maintain food security, which involves being able to provide the world population with sufficient nutrition. Crops need to be able to mature in multiple environments to

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Participatory plant breeding (PPB) is when farmers are involved in a crop improvement programme with opportunities to make decisions and contribute to the research process at different stages. Participatory approaches to crop improvement can also be applied when plant biotechnologies are being used

1011:. All plants have varying sizes and lengths of genomes with genes that code for different proteins, but many are also the same. If a gene's location and function is identified in one plant species, a very similar gene likely can also be found in a similar location in another related species genome. 1410:

In 1929, Harlan and Martini proposed a method of plant breeding with heterogeneous populations by pooling an equal number of F2 seeds obtained from 378 crosses among 28 geographically diverse barley cultivars. In 1938, Harlan and Martini demonstrated evolution by natural selection in mixed dynamic

1295:. Such concerns are not new to plant breeding. Most countries have regulatory processes in place to help ensure that new crop varieties entering the marketplace are both safe and meet farmers' needs. Examples include variety registration, seed schemes, regulatory authorizations for GM plants, etc. 420:

may be crossed with a high-yielding but susceptible pea, the goal of the cross being to introduce mildew resistance without losing the high-yield characteristics. Progeny from the cross would then be crossed with the high-yielding parent to ensure that the progeny were most like the high-yielding

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Plant breeding can contribute to global food security as it is a cost-effective tool for increasing nutritional value of forage and crops. Improvements in nutritional value for forage crops from the use of analytical chemistry and rumen fermentation technology have been recorded since 1960; this

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Uniform and genetically stable cultivars can be inadequate for dealing with environmental fluctuations and novel stress factors. Plant breeders have focused on identifying crops which will ensure crops perform under these conditions; a way to achieve this is finding strains of the crop that is

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but as the result of the cross of two homozygous/doubled haploid lines derived from the originally selected plant. Plant tissue culturing can produce haploid or double haploid plant lines and generations. This cuts down the genetic diversity taken from that plant species in order to select for

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can map thousands of genes. This allows plant breeders to screen large populations of plants for those that possess the trait of interest. The screening is based on the presence or absence of a certain gene as determined by laboratory procedures, rather than on the visual identification of the

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in products for humans and animals. The goals of plant breeding are to produce crop varieties that boast unique and superior traits for a variety of applications. The most frequently addressed agricultural traits are those related to biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, grain or biomass yield,

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The NGS platform has substantially declined the time and cost required for sequencing and facilitated SNP discovery in model and non-model plants. This in turn has led to employing large-scale SNP markers in genomic selection approaches which aim at predicting genomic breeding values/GEBVs of

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Currently, few breeding programs are directed at organic agriculture and until recently those that did address this sector have generally relied on indirect selection (i.e. selection in conventional environments for traits considered important for organic agriculture). However, because the

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resistance to drought conditions with low nitrogen. It is evident from this that plant breeding is vital for future agriculture to survive as it enables farmers to produce stress resistant crops hence improving food security. In countries that experience harsh winters such as

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Stage 3: Seeds of each cross are then mixed to produce the first generation of the Composite Cross Population (CCP). The entire offspring is sown to grow and set seed. As the number of plants in the population increases, a proportion of the harvested seed is saved for

609:. It describes the tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed. 163:

of qualitative or quantitative traits it will have. Plant breeders strive to create a specific outcome of plants and potentially new plant varieties, and in the course of doing so, narrow down the genetic diversity of that variety to a specific few biotypes.

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Industrial breeding of plants has unintentionally altered how agricultural cultivars associate with their microbiome. In maize, for example, breeding has altered the nitrogen cycling taxa required to the rhizosphere, with more modern lines recruiting less

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value is central in this respect. Although relatively little direct research in this area has been done, there are scientific indications that, by favoring certain aspects of a plant's development, other aspects may be retarded. A study published in the

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plants which have the advantages of heterozygosity and a greater range of possible traits. Thus, an individual heterozygous plant chosen for its desirable characteristics can be converted into a heterozygous variety (F1 hybrid) without the necessity of

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Breeding is not a quick process, which is especially important when breeding to ameliorate a disease. The average time from human recognition of a new fungal disease threat to the release of a resistant crop for that pathogen is at least twelve years.

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When a desirable trait has been bred into a species, a number of crosses to the favored parent are made to make the new plant as similar to the favored parent as possible. Returning to the example of the mildew resistant pea being crossed with a

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Vivek, B.S.; Krishna, Girish Kumar; Vengadessan, V.; Babu, R.; Zaidi, P.H.; Kha, Le Quy; Mandal, S.S.; Grudloyma, P.; Takalkar, S.; Krothapalli, K.; Singh, I.S.; Ocampo, Eureka Teresa M.; Xingming, F.; Burgueño, J.; Azrai, M. (March 2017).

2193: 425:). The progeny from that cross would then be tested for yield (selection, as described above) and mildew resistance and high-yielding resistant plants would be further developed. Plants may also be crossed with themselves to produce 1250:

Genetic modification can further increase yields by increasing stress tolerance to a given environment. Stresses such as temperature variation, are signalled to the plant via a cascade of signalling molecules which will activate a

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and further east in Europe, plant breeders are involved in breeding for tolerance to frost, continuous snow-cover, frost-drought (desiccation from wind and solar radiation under frost) and high moisture levels in soil in winter.

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for crop improvement. Local agricultural systems and genetic diversity are strengthened by participatory programs, and outcomes are enhanced by farmers knowledge of the quality required and evaluation of the target environment.

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and significantly constraining individuals (such as farmers) from developing and trading seed on a regional level. Efforts to strengthen breeders' rights, for example, by lengthening periods of variety protection, are ongoing.

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end-use quality characteristics such as taste or the concentrations of specific biological molecules (proteins, sugars, lipids, vitamins, fibers) and ease of processing (harvesting, milling, baking, malting, blending, etc.).

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that are favored under prevailing growing conditions, such as environment and inputs, contribute more seed to the next generation than less-adapted individuals. Evolutionary plant breeding has been successfully used by the

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Modern plant breeding may use techniques of molecular biology to select, or in the case of genetic modification, to insert, desirable traits into plants. Application of biotechnology or molecular biology is also known as

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is an important and controversial issue. Production of new varieties is dominated by commercial plant breeders, who seek to protect their work and collect royalties through national and international agreements based in

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is a commonly used marker: Plants that have been successfully transformed will grow on media containing antibiotics; plants that have not been transformed will die. In some instances markers for selection are removed by

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speed breeding is also possible, using a procedure developed by Richard et al. 2015. As of 2020 it is highly anticipated that SB and automated phenotyping will, combined, produce greatly improved outcomes – see

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may abort before maturation. If this does occur the embryo resulting from an interspecific or intergeneric cross can sometimes be rescued and cultured to produce a whole plant. Such a method is referred to as

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and a termination sequence to stop transcription of the new gene, and the gene or genes of interest must be introduced to the plant. A marker for the selection of transformed plants is also included. In the

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Modern plant breeding, whether classical or through genetic engineering, comes with issues of concern, particularly with regard to food crops. The question of whether breeding can have a negative effect on

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Another technique is the deliberate interbreeding (crossing) of closely or distantly related individuals to produce new crop varieties or lines with desirable properties. Plants are crossbred to introduce

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also found participatory plant breeding to have a better cost/benefit ratio than non-participatory approaches, and suggested incorporating participatory plant breeding with evolutionary plant breeding.

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was established in the 1890s by John Garton, who was one of the first to commercialize new varieties of agricultural crops created through cross-pollination. The firm's first introduction was the

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Ceccarelli, S.; Grando, S.; Maatougui, M.; Michael, M.; Slash, M.; Haghparast, R.; Rahmanian, M.; Taheri, A.; Al-Yassin, A.; Benbelkacem, A.; Labdi, M.; Mimoun, H.; Nachit, M. (December 2010).

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Ceccarelli, S.; Grando, S.; Maatougui, M.; Michael, M.; Slash, M.; Haghparast, R.; Rahmanian, M.; Taheri, A.; Al-Yassin, A.; Benbelkacem, A.; Labdi, M.; Mimoun, H.; Nachit, M. (December 2010).

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it will ingest the toxin and die. Herbicides usually work by binding to certain plant enzymes and inhibiting their action. The enzymes that the herbicide inhibits are known as the herbicide's "

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Conventional breeding intentionally limits phenotype plasticity within genotypes and limits variability between genotypes. Uniformity does not allow crops to adapt to climate change and other

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As of 2020, regulations in Nepal only allow uniform varieties to be registered or released. Evolutionary plant populations and many landraces are polymorphic and do not meet these standards.

