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authorisation is necessary for the production for purposes of commercial marketing, the offering for sale and the marketing of propagating material of the protected variety. The 1991 Act contains more detailed provisions defining the acts concerning propagating material in relation to which the holder's authorisation is required. The breeder's authorisation is also required in relation to any of the specified acts done with harvested material of the variety, unless the breeder has had reasonable opportunity to exercise their right in relation to the propagating material, or if not doing so could constitute an "Omega Threat" situation. Under that provision, for example, a flower breeder who protects their variety in the
Netherlands could block importation of cut flowers of that variety into the Netherlands from Egypt, which does not grant plant breeders' rights, because the breeder had no opportunity to exercise any rights in Egypt. Member countries also have the option to require the breeder's authorization with respect to the specified acts as applied to products directly obtained from the harvested material (such as flour or oil from grain, or juice from fruit), unless the breeder has had reasonable opportunity to exercise their right in relation to the harvested material.
639:, under which citizens of any member state are treated as citizens of all member states for the purpose of obtaining plant breeders rights. It also sets up a multilateral priority filing system, under which an application for protection filed in one member state establishes a filing date for applications filed in all other member states within one year of that original filing date. This allows a breeder to file in any one member country within the one-year period required to preserve the novelty of their variety, and the novelty of the variety will still be recognized when the filing is done in other member countries within one year of the original filing date. However, if the applicant does not wish to make use of priority filing, he or she has four years in which to apply in all other member states, excepting the United States, for all species except tree and vine species in which case he or she has six years to make application. More information can be obtained in Article 10 (1) (b) of Council Regulation (EC) No. 2100/94 of 27 July 2004. The trigger to start the four- or six-year period is not actually the date on which the first filing is made but the date on which the variety was first commercialised.
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property rights laws upon new plant varieties is required. This counter argument asserts that complex social, cultural, and economic factors affect the nature of intellectual property and its protection. A specific concern within this argument is with the means by which seeds are accessed within different local and international regions. Recognizing that this process is extremely transient in nature and can vary greatly over time, supporters of this argument purport that this diversity must be reflected within intellectual property rights laws in order for them to exist as an effective protection of plant breeders' rights.
754:(OSSI) is a national attempt that has been introduced within the United States, and is the first of its kind to model its approach regarding plant breeders' rights upon the mechanisms implemented by openly sourced software mechanisms. Subsequent discourse on this approach has arisen, as concerns with the use of open source technology within a legal framework have developed. Some perceive OSSI as having significantly limited plant breeders' ability to access intellectual property rights for new plant varieties. This has resulted in claims that funding for research and development in this sector will also decline.
141:
690:, laws were formed concerning the preservation of seeds for future plantation, such that the need to buy seeds to use in subsequent planting seasons would be significantly reduced, and even potentially eliminated altogether. In addition, the 1991 convention also concerns the method of instigating plant breeding by implementing pre-existing and patented plant species as contributor of vital genetic information in the creation of what would legally be regarded as a new variety of plant.
506:
overlapping and not mutually exclusive. Thus, the exemptions from infringement of plant breeders' rights, such as the saved seed exemption, do not create corresponding exemptions from infringement of the patents covering the same plants. Likewise, acts that infringe the plant breeders' rights, such as exportation of the variety, would not necessarily infringe a patent on the variety, which only allows the patent owner to prohibit making, using, or selling
624:(UPOV) and adoption of the first text of the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV Convention) in 1961. The purpose of the Convention was to ensure that the member states party to the Convention acknowledge the achievements of breeders of new plant varieties by making available to them an exclusive property right, on the basis of a set of uniform and clearly defined principles.
698:
UPOV convention, which declares such rights upon an individual breeder. This document further identifies a breeder as one who has found or created a plant variety, one who possesses legal authority for the contractual production of a new plant variety, or one who has inherited legal rights to this form of intellectual property as it was derived under either of the two aforementioned conditions.
