263:, pursued a policy of retreat within the city walls of Athens, relying on Athenian maritime supremacy for supply while the superior Athenian navy harassed Spartan troop movements. Unfortunately, the strategy also resulted in massive migration from the Attic countryside into an already highly populated city, generating overpopulation and resource shortage. Due to the close quarters and poor hygiene exhibited at that time, Athens became a breeding ground for disease, and many citizens died. In the history of epidemics in wartime, the 'Plague' of Athens is remarkable for the limitation of the affliction to one side as well as for its influence on the outcome of the war. The Athenians thought that the Spartans could have poisoned their water supply to kill them to win the Peloponnesian War. The Spartans somehow were unaffected by the plague, which may have been a reason for the Athenians' suspicion. It has been noted that the Plague of Athens was the worst sickness of Classical Greece.
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The dead were heaped on top of each other, left to rot, or shoved into mass graves. Sometimes those carrying the dead would come across an already burning funeral pyre, dump a new body on it, and walk away. Others appropriated prepared pyres to have enough fuel to cremate their own dead. Survivors of the plague, like
Thucydides himself, developed an immunity, and so became the main caretakers of those who later fell ill. According to Thucydides, those who had become ill and survived were the most sympathetic to others suffering: believing that they could no longer succumb to any illness, many survivors offered to assist with the remaining sick.
131:
439:
523:, passed before the Plague in 451/450, stated that only those born to two Athenian parents could be considered an Athenian citizen; it was re-enacted in 402, the year after the war ended, well after the Plague. The reduction in citizen population reduced both their number of potential soldiers and amount of political power Athens could wield. Many of the remaining Athenians were found to be metics who had forged their documentation or had bribed officials to hide their original status. A number of these people were reduced to slaves once they were caught.
865:) than typhus or typhoid. Unusual in the history of plagues during military operations, besieging Spartan troops are described as not having been afflicted by the illness raging near them within the city. Thucydides' description further invites comparison with VHF in the character and sequence of symptoms developed and of the usual fatal outcome on about the eighth day. Some scientists have interpreted Thucydides' expression "
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society were at a lower risk of catching the plague due to better living standards and better hygiene. Lack of food was not an issue for Athens, for they had plenty of grain storage. Athens lacked vitamin C due to their mainly grain diet. The lack of vitamin C caused a lower immunity. The lower immunity left
Athenians more susceptible to diseases. The Plague of Athens was most likely caused by a reservoir disease or
424:
25:
647:. "It hits hardest in times of war and privation, it has about 20 percent mortality, it kills the victim after about seven days, and it sometimes causes a striking complication: gangrene of the tips of the fingers and toes. The Plague of Athens had all these features." In typhus cases, progressive dehydration, debilitation, and cardiovascular collapse ultimately cause the patient's death.
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888:), the type of primates responsible for transmitting Marburg virus into Germany and Yugoslavia when that disease was first characterized in 1967. Circumstantially tantalizing is the requirement for the large quantity of ivory used in the Athenian sculptor Phidias’ two monumental ivory and gold statues of Athena and of Zeus (one of the
877:) as the unusual symptom of hiccups, which is now recognized as a common finding in Ebola virus disease. Outbreaks of VHF in Africa in 2012 and 2014 reinforced observations of the increased hazard to caregivers and the necessity of barrier precautions for preventing disease spread related to grief rituals and funerary rites. The
365:. The belief is centered around the idea that a person contains four humors-yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood-that must be equally balanced to have a healthy body. Practices to balance the humors include blood-letting, purging, urine sampling, and using the opposite humor to treat the imbalanced humor.
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Unfortunately, DNA sequence-based identification is limited by the inability of some important pathogens to leave a "footprint" retrievable from archaeological remains after several millennia. The lack of a durable signature by RNA viruses means some etiologies, notably the hemorrhagic fever viruses,
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Thucydides left a detailed account of what victims of the plague experienced, in order to "describe what it was like, and set down the symptoms, knowledge of which will enable it to be recognized, if it should ever break out again." He says that the illness began by showing symptoms in the head as it
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The plague dealt massive damage to Athens two years into the
Peloponnesian War, from which it never recovered. Their political strength had weakened, and morale among their armies and citizens had fallen significantly. Athens would then go on to be defeated by Sparta and fall from being a major power
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Thucydides' description has archeological support. A mass grave and nearly 1,000 tombs, dated between 430 and 426 BC, have been found just outside Athens' ancient
Kerameikos cemetery. The mass grave was bordered by a low wall that seemed to have protected the cemetery from a wetland. Excavated during
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Given the possibility that profiles of a known disease may have changed over time, or that the plague was caused by a disease that no longer exists, the exact nature of the
Athenian plague may never be known. In addition, crowding caused by the influx of refugees into the city led to inadequate food
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Thucydides states that people ceased fearing the law since they felt they were already living under a death sentence. Likewise, people started spending money indiscriminately. Many felt they would not live long enough to enjoy the fruits of wise investment, while some of the poor unexpectedly became
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The war, along with the plague, had lasting effects on
Athenian society. Short-term, there was civil disorder, and violations of usual funerary practices. Thucydides describes a decrease in traditional religious practices and increase in superstitious explanations. He estimates that it took 15 years
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and subway line, both subsequently cancelled. Excavator Efi
Baziotopoulou-Valavani, of the Third Ephoreia (Directorate) of Antiquities, reported that "he mass grave did not have a monumental character. The offerings we found consisted of common, even cheap, burial vessels; black-finished ones, some
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Thucydides also describes violations of social norms motivated by the sheer contagiousness of the illness. For instance, he says that those who tended to the ill were most vulnerable to catching the disease, which meant that many people died alone because no one was willing to risk caring for them.