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plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially early farmers simply selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics, and employed these as

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genotypes in a given population. This method can increase the selection accuracy and decrease the time of each breeding cycle. It has been used in different crops such as maize, wheat, etc.

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would have produced 20% fewer arable crops over the last 20 years, consuming an additional 21.6 million hectares (53 million acres) of land and emitting 4 billion tonnes (3.9

1810: 4113:; Godfray, H. Charles J.; Beddington, John R.; Crute, Ian R.; Lawrence, David; Muir, James F.; Pretty, Jules; Robinson, Sherman; Thomas, Sandy M.; Toulmin, Camilla (12 February 2010). 826:

but susceptible pea, to make the mildew resistant progeny of the cross most like the high-yielding parent, the progeny will be crossed back to that parent for several generations (See

3440: 1430:(ICARDA) evolutionary plant breeding is combined with participatory plant breeding in order to allow farmers to choose which varieties suit their needs in their local environment. 680:

techniques to produce progeny from otherwise fruitless mating. Interspecific and intergeneric hybrids are produced from a cross of related species or genera that do not normally

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institutions, universities, crop-specific industry associations or research centers. International development agencies believe that breeding new crops is important for ensuring

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Evolutionary breeding populations have been used to establish self-regulating plant–pathogen systems. Examples include barley, where breeders were able to improve resistance to

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can be engineered into crops by expressing a version of target site protein that is not inhibited by the herbicide. This is the method used to produce glyphosate resistant ("

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methods were also developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from variation caused by environment. In 1933 another important breeding technique,

1615:"We suggest that any real declines are generally most easily explained by changes in cultivated varieties between 1950 and 1999, in which there may be trade-offs between 1095:. The doubled haploid will be homozygous for the desired traits. Furthermore, two different homozygous plants created in that way can be used to produce a generation of 2590:

Wang, Wangxia; Vinocur, Basia; Altmann, Arie (2003). "Plant responses to drought, salinity and extreme temperatures: towards genetic engineering for stress tolerance".

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Mahlein, A.-K.; Kuska, M.T.; Behmann, J.; Polder, G.; Walter, A. (2018-08-25). "Hyperspectral Sensors and Imaging Technologies in Phytopathology: State of the Art".

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The debate surrounding genetically modified food during the 1990s peaked in 1999 in terms of media coverage and risk perception, and continues today – for example, "

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hybrid. The cells in the plants derived from the first generation created from the cross contained an uneven number of chromosomes and as a result was sterile. The

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by developing new varieties that are higher yielding, disease resistant, drought tolerant or regionally adapted to different environments and growing conditions.

1259:. Overexpression of particular genes involved in cold acclimation has been shown to produce more resistance to freezing, which is one common cause of yield loss 3160:

Watt, Michelle; Fiorani, Fabio; Usadel, Björn; Rascher, Uwe; Muller, Onno; Schurr, Ulrich (2020-04-29). "Phenotyping: New Windows into the Plant for Breeders".

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To genetically modify a plant, a genetic construct must be designed so that the gene to be added or removed will be expressed by the plant. To do this, a

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are currently being crossed with plants to create new varieties for northern France. Soy beans, which were previously grown predominantly in the south of

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and related species. Another limitation of viral vectors is that the virus is not usually passed on to the progeny, so every plant has to be inoculated.

400:, the process of selectively propagating plants with desirable characteristics and eliminating or "culling" those with less desirable characteristics. 6144: 1411:

populations as a few varieties that became dominant in some locations almost disappeared in others; poorly-adapted varieties disappeared everywhere.

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a number of techniques were developed that allowed plant breeders to hybridize distantly related species, and artificially induce genetic diversity.

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in order to develop both heterogeneous and homogeneous crop lines for low input agricultural systems that have unpredictable stress conditions.

6271: 2425: 1284: 545: 4561: 2023: 1981: 1722: 830:). This process removes most of the genetic contribution of the mildew resistant parent. Classical breeding is therefore a cyclical process. 166:

It is practiced worldwide by individuals such as gardeners and farmers, and by professional plant breeders employed by organizations such as

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Abdelfattah, Ahmed; Tack, Ayco J. M.; Wasserman, Birgit; Liu, Jia; Berg, Gabriele; Norelli, John; Droby, Samir; Wisniewski, Michael (2021).

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There are many classical and modern breeding techniques that can be utilized for crop improvement in organic agriculture despite the ban on

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expressed trait in the plant. The purpose of marker assisted selection, or plant genome analysis, is to identify the location and function (

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plants. There have been instances where plants bred using classical techniques have been unsuitable for human consumption, for example the

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to insert genetic constructs into plants is also a possibility, but the technique is limited by the host range of the virus. For example,

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Stage 1: Genetic diversity is created, for example by manual crosses of inbreeding species or mixing of cultivars in outcrossing species.

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Link, W.; Balko, C.; Stoddard, F.; Winter hardiness in faba bean: Physiology and breeding. Field Crops Research (5 February 2010).

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Stage 4: The seed can be used for continued evolutionary plant breeding or as a starting point for a conventional breeding effort.

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Elings, A.; Almekinders, C. J. M.; Stam, P. (December 2001). "Introduction: Why focus thinking on participatory plant breeding".

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With classical breeding techniques, the breeder does not know exactly what genes have been introduced to the new cultivars. Some

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is sensitive to salinity, plants resulting from a hybrid cross with cultivar W4910 (left) show greater tolerance to high salinity

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Liu, Jia; Abdelfattah, Ahmed; Norelli, John; Burchard, Erik; Schena, Leonardo; Droby, Samir; Wisniewski, Michael (2018-01-27).

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Costa-Font, J.; Mossialos, E. (2007). "Are perceptions of 'risks' and 'benefits' of genetically modified food (in)dependent?".

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CGIAR Systemwide Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis for Technology Development and Institutional Innovation

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fusion. In this case protoplasts are fused, usually in an electric field. Viable recombinants can be regenerated in culture.

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Wang, Liyang; Rengel, Zed; Zhang, Kai; Jin, Kemo; Lyu, Yang; Zhang, Lin; Cheng, Lingyun; Zhang, Fusuo; Shen, Jianbo (2022).

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rice while reducing its susceptibility to blast disease. These practices have also been used in Nepal with bean landraces.

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Tester, Mark; Langridge, Peter (February 2010). "Breeding technologies to increase crop production in a changing world".

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Davis, D.R.; Epp, M.D.; Riordan, H.D. (2004). "Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999".

6203: 5983: 5049: 4747: 2456: 2189:"Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium B.P. maize from the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico" 1502: 4213:"The need to breed crop varieties suitable for organic farming, using wheat, tomato and broccoli as examples: A review" 6435: 6213: 6159: 6127: 6088: 5568: 2694: 2400: 78: 1043: 933: 2454:

Shimelis, Hussein; Laing, Mark. "Timelines in conventional crop improvement: pre-breeding and breeding procedures".

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therefore argue that plants produced by classical breeding methods should undergo the same safety testing regime as

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and other local varieties which have diversity that may have useful genes for climate adaptation in the future.

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may perform very differently in each environment due to an interaction between genes and the environment (see

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starting plants, if a haploid cell with the alleles for those traits can be produced, and then used to make a

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Sometimes many different genes can influence a desirable trait in plant breeding. The use of tools such as

794:. Classical plant breeders also generate genetic diversity within a species by exploiting a process called 362: 67: 6328: 6181: 6176: 5897: 5699: 5527: 5464: 5412: 5375: 5370: 4844: 4211:

Lammerts van Bueren, E.T.; S.S. Jones; L. Tamm; K.M. Murphy; J.R. Myers; C. Leifert; M.M. Messmer (2010).

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to predict the frequencies of different types. Wheat hybrids were bred to increase the crop production of

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are not currently available for many important traits, especially complex ones controlled by many genes.

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Ceccarelli 2001. Decentralized-Participatory Plant Breeding: Adapting Crops to Environments and Clients

3259:"Use of Genomic Estimated Breeding Values Results in Rapid Genetic Gains for Drought Tolerance in Maize" 1423: 1313: 1167: 1155: 624: 606: 582: 247: 2722: 2539: 2063: 4531:

CGIAR Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis, Working Document No.4, CIAT: Cali. 150pp.