524:
33:
646:. Each member state must adopt legislation consistent with the requirements of the convention and submit that legislation to the UPOV Secretariat for review and approval by the UPOV Council, which consists of all the UPOV member states acting in committee. In compliance with these treaty obligations, the United Kingdom enacted the
659:
Commissioner of Plant
Variety Protection promulgated rules to do so. Since the 1980s, the US Patent Office has granted patents on plants, including plant varieties this provides a second way of protecting plant varieties in the United States. Australia passed the Plant Variety Protection Act 1987 (Cth) and the
631:
in 1972, 1978 and 1991. Both the 1978 and the 1991 Acts set out a minimum scope of protection and offer member States the possibility of taking national circumstances into account in their legislation. Under the 1978 Act, the minimum scope of the plant breeder's right requires that the holder's prior
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Breeders can bring suit to enforce their rights and can recover damages. Plant breeders' rights contain exemptions that are not recognized under other legal doctrines such as patent law. Commonly, there is an exemption for farm-saved seed. Farmers may store this production in their own bins for their
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in seed sovereignty. Activists argue that farmers and individuals should have legal protection for the practice for maintaining traditional plant varieties. Seed sovereignty activists also argue that seed saving should be protected on the grounds of environmentalism and food security. Some activists
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There have been contrary opinions expressed by both lawyers and scientists assessing the general necessity for the protection of bred plant varieties as a form of intellectual property. Currently, intellectual property rights protect ideas that can be demonstrated as being novel and undiscovered at
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plants as new varieties, the legal measure of double protection, as expressed within the current iteration of the UPOV, can be taken. Double protection mediates the overlap between plant breeders' rights and patents that exists within the purview of intellectual property rights law, by enabling the
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are required to acknowledge the creation of new varieties of plants, and to uphold these creations within full recognition of intellectual property rights laws. A formalized legislature, exemplifying the manner in which such intellectual property rights can be conferred, is demonstrated by the 1991
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Seed sovereignty can be defined as the right "to breed and exchange diverse open-sourced seeds". Generally, it comes from the belief that communities should have control over their own seed stock, as a means to increase agricultural biodiversity, resilience, and food security. This idea is closely
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Typically, plant variety rights are granted by national offices after examination. Seed is submitted to the plant variety office, who grow it for one or more seasons, to check that it is distinct, stable, and uniform. If these tests are passed, exclusive rights are granted for a specified period
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1970 (US). This legislation provided protection to developers of novel, sexually reproduced plants. However, the United States originally acceded to the UPOV Convention on the basis of the Plant Patent Act and did not bring the PVP Act into compliance with UPOV requirements until 1984 when the
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research and development, for example, has been specified as a particularly demanding endeavor, with respect to immediate concerns for the ability to sustainably feed an increasing global population. On the contrary, some believe that a more diverse approach than the imposition of intellectual
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purposes are not allowed without the written approval of the breeder. There is also a breeders' exemption (research exemption in the 1991 Act) that allows breeders to use protected varieties as sources of initial variation to create new varieties of plants (1978 Act), or for other experimental
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There is tension over the relationship between patent rights and plant breeder's rights. There has been litigation in
Australia, the United States, and Canada over the overlap between such rights. Each of these cases was decided on the principle that patents and plant breeders' rights were
742:. Expectations of future changes to the legal protection of plant-related forms of intellectual property differ from the legal requirements for the first plant patent. Proponents of these laws recognize an overarching need for the financial support of research and development.
683:(stand alone) system, or a combination of the two. Most countries meet this requirement through UPOV Convention-compliant legislation. India has adopted a plant breeders' rights law that has been rejected by the UPOV Council as not meeting the requirements of the treaty.
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With these rights, the breeder can choose to become the exclusive marketer of the variety, or to license the variety to others. In order to qualify for these exclusive rights, a variety must be new, distinct, uniform, and stable. A variety is:
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1994 (Cth). Australian patent law also permits the patenting of plant varieties. In total, 65 countries have signed the UPOV Convention and adopted plant breeders' rights legislation consistent with the requirements of the convention.
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1012:
Fister, Karin; Fister, Iztok; Murovec, Jana; Bohanec, Borut (2017-02-01). "DNA labelling of varieties covered by patent protection: a new solution for managing intellectual property rights in the seed industry".
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The most recent 1991 UPOV convention established several restrictions upon international plant breeders' rights. While the current legislature of the convention recognizes novel varieties of plants as
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the time of its legal claim as intellectual property. This definition of novelty, however, has been flexible throughout the history of intellectual property law, both internationally, and within the
974:"International Convention For The Protection Of New Varieties Of Plants of December 2, 1961, as Revised at Geneva on November 10, 1972, on October 23, 1978, and on March 19, 1991, UPOV Convention"
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argue that seed sovereignty is important because of the cultural value of certain seeds and plant varieties, especially among indigenous communities. Seed sovereignty has strong ties to the
956:"International Convention For The Protection Of New Varieties Of Plants of December 2, 1961, as revised at Geneva on November 10, 1972, and on October 23, 1978, UPOV Convention"
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own use as seed, but this does not necessarily extend to "brown-bag sales" (i.e. resale of farm-saved seed to neighbors in the local area). Further sales for
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if the plant characteristics are genetically fixed and therefore remain the same from generation to generation, or after a cycle of reproduction in the case of
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190:
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Matthew Rimmer. "Franklin Barley Patent Law And Plant
Breeders' Rights", Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law, December 2003, Vol. 10, No. 4, URL
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541:
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The breeder must also give the variety an acceptable "denomination", which becomes its generic name and must be used by anyone who markets the variety.