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Some characteristics of typhoid are at clear variance from
Thucydides' description. Scavenger animals do not die from infection with typhoid, The onset of fever in typhoid is typically slow and subtle, and typhoid generally kills later in the disease course. As typhoid is most commonly transmitted
881:
noted the persistence of effects on genitalia and eyes in some survivors, both described by
Thucydides. With an up to 21-day clinical incubation period, and up to 565-day infectious potential recently demonstrated in a semen-transmitted infection, movement of Ebola via Nile commerce into the busy
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The plague was an unforeseen event that resulted in one of the largest recorded loss of life in ancient Greece as well as a breakdown of
Athenian society. The epidemic caused the death of an estimated 25% of Athens, which at the time ranged from 250,000 to 300,000. Thucydides says that it took 15
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The plague also caused religious uncertainty and doubt. Thucydides wrote that since the disease struck without regard to a person's piety toward the gods, people felt abandoned by the gods and there seemed to be no benefit to worshiping them. He described the temples themselves as sites of great
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into the Greek world and spreading throughout the wider Mediterranean; a plague so severe and deadly that no one could recall anywhere its like, and physicians ignorant of its nature not only were helpless but themselves died the fastest, having had the most contact with the sick. In overcrowded
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to citizens changed (in 450, metics were probably between a fifth and a half of the Athenian population). The Plague may have made the legal and social position of metics more precarious, though this trend was obvious before the Plague, in the 490s and 480s, as a reaction to the refugees of the
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The plague affected certain groups over others, however, there is a lack of details of how the plague spread among inbreeds and certain working members. Physicians and health care workers were at a higher risk to catch the plague due to the exposure of other diseases. Higher-ranking members of
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himself (the god of disease and medicine) would fight for Sparta if they fought with all their might, and an earlier oracle that had warned that "A Dorian war will come, and bring a pestilence with it". Thucydides was skeptical of these conclusions and believed that people were simply being
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All the birds and beasts that prey upon human bodies, either abstained from touching them (though there were many lying unburied), or died after tasting them. In proof of this, it was noticed that birds of this kind disappeared; they were not about the bodies, or indeed to be seen at
510:
Thucydides says that the balance of power between citizens had changed due to many of the rich dying and their fortunes being inherited by remaining relatives of the lower classes. Thucydides, being a wealthy citizen, does not document much about the effects on lower classes.
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of Athens, inflating the populations of the polis of Athens, the port of Piraeus, and the area along the road between them, which was also within the Long Walls. The population had tripled or quadrupled, from a prewar population of around 100–150,000 (60,000 citizens, 25,000
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Athens, the disease killed an estimated 25% of the population. The sight of the burning funeral pyres of Athens caused the Spartans to withdraw their troops, being unwilling to risk contact with the diseased enemy. Many of Athens' infantry and expert seamen died. According to
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1994–95, the shaft-shaped grave may have contained a total of 240 individuals, at least ten of them children. Skeletons in the graves were randomly placed with no layers of soil between them. The earliest (lowest) burials were carefully laid out and included
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that may have been confused with the one that causes typhoid fever. Nonetheless, the Papagrigorakis team asserts that the basis of this refutation is flimsy, and that the methodology used by the Shapiro team has historically produced conflicting results.
259:, were almost exclusively land-based powers, able to summon large land armies that were very nearly unbeatable. In the face of a combined campaign on land from Sparta and its allies beginning in 431 BC, the Athenians, under the direction of
903:
6.1146–47: "sudabant etiam fauces intrinsecus atrae / sanguine" – the throat sweated within, black with blood). That descriptor may have been derived from direct observation because Lucretius cited scientific predecessors in Greek Sicily-
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The plague returned in 429, and a third time in the winter of 427/426 BC. Thucydides left a detailed account of the plague's symptoms and epidemiology. Some 30 pathogens have been suggested as having caused the plague.
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236:, the city's port and sole source of food and supplies. Thucydides, an Athenian survivor, wrote that much of the eastern Mediterranean also saw an outbreak of the disease, albeit with less impact.
467:(oil flasks) of the second half of the 5th century BC. The bodies were placed in the pit within a day or two. These point to a mass burial in a state of panic, quite possibly due to a plague."
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study of dental pulp from teeth recovered from an ancient Greek burial pit, led by orthodontist Dr. Manolis Papagrigorakis of the University of Athens, found DNA sequences similar to those of
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wealthy by inheriting the property of their relatives. He also wrote that people refused to behave honorably because most did not expect to live long enough to enjoy a good reputation for it.
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835:) has shown itself to be prone to contamination-induced false-positive results, and the source burial site is known to have been heavily trafficked in antiquity by hogs, carriers of another
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through poor hygiene habits and public sanitation conditions in crowded urban areas, it is an unlikely cause of a plague emerging in the less urbanized Africa, as reported by Thucydides.