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of plants is achieved by adding a specific gene or genes to a plant, or by knocking down a gene with

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Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domestication of the first

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Concise Encyclopedia of Crop Improvement: Institutions, Persons, Theories, Methods, and Histories

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Evolution Made to Order: Plant Breeding and Technological Innovation in Twentieth-Century America

4246:"The role of molecular markers and marker assisted selection in breeding for organic agriculture" 4188: 4092: 4031: 3986: 3943: 3783: 3686: 3562: 3466: 3421: 3353: 3296: 3199: 3139: 3010: 2971:"The Cucurbita pepo seed microbiome: genotype-specific composition and implications for breeding" 2951: 2873: 2802: 2623: 2481: 2465: 2314: 2250:"Simulation-based Economic Feasibility Analysis of Grafting Technology for Propagation Operation" 2169: 1785: 1760: 1236: 1142: 999: 903: 775: 476: 405: 3826:"Enhancing Freedom to Operate for Plant Breeders and Farmers through Open Source Plant Breeding" 3491:

Döring, Thomas F.; Knapp, Samuel; Kovacs, Geza; Murphy, Kevin; Wolfe, Martin S. (October 2011).

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Adam, Eveline; Bernhart, Maria; Müller, Henry; Winkler, Johanna; Berg, Gabriele (2018-01-01).

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A Breed Apart: The Plant Breeder's Guide to Preventing Patents through Defensive Publication

4549: 4528: 4489: 4481: 4438: 4363: 4352:"A Comparison between Crop Domestication, Classical Plant Breeding, and Genetic Engineering" 4351: 4306: 4296: 4257: 4224: 4180: 4136: 4076: 3970: 3919: 3870: 3837: 3767: 3725: 3668: 3620: 3604: 3544: 3536: 3504: 3448: 3413: 3345: 3270: 3230: 3175: 3121: 3105: 3059: 3041: 2992: 2933: 2917: 2855: 2839: 2784: 2768: 2703: 2664: 2656: 2607: 2572: 2513: 2504: 2292: 2220: 2210: 2151: 2011: 1938: 1353:

Speed breeding is introduced by Watson et al. 2018. Classical (human performed) phenotyping

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in the early 20th century. Similar yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after

6338: 6276: 6074: 5879: 5683: 5668: 5663: 5355: 5261: 5241: 5141: 5129: 5114: 5094: 5089: 4953: 4904: 4879: 4859: 4110: 4043: 3179: 3096: 2814:"Ensuring future food security and resource sustainability: insights into the rhizosphere" 2326: 1872: 1333: 1256: 1228: 1206: 1008: 868: 434: 131: 1341:

target plant species. These methods will work even better with large, publicly available

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Modern plant breeding is applied genetics, but its scientific basis is broader, covering

4132: 4072: 3923: 3721: 3600: 2988: 2913: 2835: 2603: 2576: 2206: 798:, which occurs in plants produced from tissue culture, particularly plants derived from 726:

incompatibility. If fertilization is possible between two species or genera, the hybrid

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Successful commercial plant breeding concerns were founded from the late 19th century.

544: 453: 4610: 4311: 4284: 2015: 6414: 6399: 6098: 6005: 6000: 5653: 5631: 5407: 5316: 5266: 5251: 5186: 5181: 5166: 5136: 5099: 5079: 5039: 5034: 5004: 4970: 4909: 4889: 4874: 4834: 4742: 4512: 4399: 4384: 4280: 3566: 3470: 3203: 3143: 2955: 2877: 2806: 1825: 1820: 1800: 1747: 1606: 1342: 1325: 1244: 1007:) of various genes within the genome. If all of the genes are identified it leads to 732: 723: 704: 639: 578: 457: 235: 171: 4579: 4192: 4007:

Breeding for drought and nitrogen stress tolerance in maize: from theory to practice

3990: 3947: 3787: 3690: 3425: 3357: 3300: 3275: 3258: 3014: 2627: 2485: 2173: 464:(see below) to generate diversity and produce hybrid plants that would not exist in 6186: 5907: 5819: 5598: 5417: 5397: 5365: 5294: 5281: 5256: 5236: 5206: 4931: 4899: 4677: 4460: 4096: 3974: 3384:"Biotechnology-assisted Participatory Plant Breeding: Complement or Contradiction?" 3333: 2727: 2707: 1864: 1506: 1160: 1088: 827: 746: 741: 681: 676:

When distantly related species are crossed, plant breeders make use of a number of

670: 643: 422: 258: 4168: 250:. Genetics stimulated research to improve crop production through plant breeding. 4529:

Biotechnology assisted participatory plant breeding: Complement or contradiction?

4421:), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Taylor & Francis Group, Inc., New York, USA, pp 584 4301: 3859:"Accomplishments and impact from breeding for increased forage nutritional value" 2394: 6343: 6308: 5944: 5844: 5509: 5504: 5289: 5176: 5171: 5161: 5156: 5084: 5074: 4849: 4814: 4794: 4759: 4727: 4630: 3842: 3234: 2764: 1830: 1426:

and was able to increase the proportion of resistant plants from 5% to 40%. The

1419: 1329: 1199: 922: 783: 632: 590: 498: 461: 426: 385: 302: 262: 212: 34: 4229: 4212: 3892: 3608: 3585:"Evolutionary Plant Breeding as a Response to the Complexity of Climate Change" 3334:"A framework for analyzing participatory plant breeding approaches and results" 2921: 2843: 2772: 2194:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6394: 5829: 5824: 5226: 5109: 5044: 5029: 4987: 4864: 4764: 4596:– education and training materials for plant breeders and allied professionals 4553: 4262: 4245: 4184: 3771: 3673: 3656: 3537:"Concept and rationale of evolutionary plant breeding and its status in Nepal" 3417: 3349: 3046: 2997: 2970: 2827: 2611: 2296: 2156: 2139: 1765: 1658: 1616: 1598: 1590: 1305: 1151: 1135: 1084: 872: 823: 803: 779: 756: 712: 708: 658: 631:. This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor-intensive 616: 483: 286: 282: 274: 266: 216: 167: 4646: 4626:

The Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building – GIPB

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was unintentionally increased to unacceptable levels in certain varieties of

372:) over hundreds of years, resulting in dozens of today's agricultural crops. 6348: 6323: 6313: 6298: 5673: 5636: 5583: 5563: 5558: 5216: 4702: 4689: 4681: 4616:

Glossary of plant breeding terminology by the Open Plant Breeding Foundation

4141: 4114: 4080: 3549: 2751:"Rhizosphere microbiome: Functional compensatory assembly for plant fitness" 2215: 1578: 1563: 1475: 1232: 1214: 1127: 1096: 1040:. In particular, some explanation of reverse breeding is still missing here. 1004: 834: 692: 602: 530: 389: 278: 270: 4503: 4452: 4320: 4150: 4088: 3982: 3939: 3634: 3292: 3195: 3135: 3073: 2947: 2869: 2798: 2678: 2619: 2525: 2234: 1952: 1684:

difference between organic and conventional environments is large, a given

627:. CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the plant produce sterile 4244:

Lammerts van Bueren, E. T.; G. Backes; H. de Vriend; H. Ostergard (2010).

3332:

Sperling, L.; Ashby, J.A.; Smith, M.E.; Weltzien, E.; McGuire, S. (2001).

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Piperno, D. R.; Ranere, A. J.; Holst, I.; Iriarte, J.; Dickau, R. (2009).

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was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids.

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variety. It is one of the first agricultural grain varieties bred from a

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Traits that breeders have tried to incorporate into crop plants include:

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The Origins of Agriculture and Crop Domestication – The Harlan Symposium

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These early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the

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done in 1950 and in 1999, and found substantial decreases in six of 13

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Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999

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from one variety or line into a new genetic background. For example, a

373: 327: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 190: 3824:

Luby, C. H.; Kloppenburg, J.; Michaels, T. E.; Goldman, I. L. (2015).

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Massman, Jon M.; Jung, Hans-Joachim G.; Bernardo, Rex (January 2013).

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by banning the planting of a widely grown pest-resistant corn variety.

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Modern facilities in molecular biology are now used in plant breeding.

806:, and the addition or removal of chromosomes using a technique called 366:

Selective breeding enlarged desired traits of the wild cabbage plant (

5333: 5326: 5321: 4737: 1217:. Insect resistance is achieved through incorporation of a gene from 849: 842: 727: 689: 628: 523: 513: 465: 413: 219:

for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of valuable

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Early maturity (as a mechanism for avoidance of particular stresses)

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were also found. The study, conducted at the Biochemical Institute,

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Germany has thrown its weight behind a growing European mutiny over

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are currently limited to plants that have introduced resistance to

1130:. The plants resulting from adding a gene are often referred to as 5798: 5783: 5422: 2248:

Meng, Chao; Xu, Dong; Son, Young-Jun & Kubota, Chieri (2012).

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Evolutionary plant breeding has been delineated into four stages:

1191: 812: 696: 657: 610: 594: 543: 509: 361: 136: 130: 3535:

Joshi, B. K.; Ayer, D. K.; Gauchan, D.; Jarvis, D. (2020-10-13).

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Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction

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scald over 45 generations. An evolutionary breeding project grew

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in order to produce desired characteristics. It has been used to

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FDA Statement of Policy – Foods Derived from New Plant Varieties

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increased crop production in the developing world in the 1960s.