50:
1204:
Jondle, Robert J.; Hill, Krista K.; Sanny, Tony (2015-11-12). "Current Legal Issues in
Intellectual Property Rights and Protection for Crop Plants".
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650:. Similar legislation was passed in the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, and New Zealand. In 1970 the United States followed the lead of seventeen
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266:
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323:
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Kloppenburg, Jack (2014-11-02). "Re-purposing the master's tools: the open source seed initiative and the struggle for seed sovereignty".
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connected to issues of intellectual property rights, particularly related to the patenting of plant genetics, due to the importance of
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if it differs from all other known varieties by one or more important botanical characteristics, such as height, maturity, color, etc.;
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to assure public access to protected varieties if the national interest requires it and the breeder is unable to meet the demand.
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489:(typically 20/25 years, or 25/30 years for trees and vines). Renewal fees (often, annual) are required to maintain the rights.
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As a result of this conflict concerning authority over seeds, new legislation has been implemented in the United States. The
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713:) are contentious, in particular when analysed in balance with other relevant international legal instruments, such as the
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In 1957, in France negotiations took place concerned with the protection of new varieties. This led to the creation of the
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83:
1387:
Winter, Lauren (Jan 2020). "Cultivating
Farmers' Rights: Reconciling Food Security, Indigenous Agriculture, and TRIPS".
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Palombi, Luigi (2014-06-30). "The
Patenting of Biological Materials in the United States: A State of Policy Confusion".
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1131:"Elements of Intellectual Property Protection in Plant Breeding and Biotechnology: Interactions and Outcomes"
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Cook, Robert C. “The First Plant Patent.” Journal of the Patent Office
Society 14 (1932): 398–403.
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1408:"The dispute over wild rice: an investigation of treaty agreements and Ojibwe food sovereignty"
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1322:"Intellectual property in plant breeding: comparing different levels and forms of protection"
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Lence, Sergio H.; Hayes, Dermot J.; Alston, Julian M.; Smith, John
Stephen C. (2016-02-01).
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International community of breeders of asexually reproduced ornamental and fruit varieties
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Smith, Stephen; Lence, Sergio; Hayes, Dermot; Alston, Julian; Corona, Eloy (2016-07-08).
928:"Since 1994, brown-bag sales of PVP-protected seed has been illegal in the United States"
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if it has not been commercialized for more than one year in the country of protection;
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if the plant characteristics are consistent from plant to plant within the variety;
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https://www.nativeseedpod.org/podcast/2018/episode-1-the-natural-law-of-seeds
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movements, due to its focus on increasing food security for all communities.
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Guidance on Plant
Breeders' Rights from United Kingdom government website
1292:"Article: Future of protecting plant related innovations - Mewburn Ellis"
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International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
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International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
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International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
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LaDuke, Winona. (2012). Seeds of Our Ancestors, Seeds of Life, TEDxTC.
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protections of both to be conferred upon a particular plant variety.
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Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
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International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants
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Union Internationale pour la Protection des Obtentions Végétales
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444:, cuttings, divisions, tissue culture) and harvested material (
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United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
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The UPOV Convention also establishes a multilateral system of
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Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001
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http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v10n4/rimmer104.html
448:, fruit, foliage) of a new variety for a number of years.
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838:
Nagoya Protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity
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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
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White, Rowen. (2018). The Native Seed Pod, Episode 1.
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Raster, Amanda; Hill, Christina Rish (June 1, 2017).
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United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants
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United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants
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1171:Barh, Debmalya (2013-11-27). Barh, Debmalya (ed.).
548:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
498:purposes (1991 Act). There is also a provision for
57:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
709:Plant breeders' rights (sometimes referred to as
1607:Article 9 of FAO Plant Treaty on Farmers' rights
1528:Community Plant Variety Office (European Union)
428:), are rights granted in certain places to the
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701:As a result of debate over the protection of
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8:
1446:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHNlel72eQc
191:Integrated circuit layout design protection
1671:Commercialization of traditional medicines
1612:Right to food as codified in various texts
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843:UPOV Convention on New Varieties of Plants
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1326:European Review of Agricultural Economics
608:Learn how and when to remove this message
440:over the propagating material (including
117:Learn how and when to remove this message
859:World Intellectual Property Organization
1389:Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law
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226:Supplementary protection certificate
55:adding citations to reliable sources
1572:Convention on Biological Diversity
1173:OMICS Applications in Crop Science
864:Genetic resources (disambiguation)
834:Convention on Biological Diversity
725:(Plant Treaty). The UPOV is often
715:Convention on Biological Diversity
25:
648:Plant Variety and Seeds Act 1964
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356:Outline of intellectual property
181:Indigenous intellectual property
139:
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1635:United States of America (1970)
733:Plants as intellectual property
533:needs additional citations for
436:of plant that give the breeder
42:needs additional citations for
1079:The Journal of Peasant Studies
869:Community Plant Variety Office
627:The Convention was revised in
1:
693:Constituent countries of the
1412:Agriculture and Human Values
1091:10.1080/03066150.2013.875897
880:Plant Variety Protection Act
656:Plant Variety Protection Act
508:(first sale, but not resale)
1542:International organisations
1218:10.2135/cropsci2014.10.0693
1147:10.2135/cropsci2015.10.0608
752:Open Source Seed Initiative
642:The UPOV Convention is not
304:Idea–expression distinction
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1565:Relevant international law
908:www.plantvarietyrights.org
1424:10.1007/s10460-016-9703-6
1027:10.1007/s11248-016-9981-1
661:Plant Breeders Rights Act
876:Plant Patent Act of 1930
727:criticized on this basis
695:World Trade Organization
557:"Plant breeders' rights"
510:the patented invention.