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when an Athenian victory still seemed within reach. The plague killed an estimated 75,000 to 100,000 people, around 25% of the population, and is believed to have entered Athens through
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and water supplies and a probable proportionate increase in insects, lice, rats, and waste. These conditions would have encouraged more than one epidemic disease during the outbreak.
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misery, as refugees from the Athenian countryside had been forced to find accommodation in the temples, and says that the sacred buildings were soon filled with the dead and dying.
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and no more than 70,000 slaves) to 300–400,000. This gave a population density of 25,000 inhabitants per square mile (9,700/km) to 100,000 inhabitants per square mile (39,000/km).
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port of Piraeus is plausible. Ancient Greek intimacy with African sources is reflected in accurate renditions of monkeys in the art of frescoes and pottery, most notably guenons (
373:
Accounts of the Athenian plague graphically describe the social consequences of an epidemic. Thucydides describes a disappearance of social morals during the time of the plague:
615:. Based upon striking descriptive similarities with recent outbreaks in Africa, as well as the fact that the Athenian plague itself came from Africa (as Thucydides recorded),
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devoted their fifth annual medical conference, dedicated to notorious case histories, to the Plague of Athens. They concluded that the disease that killed the Greeks was
654:, who wrote a comprehensive annotated edition of Thucydides and who also believed typhus was the cause of the epidemic. This opinion is expressed in his monumental work
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492:-eating birds and animals disappeared, though he left it an open question whether they died after eating the corpses or refused to eat them and were driven away:
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for the Athenian population to recover. Long-term, the high death toll drastically redistributed wealth within Athenian society, and weakened Athens politically.
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455:; for the later burials, the bodies appear to have been simply tossed into the grave, with the exception of pot burials of the bodies of children and infants.
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537:(writing over four centuries later) to have died in the 429 plague; Thucydides (a contemporary and strong supporter of Pericles) does not mention this death.
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Manolis J. Papagrigorakis, Christos Yapijakis, and Philippos N.Synodinos, ‘Typhoid Fever Epidemic in Ancient Athens,’ in Didier Raoult, Michel Drancourt,
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304:. Upon this discovery, Thucydides' accounts of the event as well as analysis of the remains had been used to try and identify the cause of the epidemic.
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in its many forms, but a reconsideration of the reported symptoms and epidemiology have led scholars to advance alternative explanations. These include
1821:"Insufficient phylogenetic analysis may not exclude candidacy of typhoid fever as a probable cause of the Plague of Athens (reply to Shapiro et al.)"
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Historians have long tried to identify the disease behind the Plague of Athens. The disease has traditionally been considered an outbreak of the
377:"The catastrophe was so overwhelming that men, not knowing what would happen next to them, became indifferent to every rule of religion or law.”
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They translate the phrase λύγξ κενή as "hiccups," often previously translated from Thucydides as "ineffectual retching", (cf. Aretaeus,
796:
350:, though neither has been confirmed. If the plague was caused by a reservoir disease, it would be very similar to arboviral diseases or
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674:, I: 177–178) acknowledges and supports Gomme's opinion: "Today, according to Gomme, it is generally acceptable that it was typhus" ("
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916:, a physician, are extant, it is reported that he died c. 430 BC after traveling from Sicily to Athens to assist against the plague.
342:, where refugees would camp out. He says that crowding and poor hygiene in the Long Walls led to a significant spread of the plague.
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There was severe overcrowding due to the ongoing war. During this time refugees from the Peloponnesian war had immigrated within the
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Thucydides' narrative pointedly refers to increased risk among caregivers, more typical of the person-to-person contact spread of
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Thucydides says that many of his fellow Athenians took the plague as evidence that the gods favored Sparta, citing an oracle that
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years for the Athenian population to recover. The plague also contributed to Athens' overall loss of power and need to expand.
130:
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276:, who was present and contracted the disease himself and survived, describes the epidemic. He writes of a disease coming from
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46:
1854:"Analysis of the type 1 pilin gene cluster fim in Salmonella: Its distinct evolutionary histories in the 5' and 3' regions"
820:, disputed the Papagrigorakis team's findings, citing what they claim are serious methodological flaws. In a letter to the
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431:, an 11-year-old girl who died during the plague of Athens and whose skeleton was found in the Kerameikos mass grave,
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Papagrigorakis, Manolis J.; Yapijakis, Christos; Synodinos, Philippos N.; Baziotopoulou-Valavani, Effie (July 2006).
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Papagrigorakis, Manolis J.; Yapijakis, Christos; Synodinos, Philippos N.; Baziotopoulou-Valavani, Effie (2006).
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2018:"DNA examination of ancient dental pulp incriminates typhoid fever as a probable cause of the Plague of Athens"
1715:"DNA examination of ancient dental pulp incriminates typhoid fever as a probable cause of the Plague of Athens"
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Olson PE, Hames CS, Benenson AS, Genovese EN. "The Thucydides syndrome: ebola deja vu? (or ebola reemergent?)"
459:
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The perceived impact of the Athenian plague on collective social and religious behavior echoes accounts of the
643:. "Epidemic typhus fever is the best explanation," said Dr. David Durack, consulting professor of medicine at
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892:), which were fabricated in the same decade. Never again in antiquity was ivory used on such a large scale.
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Thucydides equivocates on whether scavengers did die after eating corpses or simply fled: See Thuc. 2.50.