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For the role of crossing and plant breeding in viticulture, see

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Murphy, Kevin M.; K.G. Campbell; S.R. Lyon; S.S. Jones (2007).

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Xun, Weibing; Shao, Jiahui; Shen, Qirong; Zhang, Ruifu (2021).

1428:

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas

448:. The classical plant breeder may also make use of a number of 5271: 4413:

Schlegel, Rolf (2014) Dictionary of Plant Breeding, 2nd ed., (

2641:

Suzie Key; Julian K-C Ma & Pascal MW Drake (1 June 2008).

1018: 916: 700: 567: 417: 296: 28: 2282:

Mudge, K.; Janick, J.; Scofield, S.; Goldschmidt, E. (2009).

1966:

Willy H. Verheye, ed. (2010). "Plant Breeding and Genetics".

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of many resistance genes pyramided into a single individual.

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Schouten, Henk J.; Krens, Frans A.; Jacobsen, Evert (2006).

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Schouten, Henk J.; Krens, Frans A.; Jacobsen, Evert (2006).

4169:"Evidence of varietal adaptation to organic farming systems" 2561:

Moreland, D E (1980). "Mechanisms of Action of Herbicides".

1359: 4594:

Plant Breeding and Genomics eXtension Community of Practice

4470:"Cisgenic plants are similar to traditionally bred plants" 4115:"Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people" 2502:

Kasha, Ken (1999). "Biotechnology and world food supply".

2497: 2495: 2426:"Unfairly demonized GMO crops can help fight malnutrition" 2064:"Doriane | Blog — Climate-Smart Plant Breeding Objectives" 1514:

quality of a crop remains across locations and over time.

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Abiotic stress tolerance (i.e. drought, salinity, etc...)

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International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants

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In the early 20th century, plant breeders realized that

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By 500 BCE grafting was well established and practiced.

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technology had been practiced in China before 2000 BCE.

3493:"Evolutionary Plant Breeding in Cereals—Into a New Era" 3486: 3484: 3482: 3480: 1910:

Breeding Field Crops. 1995. Sleper and Poehlman. Page 3

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Failure to produce a hybrid may be due to pre- or post-

4427:"Do cisgenic plants warrant less stringent oversight?" 3583:

Ceccarelli, Salvatore; Grando, Stefania (2020-12-18).

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Ceccarelli, Salvatore; Grando, Stefania (2019-10-02).

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Industrial and Systems Engineering Research Conference

2112:"French firm breeds plants that resist climate change" 3530: 3528: 1166:

The construct can be inserted in the plant genome by

3092:"Evidence for host–microbiome co-evolution in apple" 867:-assisted conventional breeding, incorporation of a 189:

10 short tons) of carbon. Wheat species created for

6357: 6232: 6029: 5878: 5812: 5614: 5551: 5518: 5280: 4823: 4688: 3756:"Evolutionary plant breeding for low input systems" 3650: 3648: 3646: 3644: 3441:"From participatory to evolutionary plant breeding" 3085: 3083: 1998:van Hintum; Helmut Knüpffer; Kazuhiro Sato (eds.). 1163:with the parent plant prior to commercial release. 755:Hybrids may also be produced by a technique called 59:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4607:– large practical reference on plant hybridization 3155: 3153: 2756:Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal 1272:, is a rather radical new area of plant breeding. 1087:plants with desirable traits can be produced from 684:with each other. These crosses are referred to as 177:A recent study shows that without plant breeding, 2892:Favela, Alonso; O., Martin; Kent, Angela (2021). 2396:Hybrid: The History and Science of Plant Breeding 2388: 2386: 1422:bulk soybean populations on soil infested by the 719:and thus allow the production of a fertile line. 4548:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 2072. 1969:Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume I 1285:ecological impact of genetically modified plants 1262:Genetic modification of plants that can produce 1227:that is toxic to some insects. For example, the 4643:by Cydnee V. Bence & Emily J. Spiegel, 2019 4611:Infography about the History of Plant Breeding 3807:International Journal of Agricultural Research 3541:Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University 2643:"Genetically modified plants and human health" 1918: 1916: 1360:§ Phenotyping and artificial intelligence 5768: 4662: 4621:National Association of Plant Breeders (NAPB) 4206: 4204: 4202: 3857:Casler, Vogal, M.K. (January–February 1999). 3754:Phillips, S. L.; Wolfe, M. S. (August 2005). 1637:Role of plant breeding in organic agriculture 1324:As of 2020 machine learning – and especially 1291:and concepts used for safety evaluation like 1266:(and industrial chemicals), sometimes called 289:). It has also developed its own technology. 8: 5538:List of organic gardening and farming topics 4331:. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York. 3963:Journal of the American College of Nutrition 3893:https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2008.08.004 1570:Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1328:– has recently become more commonly used in 1046:. There might be a discussion about this on 623:(CMS), developed in maize, was described by 535:Longer storage period for the harvested crop 2380:Spring Seed Catalogue 1899, Gartons Limited 1923:Hartung, Frank; Schiemann, Joachim (2014). 951:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 5860:Smart breeding (Marker-assisted selection) 5775: 5761: 5753: 4669: 4655: 4647: 4631:FAO/IAEA Programme Mutant Variety Database 4410:), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 423 4395:), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 584 4285:"Diversifying Selection in Plant Breeding" 4217:NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 2376: 2374: 2252:. In Lim, G. & Herrmann, J.W. (eds.). 1878:UPOV Convention on New Varieties of Plants 1394:Landrace § Plant_landrace_development 1015:Reverse breeding and doubled haploids (DH) 735:. This technique has been used to produce 4493: 4442: 4385:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Plant Breeding 4367: 4310: 4300: 4261: 4228: 4162: 4160: 4140: 3875:10.2135/cropsci1999.0011183x003900010003x 3841: 3706:"An Evolutionary Plant Breeding Method 1" 3672: 3624: 3548: 3508: 3393:. Working Document No. 4 April 2000: 140. 3274: 3125: 3063: 3045: 2996: 2937: 2859: 2788: 2668: 2546:World International Property Organization 2224: 2214: 2155: 1942: 1066:Learn how and when to remove this message 971:Learn how and when to remove this message 396:One major technique of plant breeding is 343:Learn how and when to remove this message 150:is the science of changing the traits of 119:Learn how and when to remove this message 3730:10.2134/agronj1956.00021962004800040012x 2648:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 1437:to codify this approach coined the term 908: 860:levels before reaching the marketplace. 589:populations produced through deliberate 16:Humans changing traits, ornamental/crops 2906:Springer Science and Business Media LLC 1903: 1320:Phenotyping and artificial intelligence 1207:commercially released transgenic plants 739:, an interspecific cross of Asian rice 662:In vitro-culture of Vitis (grapevine), 574:cross, introduced to commerce in 1892. 238:(1822–84) is considered the "father of 4346:) U of Chicago Press, 2016. x, 285 pp. 4039: 4029: 2322: 2312: 2085: 2083: 1653:Nutrient use efficiency (particularly 1403:to preserve landrace diversity within 817:Agricultural research on potato plants 4327:Briggs, F.N. and Knowles, P.F. 1967. 3180:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042916-041124 440:Classical breeding relies largely on 197:, are now grown in southern Germany. 7: 5723: 3657:"Plant breeding and climate changes" 2140:"Plant breeding and climate changes" 1860:Access and Benefit Sharing Agreement 949:adding citations to reliable sources 325:adding citations to reliable sources 57:adding citations to reliable sources 6289:Selection methods in plant breeding 5735: 3924:10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-050100 3846:– via ACSESS Digital Library. 3760:The Journal of Agricultural Science 3661:The Journal of Agricultural Science 2577:10.1146/annurev.pp.31.060180.003121 2144:The Journal of Agricultural Science 1577:, compared nutritional analysis of 664:Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute 554:Gartons Agricultural Plant Breeders 4537:Breed Your Own Vegetable Varieties 2457:Australian Journal of Crop Science 2342:Breed Your Own Vegetable Varieties 2291:. Vol. 35. pp. 449–475. 1892:Genetic resources (disambiguation) 1869:Convention on Biological Diversity 14: 2564:Annual Review of Plant Physiology 2269:Institute of Industrial Engineers 1231:, a common cotton pest, feeds on 711:was used to double the number of 5734: 5722: 5711: 5710: 5698: 4544:Vaschetto, Luis M., ed. (2020). 4527:Thro, A.M.; Spillane, C. (1999) 3382:Thro A & Spillane C (2000). 2723:"Germany deals blow to GM crops" 1452:Stage 2: Multiplication of seeds 1182:, or by direct methods like the 1023: 921: 583:non-random nature of inheritance 444:between chromosomes to generate 301: 156:improve the quality of nutrition 33: 3907:Annual Review of Phytopathology 3704:Suneson, Coit A. (April 1956). 3276:10.3835/plantgenome2016.07.0070 1816:Marker-assisted selection (MAS) 1548:Maintaining specific conditions 312:needs additional citations for 242:". His experiments with plant 44:needs additional citations for 4329:Introduction to Plant Breeding 3975:10.1080/07315724.2004.10719409 3163:Annual Review of Plant Biology 2708:10.1016/j.foodqual.2005.09.013 1712:List of notable plant breeders 1697:genetically modified organisms 1433:An influential 1956 effort by 1: 2424:Norero, Daniel (2018-06-20). 2016:10.1016/S0168-7972(03)80012-9 1611:University of Texas at Austin 1283:" The debate encompasses the 863:Even with the very latest in 4605:Hybridization of Crop Plants 4302:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020347 2721:Connoly, Kate (2009-04-14). 1690:gene–environment interaction 1503:intellectual property rights 1375:Participatory plant breeding 852:through plant breeding. New 548:Garton's catalogue from 1902 493:of environmental pressures ( 5569:Index of pesticide articles 4539:. Chelsea Green Publishing. 3843:10.2135/cropsci2014.10.0708 3235:10.2135/cropsci2012.02.0112 2695:Food Quality and Preference 2401:University of Chicago Press 1439:evolutionary plant breeding 1388:Evolutionary plant breeding 1299:Breeding and the microbiome 431:Pollinators may be excluded 6459: 4713:Climate-friendly gardening 4230:10.1016/j.njas.2010.04.001 3609:10.1016/j.isci.2020.101815 3445:Farmers and Plant Breeding 2922:10.1038/s41396-021-00923-z 2844:10.1016/j.isci.2022.104168 2773:10.1016/j.csbj.2021.09.035 1856:Bioprospecting / biopiracy 1851:Composite cross population 1585:measured, including 6% of 1469:Breeding and food security 1391: 1279:genetically modified crops 1112: 1077: 987: 894: 871:takes an average of seven 621:cytoplasmic male sterility 354: 204: 18: 6247:Marker-assisted selection 5835:Marker-assisted selection 5794: 5692: 5589:Plant disease forecasting 5543:Vegan organic agriculture 5393:Genetically modified tree 4554:10.1007/978-1-4939-9865-4 4263:10.1007/s10681-010-0169-0 4185:10.1016/j.fcr.2007.03.011 3772:10.1017/S0021859605005009 3674:10.1017/S0021859610000651 3047:10.1186/s40168-018-0403-x 2998:10.1007/s11104-016-3113-9 2612:10.1007/s00425-003-1105-5 2462:Southern Cross Publishing 2297:10.1002/9780470593776.ch9 2157:10.1017/S0021859610000651 1806:Genomics of domestication 1781:Cultivated plant taxonomy 1701:Marker assisted selection 1289:genetically modified food 1173:Agrobacterium tumefaciens 1126:, to produce a desirable 990:Marker assisted selection 984:Marker assisted selection 357:Propagation of grapevines 207:History of plant breeding 4517:Agricultural Archaeology 4486:10.1038/sj.embor.7400769 4369:10.2135/cropsci2002.1780 3891:(3): 287-296, page. 289| 3453:10.4324/9780429507335-15 2661:10.1258/jrsm.2008.070372 2346:Chelsea Green Publishing 2254:Proceedings of the 2012 2117:European Investment Bank 1796:Family based QTL mapping 1613:, concluded in summary: 1401:Nepal National Gene Bank 1196:Cauliflower mosaic virus 442:homologous recombination 293:Classical plant breeding 246:led to his establishing 4398:Schlegel, Rolf (2007) 4142:10.1126/science.1185383 4081:10.1126/science.1183700 3550:10.3126/jafu.v4i1.47023 3418:10.1023/A:1017923423714 3350:10.1023/A:1017505323730 2393:Noel Kingsbury (2009). 