66:"Plant breeders' rights"
1711:Sustainable agriculture
1241:Perspectives on Science
791:Plant genetic resources
654:nations and passed the
216:Plant genetic resources
186:Industrial design right
176:Geographical indication
1514:Plant breeders' rights
904:"Plant Variety Rights"
414:Plant breeders' rights
287:Criticism of copyright
211:Plant breeders' rights
1661:Biological patent law
1623:National legislations
1368:. The Gaia Foundation
688:intellectual property
133:Intellectual property
1253:10.1162/POSC_a_00158
542:improve this article
514:International rights
500:compulsory licensing
422:plant variety rights
51:improve this article
18:Plant variety rights
1339:10.1093/erae/jbv007
1015:Transgenic Research
980:on August 21, 2006.
711:breeders' privilege
679:or by an effective
277:Copyright abolition
1701:Plant conservation
1666:Plant reproduction
1362:"Seed Sovereignty"
637:national treatment
369:Higher categories:
361:Outline of patents
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962:on June 26, 2012.
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67:
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62:Find sources:
56:
52:
46:
45:
40:This article
38:
34:
29:
28:
19:
1691:Biodiversity
1630:India (2001)
1513:
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1415:
1411:
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1392:
1388:
1382:
1370:. Retrieved
1365:
1356:
1329:
1325:
1315:
1304:. Retrieved
1300:the original
1295:
1286:
1277:
1247:(1): 35–65.
1244:
1240:
1234:
1209:
1206:Crop Science
1205:
1199:
1172:
1138:
1135:Crop Science
1134:
1082:
1078:
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1018:
1014:
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968:
960:the original
950:
938:. Retrieved
934:
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907:
898:
796:Biodiversity
770:food justice
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744:Agricultural
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540:Please help
535:verification
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377:Property law
368:
346:Pirate Party
341:Patent troll
324:Paraphrasing
314:Fair dealing
236:Trade secret
210:
196:Moral rights
113:
107:January 2011
104:
94:
87:
80:
73:
61:
49:Please help
44:verification
41:
1332:(1): 1–29.
1212:(6): 2496.
1141:(4): 1401.
765:seed saving
681:sui generis
495:propagation
446:cut flowers
336:Orphan work
262:Abandonware
231:Trade dress
1650:Categories
1306:2017-05-05
935:uidaho.edu
913:2020-03-04
891:References
568:newspapers
481:varieties.
77:newspapers
1676:Bioethics
1472:"CIOPORA"
1348:0165-1587
1261:1063-6145
1226:0011-183X
1155:0011-183X
1107:154646597
1099:0306-6150
1035:0962-8819
810:Germplasm
801:Biopiracy
721:) or the
717:(and its
432:of a new
297:Biopiracy
241:Trademark
161:Copyright
1603:(UNDROP)
1597:(UNDRIP)
1432:55940408
1269:57560111
1051:20477905
1043:27567633
940:13 March
886:- India)
815:Seedbank
780:See also
463:distinct
373:Property
319:Fair use
156:Copyleft
882:- USA;
677:patents
582:scholar
469:uniform
434:variety
430:breeder
91:scholar
1681:Botany
1557:(UPOV)
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479:hybrid
475:stable
201:Patent
93:
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1706:Seeds
1551:(FAO)
1428:S2CID
1372:8 May
1265:S2CID
1103:S2CID
1047:S2CID
931:(PDF)
589:JSTOR
575:books
98:JSTOR
84:books
1374:2020
1344:ISSN
1257:ISSN
1222:ISSN
1185:ISBN
1151:ISSN
1095:ISSN
1039:PMID
1031:ISSN
942:2024
836:and
772:and
667:The
561:news
442:seed
375:and
70:news
1420:doi
1334:doi
1249:doi
1214:doi
1177:doi
1143:doi
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669:WTO
544:by
457:new
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418:PBR
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