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Dr. Alexander Langmuir, formerly chief epidemiologist at the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, US.
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The first corroboration of the plague was not revealed until 1994-95 when excavation revealed the first
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says that the plague spread from Ethiopia to Athens, and that the plague first emerged in the port of
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824:, Shapiro et al. stated that "while this DNA analysis confirms that the Athens sequence is possibly
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680:"). The theory has also found recent support in a study of the plague by Greek epidemiologists.
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293:, not until 415 BC had Athens recovered sufficiently to mount a major offensive, the disastrous
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Littman, Robert J. (October 2009). "The plague of Athens: epidemiology and paleopathology".
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1800:"Typhus, Typhoid Fever or Avian Influenza? What Plague Killed the Father of the Parthenon?"
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Pericles witnessing the death of his son due to the Plague of Athens, by François Chifflart
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Polemos as Kinêsis: the effects of the Peloponnesian War on Athenian society and culture
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as later mentioned. If it was a respiratory disease, it would most likely be similar to
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2016:
Papagrigorakis, MJ; Yapijakis, C; Synodinos, PN; Baziotopoulou-Valavani, E (May 2006).
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1759:"No proof that typhoid caused the Plague of Athens (a reply to Papagrigorakis et al.)"
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A second group of researchers, including American evolutionary molecular biologist
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Athenians tried to reduce the effects of this overcrowding by moving the cattle to
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The Black Death: The Great Mortality of 1348-1350: A Brief History with Documents
658:, completed after Gomme's death by A. Andrewes and K. J. Dover. Angelos Vlachos (
338:, from ships with plague-infected passengers, whence it spread to Athens via the
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1077:"The Plague of Athens killed tens of thousands, but its cause remains a mystery"
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A second ancient narrative suggestive of hemorrhagic fever etiology is that of
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are not testable hypotheses using currently available scientific techniques.
488:, and strove to gather evidence through direct observation. He observed that
1655:"Plague of Athens: Another Medical Mystery Solved at University of Maryland"
1121:"Plague Victims Found: Mass Burial in Athens - Archaeology Magazine Archive"
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677:Σήμερα, όπως γράφει ο Gomme, έχει γίνει από όλους παραδεκτό ότι ήταν τύφος
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1272:"The Hippocratic account of Mental Health: Humors and Human Temperament"
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superstitious. He relied upon the prevailing medical theory of the day,
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1997:. Boston,1935; New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 1996.
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1903:"The Thucydides syndrome: Ebola déjà vu? (or Ebola reemergent?)"
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Thucydides (2009-06-11), Hammond, Martin; Rhodes, P. J. (eds.),
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1757:; Rambaut, Andrew; Gilbert, M. Thomas P.; et al. (2006).
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Rats, Lice and History: A Chronicle of Pestilence and Plagues
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Tsagkaris, Christos; Kalachanis, Konstantinos (2020-09-20).
664:), a member of the Academy of Athens and a diplomat, in his
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An Historical Commentary on Thucydides, Volume 5. Book VIII
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worked its way through the rest of the body. He describes:
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The site was hastily excavated as it was bulldozed for the
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Oxford World's Classics: Thucydides: The Peloponnesian War
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Olson, PE; Hames, CS; Benenson, AS; Genovese, EN (1996).
1543:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–46,
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Springer Science & Business Media, 2008 pp. 161–173.
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Transactions of the American Philological Association
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of 39–40 °C (102–104 °F) that rises slowly
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This medical opinion is supported by the opinion of
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766:extreme symptoms such as intestinal perforation or
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49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
361:Most Athenian doctors and physicians believed in
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1014:"Political consequences of the Plague of Athens"
697:resemble Thucydides' description. They include:
1682:Gomme, A. W., ed. A. Andrewes and K. J. Dover.
831:The technique used by the Papagrigorakis team (
556:Sore throats leading to bleeding and bad breath
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1461:"Plague Victims Found: Mass Burial in Athens"
1231:Morens, David M.; Littman, Robert J. (1992).
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938:The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, New York
8:
1825:International Journal of Infectious Diseases
1763:International Journal of Infectious Diseases
1719:International Journal of Infectious Diseases
822:International Journal of Infectious Diseases
382:Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War
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2308:"Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico
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1982:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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1058:Paleomicrobiology: Past Human Infections,
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109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1276:Mental Health: Global Challenges Journal
433:National Archaeological Museum of Athens
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228:during the second year (430 BC) of the
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912:. While none of the original works of
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2375:Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty
2049:and the reply to it by Shapiro et al.
1659:University of Maryland Medical Center
1416:Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane (2003).
1187:History of the Peloponnesian War 2.18
7:
1103:
1101:
1071:
1069:
1067:
977:
975:
818:University of California, Santa Cruz
759:of flat, rose-colored spots called "
553:Redness and inflammation in the eyes
463:small red-figured, as well as white
47:adding citations to reliable sources
1512:"The Plague at Athens, 430-427 BCE"
693:Symptoms generally associated with
514:It is speculated that the ratio of
1146:"History of the Peloponnesian War"
14:
1686:, Oxford University Press, 1981.
1537:"Rethinking Athenian Citizenship"
1459:Axarlis, Nikos (April 15, 1998).