2216:10.1073/pnas.0812525106 1673:Pest/disease resistance 1669:mechanical weed control 1521:Environmental stressors 1293:substantial equivalence 1102:vegetative reproduction 897:New Breeding Techniques 856:are often screened for 529:Increased tolerance of 522:Increased tolerance to 6441:Pollination management 6329:Outbreeding depression 5528:Biodynamic agriculture 5465:Postharvest physiology 5413:Landscape architecture 5110:Indonesian home garden 4600:Plant Breeding Updates 4383:Schlegel, Rolf (2009) 1776:Crop breeding in Nepal 1619:and nutrient content." 1498:Plant breeders' rights 1493:Plant breeders' rights 1366:Genomic selection (GS) 1220:Bacillus thuringiensis 914: 818: 808:chromosome engineering 768:ethyl methanesulfonate 666: 597:during the so-called " 549: 393: 144: 6334:Inbreeding depression 5850:Preservation breeding 4775:Historic conservation 4535:Deppe, Carol (2000). 2340:Deppe, Carol (2000). 2285:A History of Grafting 2261:IIE Annual Conference 2000:Diversity in Barley ( 1492: 1424:soybean cyst nematode 1416:Rynchosporium secalis 1326:deep machine learning 1168:genetic recombination 1156:antibiotic resistance 912: 891:Modern plant breeding 816: 790:– a process known as 661: 625:Marcus Morton Rhoades 607:George Harrison Shull 547: 365: 134: 5705:Gardening portal 5604:Aquamog weed remover 5579:List of insecticides 4431:Nature Biotechnology 4173:Field Crops Research 2431:Alliance for Science 2010:. pp. 201–226. 2006:. Amsterdam Boston: 1738:Niels Ebbesen Hansen 1718:Thomas Andrew Knight 1664:Weed competitiveness 1650:Water use efficiency 1253:transcription factor 1241:Herbicide resistance 1223:(Bt) that encodes a 1198:(CaMV) only infects 1120:Genetic modification 1109:Genetic modification 1036:confusing or unclear 945:improve this section 883:, and seventeen for 839:genetically modified 796:somaclonal variation 678:plant tissue culture 585:could be applied to 321:improve this article 53:improve this article 6021:Designer crossbreed 4444:10.1038/nbt0706-753 4334:Curry, Helen Anne. 4133:2010Sci...327..812G 4073:2010Sci...327..818T 3722:1956AgrJ...48..188S 3601:2020iSci...23j1815C 2989:2018PlSoi.422...35A 2914:2021ISMEJ..15.2454F 2882:...cite this study: 2836:2022iSci...25j4168W 2604:2003Plant.218....1W 2207:2009PNAS..106.5019P 1733:Nazareno Strampelli 1643:organic agriculture 1464:Issues and concerns 1170:using the bacteria 1044:clarify the section 877:clonally propagated 737:new rice for Africa 688:. For example, the 581:'s findings on the 540:Before World War II 452:techniques such as 433:through the use of 248:laws of inheritance 6436:Plant reproduction 5855:Selective breeding 5804:Lists of cultivars 5574:List of fungicides 5339:Companion planting 4350:Gepts, P. (2002). 2540:"Reverse Breeding" 1786:Double-pair mating 1761:Bioactive compound 1573:in 2004, entitled 1000:DNA fingerprinting 915: 904:molecular breeding 819: 810:may also be used. 682:sexually reproduce 667: 654:After World War II 550: 394: 145: 6431:Molecular biology 6408: 6407: 6252:Natural selection 6233:Selection methods 5840:Mutation breeding 5750: 5749: 5622:Community orchard 5448:drought tolerance 4563:978-1-4939-9864-7 4127:(5967): 812–818. 4067:(5967): 818–822. 4004:Bänziger (2000). 3510:10.3390/su3101944 3503:(10): 1944–1971. 3110:10.1111/nph.17820 2747:These reviews... 2265:Norcross, Georgia 2201:(13): 5019–5024. 2025:978-0-444-50585-9 1983:978-1-84826-367-3 1944:10.1111/tpj.12413 1930:The Plant Journal 1836:Recalcitrant seed 1706:Molecular markers 1557:Nutritional value 1539:Long-term process 1132:transgenic plants 1115:Transgenic plants 1076: 1075: 1068: 996:molecular markers 981: 980: 973: 885:cross-pollinating 792:mutation breeding 605:was explained by 454:protoplast fusion 446:genetic diversity 369:Brassica oleracea 353: 352: 345: 255:molecular biology 185:10 long tons; 4.4 129: 128: 121: 103: 6448: 6016:Captive breeding 6011:Breeding program 5991:Backyard breeder 5777: 5770: 5763: 5754: 5738: 5737: 5726: 5725: 5714: 5713: 5703: 5702: 5679:Plant collecting 5615:Related articles 5552:Plant protection 4733:French intensive 4671: 4664: 4657: 4648: 4583: 4540: 4524: 4507: 4497: 4464: 4446: 4373: 4371: 4362:(6): 1780–1790. 4324: 4314: 4304: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4241: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4223:(3–4): 193–205. 4208: 4197: 4196: 4164: 4155: 4154: 4144: 4111:Haddad, Lawrence 4107: 4101: 4100: 4054: 4048: 4047: 4041: 4037: 4035: 4027: 4025: 4024: 4010:. pp. 7–9. 4001: 3995: 3994: 3958: 3952: 3951: 3901: 3895: 3885: 3879: 3878: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3845: 3836:(6): 2481–2488. 3821: 3815: 3814: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3751: 3742: 3741: 3710:Agronomy Journal 3701: 3695: 3694: 3676: 3652: 3639: 3638: 3628: 3580: 3571: 3570: 3552: 3532: 3523: 3522: 3512: 3488: 3475: 3474: 3436: 3430: 3429: 3401: 3395: 3394: 3388: 3379: 3373: 3368: 3362: 3361: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3311: 3305: 3304: 3278: 3263:The Plant Genome 3253: 3247: 3246: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3157: 3148: 3147: 3129: 3104:(6): 2088–2100. 3087: 3078: 3077: 3067: 3049: 3025: 3019: 3018: 3000: 2966: 2960: 2959: 2941: 2898:The ISME Journal 2889: 2883: 2881: 2863: 2810: 2792: 2745: 2739: 2738: 2736: 2735: 2718: 2712: 2711: 2689: 2683: 2682: 2672: 2638: 2632: 2631: 2587: 2581: 2580: 2558: 2552: 2551: 2536: 2530: 2529: 2499: 2490: 2489: 2451: 2442: 2441: 2439: 2438: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2390: 2381: 2378: 2369: 2368: 2363:. Archived from 2361:"Plant breeding" 2357: 2351: 2349: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2324: 2320: 2318: 2310: 2290: 2279: 2273: 2272: 2245: 2239: 2238: 2228: 2218: 2184: 2178: 2177: 2159: 2135: 2129: 2128: 2126: 2125: 2108: 2102: 2101: 2099: 2098: 2087: 2078: 2077: 2075: 2074: 2060: 2054: 2053: 1994: 1988: 1987: 1974:Eolss Publishers 1963: 1957: 1956: 1946: 1920: 1911: 1908: 1887:Peasants' rights 1641:Some critics of 1593:. Reductions in 1487:abiotic stresses 1287:, the safety of 1247:") crop plants. 1205:The majority of 1080:Doubled haploidy 1071: 1064: 1060: 1057: 1051: 1027: 1026: 1019: 976: 969: 965: 962: 956: 925: 917: 881:self-fertilising 879:crops, nine for 854:potato varieties 772:dimethyl sulfate 648:Green Revolution 599:Battle for Grain 565: 564: 435:pollination bags 427:inbred varieties 348: 341: 337: 334: 328: 305: 297: 188: 184: 124: 117: 113: 110: 104: 102: 68:"Plant breeding" 61: 37: 29: 6458: 6457: 6451: 6450: 6449: 6447: 6446: 6445: 6411: 6410: 6409: 6404: 6353: 6339:Recessive trait 6277:selective sweep 6234: 6228: 6031:Plant cultivars 6025: 5874: 5808: 5799:Lists of breeds 5790: 5781: 5751: 5746: 5697: 5688: 5684:Turf management 5669:Lists of plants 5664:List of gardens 5610: 5547: 5514: 5276: 4826: 4819: 4684: 4675: 4590: 4564: 4546:Cereal Genomics 4543: 4534: 4510: 4467: 4424: 4349: 4279: 4276: 4271: 4243: 4242: 4238: 4210: 4209: 4200: 4166: 4165: 4158: 4109: 4108: 4104: 4056: 4055: 4051: 4038: 4028: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4003: 4002: 3998: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3903: 3902: 3898: 3886: 3882: 3856: 3855: 3851: 3823: 3822: 3818: 3801:Rhodes (2013). 3800: 3799: 3795: 3753: 3752: 3745: 3703: 3702: 3698: 3654: 3653: 3642: 3582: 3581: 3574: 3534: 3533: 3526: 3490: 3489: 3478: 3463: 3438: 3437: 3433: 3403: 3402: 3398: 3386: 3381: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3365: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3313: 3312: 3308: 3255: 3254: 3250: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3159: 3158: 3151: 3097:New Phytologist 3089: 3088: 3081: 3027: 3026: 3022: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2891: 2890: 2886: 2811: 2748: 2746: 2742: 2733: 2731: 2720: 2719: 2715: 2691: 2690: 2686: 2640: 2639: 2635: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2560: 2559: 2555: 2538: 2537: 2533: 2518:10.1139/g99-043 2501: 2500: 2493: 2453: 2452: 2445: 2436: 2434: 2423: 2422: 2418: 2411: 2403:. p. 140. 2392: 2391: 2384: 2379: 2372: 2359: 2358: 2354: 2339: 2338: 2334: 2321: 2311: 2307: 2288: 2281: 2280: 2276: 2247: 2246: 2242: 2186: 2185: 2181: 2137: 2136: 2132: 2123: 2121: 2110: 2109: 2105: 2096: 2094: 2089: 2088: 2081: 2072: 2070: 2068:www.doriane.com 2062: 2061: 2057: 2026: 2002:Hordeum vulgare 1996: 1995: 1991: 1984: 1976:. p. 185. 1965: 1964: 1960: 1922: 1921: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1873:Nagoya Protocol 1756: 1714: 1639: 1630: 1559: 1550: 1541: 1523: 1495: 1483:biotic stresses 1471: 1466: 1435:Coit A. Suneson 1396: 1390: 1377: 1368: 1351: 1334:Computer vision 1322: 1306:nitrogen fixing 1301: 1264:pharmaceuticals 1257:gene expression 1229:cotton bollworm 1136:cisgenic plants 1117: 1111: 1093:doubled haploid 1082: 1072: 1061: 1055: 1052: 1041: 1028: 1024: 1017: 1009:genome sequence 992: 986: 977: 966: 960: 957: 942: 926: 899: 893: 656: 601:" (1925–1940). 