16:430 BC epidemic in Athens, Greece
3080:encephalitis lethargica epidemic
2055:History of the Peloponnesian War
1967:. New York: Anchor Books, 1976.
1852:Boyd, EF; Hartl, DL (Feb 1999).
1619:New England Journal of Medicine,
1491:For both oracles, see Thuc. 2.54
1444:History of the Peloponnesian War
1359:Gilman, Sander L. (2010-05-29).
1320:History of the Peloponnesian War
1202:History of the Peloponnesian War
1108:History of the Peloponnesian War
983:History of the Peloponnesian War
879:2015 West African Ebola outbreak
269:History of the Peloponnesian War
23:
2858:Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis
2155:List of epidemics and pandemics
1870:10.1128/JB.181.4.1301-1308.1999
1541:Citizenship in Classical Athens
1214:Reeves, Jonathan (2017-06-13).
571:Pustules and ulcers on the body
34:needs additional citations for
1158:10.1093/oseo/instance.00266021
427:Α reconstructed appearance of
1:
2183:
1581:"Plague in the Ancient World"
1419:Tragedy and Athenian Religion
1377:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60862-8
144:
1956:Dixon B. "Ebola in Greece?"
1634:Emerging Infectious Diseases
1083:. 2021-05-20. Archived from
867:
805:), the organism that causes
208:
3185:History of Classical Athens
1943:Treatment of Acute Diseases
1361:"Moral panic and pandemics"
1332:Aberth, John (2016-04-30).
1152:, Oxford University Press,
521:Citizenship Law of Pericles
255:and its allies, except for
3211:
2968:2024 Latin American dengue
2748:Western African meningitis
2562:Pacific Northwest smallpox
2069:Accessed January 23, 2006.
2035:10.1016/j.ijid.2005.09.001
1838:10.1016/j.ijid.2006.02.005
1776:10.1016/j.ijid.2006.02.006
1732:10.1016/j.ijid.2005.09.001
1621:1985 Volume 313:1027–1030
1535:Blok, Josine, ed. (2017),
1516:World History Encyclopedia
873:
671:Παρατηρήσεις στο Θουκυδίδη
419:Care for the sick and dead
203:
2574:Buenos Aires yellow fever
2472:Philadelphia yellow fever
2442:Great Plague of Marseille
2436:Great Northern War plague
2430:Iceland smallpox epidemic
2150:
2073:Women in Classical Athens
1798:MAMcIntosh (2016-05-09).
1549:10.1017/9781139017916.002
1012:Martínez, Javier (2017).
676:
670:
660:
460:Kerameikos subway station
137:Plague in an Ancient City
128:
3180:Ancient health disasters
3175:5th-century BC disasters
3170:5th century BC in Greece
3138:Mpox (clade Ib) epidemic
3132:Mpox (clade II) outbreak
3092:Seventh cholera pandemic
3050:Fourth cholera pandemic
3032:Second cholera pandemic
2878:Équateur province Ebola
2466:North American smallpox
2381:Great Plague of Seville
1958:British Medical Journal
1125:archive.archaeology.org
1018:Graeco-Latina Brunensia
855:viral hemorrhagic fever
849:Viral hemorrhagic fever
621:viral hemorrhagic fever
3068:Sixth cholera pandemic
3056:Fifth cholera pandemic
3038:Third cholera pandemic
3026:First cholera pandemic
3008:Second plague pandemic
2568:Barcelona yellow fever
2413:Great Plague of Vienna
2399:Great Plague of London
2369:Massachusetts smallpox
1919:10.3201/eid0202.960220
1289:10.32437/mhgcj.v3i1.83
637:University of Maryland
499:
443:
435:
385:
3044:Third plague pandemic
3002:First plague pandemic
2796:Western African Ebola
2706:Chikungunya outbreaks
2658:Malaysian Nipah virus
2526:Great Plains smallpox
897:Titus Lucretius Carus
666:Remarks on Thucydides
635:In January 1999, the
623:has been considered.
441:
426:
3104:Russian flu pandemic
2846:Angolan yellow fever
2597:San Francisco plague
2550:Broad Street cholera
2448:Great Plague of 1738
2091:The Plague of Athens
2067:Live Science article
1963:McNeill, William H.
1907:Emerging Infect. Dis
1031:10.5817/GLB2017-1-12
613:toxic shock syndrome
280:and passing through
216:that devastated the
43:improve this article
3010:(1348–19th century)
2938:New Zealand measles
2766:Darfur yellow fever
2609:LA pneumonic plague
2226:Plague of Justinian
2022:Int. J. Infect. Dis
1422:. Lexington Books.
1371:(9729): 1866–1867.
859:Ebola virus disease
798:Salmonella enterica
527:in Ancient Greece.
369:Social implications
348:respiratory disease
295:Sicilian Expedition
3020:Influenza pandemic
3014:Influenza pandemic
2962:Bangsamoro measles
2944:Singaporean dengue
2908:Pacific NW measles
2902:Philippine measles
2890:Madagascar measles
2872:Kerala Nipah virus
2865:Saudi Arabian MERS
2778:Singaporean dengue
2724:Zimbabwean cholera
2694:Singaporean dengue
2538:Copenhagen cholera
2520:Groningen epidemic
2314:Influenza pandemic
2296:Influenza pandemic
1978:Pomeroy, Sarah B.