562: 561: 542: 360: 349: 338: 332: 329: 318: 306: 295: 209: 203: 186: 182: 125: 114: 108: 105: 62: 60: 50: 38: 27: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6456: 6455: 6452: 6444: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6421:Plant breeding 6413: 6412: 6406: 6405: 6403: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6385:Heirloom plant 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6365:Breed registry 6361: 6359: 6355: 6354: 6352: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6249: 6244: 6238: 6236: 6230: 6229: 6227: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6200: 6199: 6194: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6157: 6150: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6125: 6120: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6102: 6101: 6091: 6086: 6079: 6072: 6065: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6047: 6046: 6035: 6033: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5996:Breed standard 5993: 5987: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5965: 5964: 5954: 5949: 5948: 5947: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5911: 5910: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5884: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5873: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5816: 5814: 5810: 5809: 5807: 5806: 5801: 5795: 5792: 5791: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5772: 5765: 5757: 5748: 5747: 5745: 5744: 5732: 5720: 5708: 5693: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5659:Garden tourism 5656: 5651: 5649:Groundskeeping 5646: 5645: 5644: 5639: 5629: 5624: 5618: 5616: 5612: 5611: 5609: 5608: 5607: 5606: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5555: 5553: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5524: 5522: 5516: 5515: 5513: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5501: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5456: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5438:free-flowering 5435: 5430: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5379: 5378: 5373: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5352: 5351: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5330: 5329: 5319: 5314: 5313: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5286: 5284: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5133: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5026: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4991: 4990: 4980: 4979: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4967: 4966: 4961: 4951: 4950: 4949: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4913: 4912: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4831: 4829: 4821: 4820: 4818: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4755:Groundskeeping 4752: 4751: 4750: 4748:computer-aided 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4694: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4676: 4674: 4673: 4666: 4659: 4651: 4645: 4644: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4602: 4597: 4589: 4588:External links 4586: 4585: 4584: 4562: 4541: 4532: 4525: 4508: 4480:(8): 750–753. 4465: 4422: 4419:978-1439802427 4411: 4396: 4381: 4374: 4347: 4332: 4325: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4269: 4236: 4198: 4179:(3): 172–177. 4156: 4102: 4049: 4040:|journal= 4016: 3996: 3969:(6): 669–682. 3953: 3916:Annual Reviews 3896: 3880: 3849: 3816: 3793: 3766:(4): 245–254. 3743: 3716:(4): 188–191. 3696: 3667:(6): 627–637. 3640: 3595:(12): 101815. 3572: 3524: 3497:Sustainability 3476: 3461: 3431: 3412:(3): 423–424. 3396: 3374: 3363: 3344:(3): 439–450. 3324: 3315:"PRGA Program" 3306: 3248: 3209: 3172:Annual Reviews 3149: 3079: 3020: 2976:Plant and Soil 2961: 2884: 2740: 2713: 2702:(2): 173–182. 2684: 2655:(6): 290–298. 2633: 2582: 2571:(1): 597–638. 2553: 2531: 2512:(4): 642–645. 2491: 2443: 2416: 2409: 2382: 2370: 2367:on 2013-10-21. 2352: 2332: 2323:|journal= 2305: 2274: 2240: 2179: 2150:(6): 627–637. 2130: 2103: 2079: 2055: 2024: 1989: 1982: 1958: 1937:(5): 742–752. 1912: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1894: 1889: 1883:Farmers rights 1880: 1875: 1862: 1853: 1848: 1846:Smart breeding 1843: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1813: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1757: 1755: 1752: 1751: 1750: 1745: 1743:Norman Borlaug 1740: 1735: 1730: 1728:Luther Burbank 1725: 1720: 1713: 1710: 1681: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1671: 1665: 1662: 1651: 1638: 1635: 1629: 1626: 1558: 1555: 1549: 1546: 1540: 1537: 1522: 1519: 1494: 1491: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1461: 1460: 1457: 1453: 1450: 1389: 1386: 1376: 1373: 1367: 1364: 1350: 1349:Speed breeding 1347: 1343:open data sets 1321: 1318: 1308:taxa and more 1300: 1297: 1190:. Using plant 1188:microinjection 1113:Main article: 1110: 1107: 1078:Main article: 1074: 1073: 1031: 1029: 1022: 1016: 1013: 988:Main article: 985: 982: 979: 978: 929: 927: 920: 892: 889: 655: 652: 541: 538: 537: 536: 533: 527: 520: 508:Resistance to 506: 487: 480: 429:for breeding. 392:of this plant. 351: 350: 309: 307: 300: 294: 291: 205:Main article: 202: 199: 148:Plant breeding 127: 126: 41: 39: 32: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6454: 6453: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6418: 6416: 6401: 6400:Tree breeding 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6362: 6360: 6356: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6254: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6239: 6237: 6231: 6225: 6224:Venus flytrap 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6189: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6162: 6158: 6156: 6155: 6151: 6149: 6147: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6130: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6118: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6100: 6097: 6096: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6084: 6080: 6078: 6077: 6073: 6071: 6070: 6066: 6064: 6063: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6045: 6042: 6041: 6040: 6037: 6036: 6034: 6032: 6028: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6006:Breeding pair 6004: 6002: 6001:Breeding back 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5988: 5985: 5984:Water buffalo 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5963: 5960: 5959: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5946: 5943: 5942: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5909: 5906: 5905: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5881: 5880:Animal breeds 5877: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5817: 5815: 5811: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5796: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5778: 5773: 5771: 5766: 5764: 5759: 5758: 5755: 5743: 5742: 5733: 5731: 5730: 5721: 5719: 5718: 5709: 5707: 5706: 5701: 5695: 5694: 5691: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5654:Garden centre 5652: 5650: 5647: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5634: 5633: 5632:Floral design 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5619: 5617: 5613: 5605: 5602: 5601: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5550: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5525: 5523: 5521: 5517: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5499: 5498:reforestation 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5425: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5408:Intercropping 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5368: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5350: 5349:most valuable 5347: 5346: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5328: 5325: 5324: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5317:Arboriculture 5315: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5292: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5285: 5283: 5279: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5117: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5010: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4989: 4986: 4985: 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1829: 1827: 1826:Orthodox seed 1824: 1822: 1821:Mating design 1819: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1802: 1801:Food security 1799: 1797: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1758: 1753: 1749: 1748:Yvonne Aitken 1746: 1744: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1715: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1702: 1698: 1693: 1691: 1687: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667:Tolerance of 1666: 1663: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1649: 1648: 1647: 1644: 1636: 1634: 1627: 1625: 1621: 1620: 1618: 1612: 1608: 1607:ascorbic acid 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1571: 1565: 1556: 1554: 1547: 1545: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1529: 1520: 1518: 1515: 1511: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1490: 1488: 1484: 1479: 1477: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1447: 1446: 1443: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1412: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1395: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1374: 1372: 1365: 1363: 1361: 1356: 1348: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1319: 1317: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1298: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1280: 1273: 1271: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1248: 1246: 1245:Roundup Ready 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1221: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1180: 1179:A. rhizogenes 1175: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1157: 1153: 1148: 1147:transcription 1144: 1139: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1116: 1108: 1106: 1103: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1081: 