1965:Plagues and People
1945:2.4; Hippocrates,
1636:2(1996): 155–156.
778:are also possible.
486:Hippocratic theory
444:
436:
394:best known as the
209:Loimos tôn Athênôn
157:unknown, possibly
58:"Plague of Athens"
3160:Peloponnesian War
3147:
3146:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2920:Kuala Koh measles
2834:South Korean MERS
2822:Polio declaration
2810:Madagascar plague
2742:Gujarat hepatitis
2730:Madagascar plague
2682:Midwest monkeypox
2633:Yugoslav smallpox
2603:Manchurian plague
2544:Stockholm cholera
2481:
2480:
2268:Sweating sickness
2256:Japanese smallpox
2205:Plague of Cyprian
2144:disease outbreaks
2096:Project Gutenberg
1558:978-0-521-19145-6
1167:978-0-19-282191-1
950:10.1002/msj.20137
755:in some cases, a
716:(slow heart rate)
519:Persian war. The
402:that bordered on
230:Peloponnesian War
204:Λοιμὸς τῶν Ἀθηνῶν
192:
191:
119:
118:
111:
93:
3202:
3127:
2914:New York measles
2868:
2828:Indian swine flu
2816:Odisha hepatitis
2806:
2760:Pakistani dengue
2712:Pakistani dengue
2661:
2627:Wrocław smallpox
2580:Hong Kong plague
2514:Caragea's plague
2492:
2409:
2302:Mexican smallpox
2286:
2238:Plague of Sheroe
2193:Plague of Athens
2188:
2185:
2168:
2129:
2122:
2115:
2106:
2065:
2047:
2037:
1960:(1996), 313–430.
1950:
1940:
1930:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1881:
1864:(4): 1301–1308.
1849:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1806:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1778:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1734:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1695:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1671:
1670:
1661:. Archived from
1651:
1645:
1630:
1624:
1615:
1609:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1596:
1587:. Archived from
1585:people.loyno.edu
1577:
1568:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1507:
1501:
1498:
1492:
1489:
1483:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1456:
1447:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1396:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1329:
1323:
1316:
1310:
1309:
1291:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1220:(Thesis thesis).
1211:
1205:
1198:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1131:
1117:
1111:
1105:
1096:
1095:
1093:
1092:
1073:
1062:
1053:
1044:
1043:
1033:
1009:
986:
979:
970:
969:
933:
876:
875:
870:
814:Dr. Beth Shapiro
741:lack of appetite
679:
678:
673:
672:
663:
662:
471:Religious strife
383:
272:, the historian
211:
205:
196:Plague of Athens
146:
133:
124:Plague of Athens
121:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3143:
2980:
2863:
2801:
2784:Swansea measles
2736:Bolivian dengue
2664:
2656:
2645:Indian smallpox
2615:Croydon typhoid
2585:
2477:
2418:
2404:
2339:
2280:
2273:
2244:Plague of Amwas
2217:
2210:
2199:Antonine Plague
2186:
2159:
2146:
2133:
2102:
2062:
2015:
2012:
1993:Zinsser, Hans.
1953:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1804:
1802:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1753:
1752:
1748:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1681:
1677:
1668:
1666:
1653:
1652:
1648:
1631:
1627:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1594:
1592:
1579:
1578:
1571:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1520:
1518:
1509:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1458:
1457:
1450:
1441:
1437:
1430:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1331:
1330:
1326:
1317:
1313:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1213:
1212:
1208:
1199:
1192:
1184:
1180:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1143:
1142:
1138:
1129:
1127:
1119:
1118:
1114:
1106:
1099:
1090:
1088:
1087:on May 20, 2021
1075:
1074:
1065:
1054:
1047:
1011:
1010:
989:
980:
973:
935:
934:
930:
926:
851:
789:
691:
686:
645:Duke University
633:
593:
591:Possible causes
543:
504:
473:
421:
412:
410:Fear of the law
384:
381:
371:
310:
250:
185:
149:
148:
141:Michiel Sweerts
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3208:
3206:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3152:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3135:
3129:
3119:
3113:
3112:(1981–present)
3107:
3101:
3095:
3089:
3083:
3077:
3071:
3065:
3059:
3053:
3047:
3041:
3035:
3029:
3023:
3017:
3011:
3005:
2998:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2978:
2977:
2976:
2965:
2964:(2023–present)
2959:
2956:Jamaica dengue
2953:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2917:
2911:
2905:
2899:
2893:
2887:
2881:
2875:
2869:
2861:
2855:
2852:Yemeni cholera
2849:
2843:
2837:
2831:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2807:
2803:DR Congo Ebola
2799:
2793:
2787:
2781:
2775:
2769:
2763:
2757:
2751:
2745:
2739:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2715:
2709:
2703:
2697:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2662:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2612:
2606:
2600:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2583:
2577:
2571:
2565:
2559:
2553:
2547:
2541:
2535:
2529:
2523:
2517:
2511:
2508:Maltese plague
2505:
2502:Ottoman plague
2498:
2496:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2475:
2469:
2463:
2460:Persian Plague
2457:
2454:Russian plague
2451:
2445:
2439:
2433:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2410:
2406:Maltese plague
2402:
2396:
2390:
2387:Maltese plague
2384:
2378:
2372:
2366:
2363:Italian plague
2360:
2357:Maltese plague
2354:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2329:
2326:Maltese plague
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2292:
2290:
2283:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2265:
2259:
2253:
2247:
2241:
2235:
2229:
2222:
2220:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2180:Hittite plague
2176:
2174:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2157:
2151:
2148:
2147:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2124:
2117:
2109:
2100:
2099:
2075:
2070:
2060:
2051:
2011:
2010:External links
2008:
2007:
2006:
1991:
1976:
1961:
1952:
1951:
1913:(2): 155–156.
1893:
1844:
1831:(4): 335–336.
1811:
1790:
1769:(4): 334–335.
1746:
1725:(3): 206–214.
1705:
1696:
1675:
1646:
1625:
1610:
1601:
1569:
1557:
1527:
1510:Horgan, John.
1502:
1493:
1484:
1475:
1466:
1448:
1435:
1428:
1408:
1351:
1344:
1324:
1311:
1262:
1249:10.2307/284374
1223:
1206:
1190:
1178:
1166:
1136:
1112:
1097:
1063:
1045:
1024:(1): 135–146.
987:
971:
944:(5): 456–467.
927:
925:
922:
850:
847:
788:
785:
780:
779:
764:
753:
748:
743:
738:
732:
727:
722:
717:
711:
706:
690:
687:
685:
682:
661:Άγγελος Βλάχος
632:
629:
597:bubonic plague
592:
589:
588:
587:
584:
581:
578:
575:
574:Extreme thirst
572:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
554:
551:
542:
539:
503:
500:
472:
469:
420:
417:
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379:
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188:75,000–100,000
186:
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161:
155:
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135:
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117:
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31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3207:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3190:Typhoid fever
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3130:
3124:(2019–present
3123:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3098:Hong Kong flu
3096:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3066:
3063:
3060:
3057:
3054:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3033:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3021:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2966:
2963:
2960:
2957:
2954:
2951:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2939:
2936:
2933:
2930:
2927:
2926:Tonga measles
2924:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2903:
2900:
2897:
2896:Samoa measles
2894:
2891:
2888:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2856:
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2832:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2797:
2794:
2791:
2788:
2785:
2782:
2779:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2755:
2754:Haiti cholera
2752:
2749:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2737:
2734:
2731:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2718:Iraqi cholera
2716:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2704:
2701:
2700:Indian dengue
2698:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2607:
2604:
2601:
2598:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2556:Guam smallpox
2554:
2551:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2484:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2414:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2394:
2393:Naples Plague
2391:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2351:London plague
2349:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2336:
2333:
2332:London plague
2330:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2320:London plague
2318:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2276:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2250:Plague of 664
2248:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2213:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2162:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2149:
2145:
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890:Seven Wonders
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885:Cercopithecus
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863:Marburg virus
860:
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807:typhoid fever
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751:stomach pains
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60: –
59:
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54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
2950:Uganda Ebola
2669:21st century
2651:Surat plague
2621:NYC smallpox
2590:20th century
2495:19th century
2423:18th century
2344:17th century
2310:(1545, 1576)
2289:16th century
2232:Roman Plague
2201:(165–180 AD)
2195:(429–426 BC)
2192:
2142:and notable
2101:
2089:
2086:Thomas Sprat
2063:
2054:
2025:
2021:
1994:
1979:
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1957:
1946:
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1910:
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1861:
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1824:
1814:
1803:. Retrieved
1793:
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1722:
1718:
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1683:
1678:
1667:. Retrieved
1663:the original
1658:
1649:
1633:
1628:
1618:
1613:
1604:
1593:. Retrieved
1589:the original
1584:
1562:, retrieved
1540:
1530:
1519:. Retrieved
1515:
1505:
1496:
1487:
1478:
1469:
1443:
1442:Thucydides,
1438:
1418:
1411:
1368:
1364:
1354:
1338:. Springer.
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1318:Thucydides,
1314:
1282:(1): 33–37.
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1200:Thucydides,
1186:
1185:Thucydides,
1181:
1171:, retrieved
1149:
1139:
1128:. Retrieved
1124:
1115:
1107:
1089:. Retrieved
1085:the original
1080:
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981:Thucydides,
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787:DNA analysis
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746:constipation
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308:Epidemiology
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242:
238:
195:
193:
136:
105:
99:January 2022
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
3140:(2023–2024)
3134:(2022–2023)
3118:(2009–2010)
3106:(1977–1979)
3100:(1968–1970)
3094:(1961–1975)
3088:(1957–1958)
3082:(1919–1930)
3076:(1918–1920)
3074:Spanish flu
3070:(1899–1923)
3064:(1889–1890)
3062:Russian flu
3058:(1881–1896)
3052:(1863–1879)
3046:(1855–1860)
3040:(1852–1860)
3034:(1829–1851)
3028:(1816–1826)
3022:(1557–1559)
2952:(2022–2023)
2940:(2019–2020)
2934:(2019–2020)
2932:DRC measles
2886:(2018–2020)
2854:(2016–2022)
2842:(2015–2016)
2798:(2013–2016)
2792:(2013–2014)
2790:Chikungunya
2756:(2010–2019)
2750:(2009–2010)
2732:(2008–2017)
2726:(2008–2009)
2690:(2003–2005)
2678:(2002–2004)
2660:(1998–1999)
2641:(1972–1973)
2605:(1910–1911)
2599:(1900–1904)
2564:(1862–1863)
2534:(1847–1848)
2528:(1837–1838)
2510:(1813–1814)
2504:(1812–1819)
2474:(1793–1798)
2468:(1780–1782)
2456:(1770–1772)
2444:(1720–1722)
2438:(1710–1712)
2432:(1707–1708)
2408:(1675–1676)
2401:(1665–1666)
2383:(1647–1652)
2377:(1633–1644)
2365:(1629–1631)
2334:(1592–1593)
2328:(1592–1593)
2322:(1563–1564)
2316:(1557–1559)
2270:(1485–1551)
2264:(1346–1353)
2262:Black Death
2187: 1330
1858:J Bacteriol
1243:: 271–304.