1070: 1067: 1059: 1049: 1048:the talk page 1045: 1039: 1037: 1032:This section 1030: 1021: 1020: 1014: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1001: 997: 991: 983: 975: 972: 964: 954: 950: 946: 940: 939: 935: 930:This section 928: 924: 919: 918: 911: 907: 905: 898: 890: 888: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 861: 859: 855: 851: 847: 844: 840: 836: 831: 829: 825: 815: 811: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 782:are used for 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 760: 758: 753: 751: 750:O. glaberrima 748: 744: 743: 738: 734: 733:embryo rescue 729: 725: 724:fertilization 720: 718: 714: 710: 706: 705:cell division 702: 698: 694: 691: 687: 683: 679: 674: 672: 665: 660: 653: 651: 649: 645: 641: 640:United States 636: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 579:Gregor Mendel 575: 573: 569: 563:Abundance Oat 559: 555: 546: 539: 534: 532: 528: 525: 521: 519: 515: 511: 507: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 485: 481: 478: 474: 473: 472: 469: 467: 463: 459: 458:embryo rescue 455: 451: 447: 443: 438: 436: 432: 428: 424: 419: 415: 411: 407: 401: 399: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 370: 364: 358: 347: 344: 336: 333:December 2011 326: 322: 316: 315: 310:This section 308: 304: 299: 298: 292: 290: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 251: 249: 245: 244:hybridization 241: 237: 236:Gregor Mendel 233: 230: 228: 224: 222: 218: 214: 208: 200: 198: 196: 192: 180: 175: 173: 172:food security 169: 164: 160: 157: 153: 149: 142: 138: 133: 123: 120: 112: 101: 98: 94: 91: 87: 84: 80: 77: 73: 70: – 69: 65: 64:Find sources: 58: 54: 48: 47: 42:This article 40: 36: 31: 30: 26: 22: 6235:and genetics 6209:Sweet potato 6160: 6153: 6145: 6128: 6116: 6082: 6075: 6068: 6061: 6030: 5820:Backcrossing 5739: 5727: 5715: 5696: 5599:Weed control 5488:horticulture 5427: 5418:Olericulture 5398:Hydroculture 5388:Fruticulture 5366:Floriculture 5295:Permaculture 5282:Horticulture 4678:Horticulture 4545: 4536: 4520: 4516: 4477: 4474:EMBO Reports 4473: 4434: 4430: 4376: 4359: 4356:Crop Science 4355: 4335: 4328: 4295:(10): e347. 4292: 4288: 4253: 4249: 4239: 4220: 4216: 4176: 4172: 4124: 4118: 4105: 4064: 4058: 4052: 4021:. Retrieved 4006: 3999: 3966: 3962: 3956: 3911: 3905: 3899: 3888: 3883: 3869:(1): 12–20. 3866: 3863:Crop Science 3862: 3852: 3833: 3830:Crop Science 3829: 3819: 3810: 3806: 3796: 3763: 3759: 3713: 3709: 3699: 3664: 3660: 3592: 3588: 3540: 3500: 3496: 3444: 3434: 3409: 3405: 3399: 3390: 3377: 3366: 3341: 3337: 3327: 3319:PRGA Program 3318: 3309: 3266: 3262: 3251: 3229:(1): 58–66. 3226: 3223:Crop Science 3222: 3212: 3167: 3161: 3101: 3095: 3037: 3033: 3023: 2983:(1): 35–49. 2980: 2974: 2964: 2901: 2897: 2887: 2823: 2817: 2760: 2754: 2743: 2732:. Retrieved 2728:The Guardian 2726: 2716: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2652: 2646: 2636: 2595: 2591: 2585: 2568: 2562: 2556: 2543: 2534: 2509: 2503: 2455: 2435:. Retrieved 2429: 2419: 2395: 2365:the original 2355: 2341: 2335: 2284: 2277: 2253: 2243: 2198: 2192: 2182: 2147: 2143: 2133: 2122:. Retrieved 2115: 2106: 2095:. Retrieved 2071:. Retrieved 2067: 2058: 2003: 1999: 1992: 1968: 1961: 1934: 1928: 1906: 1865:Plant Treaty 1723:Keith Downey 1694: 1682: 1640: 1631: 1622: 1614: 1574: 1568: 1560: 1551: 1542: 1524: 1516: 1512: 1507:biodiversity 1496: 1480: 1472: 1444: 1438: 1432: 1413: 1409: 1405:Jumli Marshi 1397: 1382: 1378: 1369: 1354: 1352: 1338: 1323: 1314:denitrifiers 1302: 1276: 1274: 1267: 1261: 1255:to regulate 1249: 1218: 1211:insect pests 1204: 1177: 1171: 1165: 1161:backcrossing 1140: 1118: 1089:heterozygous 1083: 1062: 1053: 1042:Please help 1033: 993: 967: 958: 943:Please help 931: 900: 862: 832: 828:backcrossing 820: 761: 754: 749: 747:African rice 742:Oryza sativa 740: 721: 686:Wide crosses 685: 675: 671:World War II 668: 644:World War II 637: 615: 591:pollinations 576: 571: 551: 470: 449: 439: 423:backcrossing 402: 395: 367: 339: 330: 319:Please help 314:verification 311: 252: 234: 231: 225: 213:agricultural 210: 176: 165: 161: 147: 146: 115: 106: 96: 89: 82: 75: 63: 51:Please help 46:verification 43: 6344:Sex linkage 6309:Codominance 6282:stabilizing 6262:directional 6148:(daffodils) 6062:Callistemon 5845:Outcrossing 5741:WikiProject 5510:Monoculture 5505:Viticulture 5483:agriculture 5443:propagation 5383:Hügelkultur 5305:sustainable 5290:Agriculture 5232:Therapeutic 5212:Shakespeare 5023:Renaissance 4815:Xeriscaping 4810:Sustainable 4805:Square foot 4795:Proplifting 4760:Garden tool 4728:Foodscaping 4281:McCouch, S. 3918:: 535–558. 3447:: 231–244. 3174:: 689–712. 2765:Elsevier BV 2598:(1): 1–14. 2093:(in German) 1831:QTL mapping 1589:and 38% of 1564:nutritional 1330:phenotyping 1237:target site 1200:cauliflower 873:generations 784:mutagenesis 780:transposons 713:chromosomes 633:detasseling 617:Statistical 499:temperature 486:of the crop 462:mutagenesis 416:-resistant 386:cauliflower 263:systematics 223:over time. 217:progenitors 135:The Yecoro 109:August 2018 6415:Categories 6395:Rare breed 6267:disruptive 6204:Strawberry 5935:Guinea pig 5830:Inbreeding 5825:Crossbreed 5403:Indigenous 5300:stock-free 5272:Zoological 5152:Pollinator 5045:Greenhouse 4988:Sharawadgi 4976:Vietnamese 4937:East Asian 4845:Australian 4800:Raised bed 4765:Green wall 4437:(7): 753. 4023:2013-11-07 3034:Microbiome 2830:: 104168. 2828:Cell Press 2734:2009-06-25 2464:: 1542–9. 2437:2021-09-12 2124:2023-01-25 2097:2023-01-25 2073:2023-03-01 2050:1865843830 1899:References 1766:Cisgenesis 1659:phosphorus 1599:phosphorus 1591:riboflavin 1579:vegetables 1392:See also: 1310:nitrifiers 1215:herbicides 1152:laboratory 1085:Homozygous 1056:March 2017 1038:to readers 961:March 2017 895:See also: 835:scientists 804:polyploidy 802:. Induced 770:(EMS) and 757:protoplast 709:colchicine 707:inhibitor 669:Following 572:controlled 531:herbicides 497:, extreme 489:Increased 482:Increased 287:biometrics 283:statistics 275:entomology 267:physiology 168:government 79:newspapers 19:See also: 6349:F1 hybrid 6324:Heterosis 6314:Epistasis 6304:Dominance 6299:Phenotype 6257:balancing 6214:Sweetcorn 6197:cultivars 6161:Nepenthes 6146:Narcissus 6129:Grevillea 6089:Cherimoya 5788:cultivars 5674:Perennial 5637:Floristry 5584:Pesticide 5564:Herbicide 5559:Fungicide 5453:hardiness 5217:Shrubbery 5197:Sculpture 5018:landscape 4947:Cantonese 4922:Container 4917:Community 4885:Byzantine 4880:Butterfly 4870:Botanical 4770:Guerrilla 4718:Community 4708:Butterfly 4703:Arboretum 4698:Allotment 4690:Gardening 4682:gardening 4572:1064-3745 4387:2nd ed. ( 4289:PLOS Biol 4256:: 51–64. 4250:Euphytica 4042:ignored ( 4032:cite book 3932:0066-4286 3780:1469-5146 3738:0002-1962 3683:1469-5146 3617:2589-0042 3567:231832089 3559:2594-3146 3519:2071-1050 3471:210580815 3406:Euphytica 3338:Euphytica 3285:1940-3372 3243:0011-183X 3204:211523980 3188:1543-5008 3144:244661193 3118:1469-8137 3056:2049-2618 3040:(1): 18. 3007:1573-5036 2956:232192480 2930:1751-7362 2878:247751213 2852:2589-0042 2807:240071295 2781:2001-0370 2478:1835-2693 2470:1835-2707 2325:ignored ( 2315:cite book 2166:1469-5146 2042:162130976 2034:0168-7972 1583:nutrients 1476:landraces 1420:F5 hybrid 1233:Bt cotton 1145:to drive 1128:phenotype 1097:F1 hybrid 1005:phenotype 932:does not 788:cultivars 776:radiation 762:Chemical 693:triticale 603:Heterosis 491:tolerance 475:Improved 421:parent, ( 398:selection 390:cultivars 279:chemistry 271:pathology 6426:Agronomy 6390:Landrace 6380:Germline 6375:Eugenics 6319:Dwarfing 6294:Genotype 6272:negative 6192:breeders 6111:Cucumber 6083:Capsicum 6076:Cannabis 6044:Japanese 5962:breeding 5945:breeding 5908:breeding 5870:Purebred 5717:Category 5627:Features 5533:Grafting 5493:forestry 5475:Tropical 5460:Pomology 5433:cuttings 5428:breeding 5262:Wildlife 5242:Tropical 5192:Scottish 5142:Pleasure 5130:Paradise 5125:Charbagh 5095:Monastic 5090:Medieval 5000:Floating 4954:Japanese 4905:Communal 4895:Colonial 4860:Biblical 4825:Types of 4790:Parterre 4580:82398463 4523:: 21–29. 4504:16880817 4453:16841052 4321:15486582 4283:(2004). 4193:54918142 4151:20110467 4089:20150489 3991:13595345 3983:15637215 3948:52096158 3940:30149790 3788:56219112 3691:86237270 3635:33305179 3589:iScience 3543:: 1–11. 3426:25146186 3358:14321630 3301:12760739 3293:28464061 3196:32097567 3136:34823272 3074:29374490 3015:25420169 2948:33692487 2870:35434553 2819:iScience 2799:34712394 2679:18515776 2628:24400025 2620:14513379 2526:10464788 2486:55486617 2235:19307570 2174:86237270 2008:Elsevier 1953:24330272 1791:EUCARPIA 1754:See also 1686:genotype 1655:nitrogen 1339:multiple 1269:pharming 1184:gene gun 1143:promoter 858:solanine 846:solanine 824:yielding 764:mutagens 587:seedling 518:bacteria 495:salinity 450:in vitro 388:are all 382:broccoli 259:cytology 240:genetics 227:Grafting 141:cultivar 139:(right) 25:Cultivar 21:Cultigen 6370:Breeder 6242:Culling 6154:Nemesia 6117:Gazania 6099:hybrids 5898:Chicken 5813:Methods 5729:Commons 5642:Ikebana 5594:Pruning 5520:Organic 5470:Roguing 5356:Cutting 5247:Victory 5222:Spanish 5202:Sensory 5147:Prairie 5115:Persian 5105:Orchard 5070:Kitchen 5065:Keyhole 5060:Italian 5055:Islamic 5050:Hanging 5009:French 4995:Fernery 4983:English 4942:Chinese 4927:Cottage 4855:Baroque 4827:gardens 4780:History 4495:1525145 4461:8087798 4274:General 4129:Bibcode 4120:Science 4097:9468220 4069:Bibcode 4060:Science 3718:Bibcode 3626:7708809 3597:Bibcode 3127:9299473 3065:5787276 2985:Bibcode 2939:8319409 2910:Bibcode 2861:9010633 2832:Bibcode 2790:8515068 2670:2408621 2600:Bibcode 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