803:S. enterica
714:bradycardia
652:A. W. Gomme
583:Convulsions
453:pot burials
400:moral panic
396:Black Death
224:in ancient
3154:Categories
2884:Kivu Ebola
2639:London flu
2082:Thucydides
1805:2019-07-06
1669:2016-02-10
1608:Thuc. 2.48
1595:2020-04-06
1564:2022-11-28
1521:2023-10-02
1500:Thuc. 2.50
1482:Thuc. 2.54
1473:Thuc. 2.53
1365:The Lancet
1173:2023-10-02
1130:2019-10-28
1091:2022-11-29
924:References
906:Empedocles
838:Salmonella
826:Salmonella
768:hemorrhage
761:rose spots
340:Long Walls
332:Thucydides
314:Long Walls
302:mass grave
291:Thucydides
274:Thucydides
248:Background
218:city-state
178:430–426 BC
147:1652–1654
69:newspapers
3165:Epidemics
3116:Swine flu
3086:Asian flu
3004:(541–767)
2973:Argentina
2258:(735–737)
2252:(664–689)
2246:(638–639)
2240:(627–628)
2228:(541–542)
2218:classical
2207:(250–266)
2140:epidemics
2136:Pandemics
1947:Aphorisms
1642:1080-6059
1385:0140-6736
1306:229015872
1298:2612-2138
1040:1803-7402
958:1931-7581
874:λύγξ κενή
868:lygx kenē
776:confusion
772:delusions
730:headaches
502:Aftermath
212:) was an
3122:COVID-19
3110:HIV/AIDS
2688:Bird flu
2088:(1665),
2044:16412683
1785:16730469
1741:16412683
1403:20521345
966:19787658
725:diarrhea
720:weakness
689:Symptoms
605:smallpox
586:Gangrene
580:Diarrhea
577:Insomnia
568:Vomiting
565:Coughing
559:Sneezing
541:Symptoms
535:Plutarch
531:Pericles
465:lekythoi
404:hysteria
392:pandemic
389:medieval
380:—
363:Humorism
356:smallpox
278:Ethiopia
261:Pericles
214:epidemic
165:Location
3195:420s BC
2172:Ancient
2057:2.47–55
1937:8964060
1928:2639821
1888:9973358
1394:7135638
1081:History
857:(e.g.,
842:serovar
816:of the
791:A 2005
735:myalgia
701:a high
695:typhoid
684:Typhoid
609:measles
490:carrion
336:Piraeus
266:In his
257:Corinth
234:Piraeus
154:Disease
83:scholar
3016:(1510)
2994:Global
2975:(2024)
2958:(2023)
2946:(2020)
2928:(2019)
2922:(2019)
2916:(2019)
2910:(2019)
2904:(2019)
2898:(2019)
2892:(2018)
2880:(2018)
2874:(2018)
2867:(2018)
2860:(2017)
2848:(2016)
2836:(2015)
2830:(2015)
2824:(2014)
2818:(2014)
2812:(2014)
2805:(2014)
2786:(2013)
2780:(2013)
2774:(2012)
2768:(2012)
2762:(2011)
2744:(2009)
2738:(2009)
2720:(2007)
2714:(2006)
2708:(2006)
2702:(2006)
2696:(2005)
2684:(2003)
2653:(1994)
2647:(1974)
2635:(1972)
2629:(1963)
2623:(1947)
2617:(1937)
2611:(1924)
2582:(1894)
2576:(1871)
2570:(1870)
2558:(1856)
2552:(1854)
2546:(1853)
2540:(1853)
2532:Typhus
2522:(1829)
2516:(1813)
2487:Modern
2462:(1772)
2450:(1738)
2415:(1679)
2395:(1656)
2389:(1655)
2371:(1633)
2359:(1623)
2353:(1603)
2304:(1520)
2298:(1510)
2281:modern
2042:
2001:
1986:
1971:
1949:5.58).
1935:
1925:
1886:
1876:
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1304:
1296:
1257:284374
1255:
1164:
1110:2.48.3
1038:
964:
956:
709:chills
641:typhus
631:Typhus
611:, and
601:typhus
516:metics
481:Apollo
429:Myrtis
352:typhus
326:Euboea
319:metics
253:Sparta
226:Greece
222:Athens
184:Deaths
169:Greece
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
2279:Early
2234:(590)
2216:Post-
2164:Local
1879:93509
1302:S2CID
1253:JSTOR
914:Acron
910:Acron
703:fever
617:Ebola
550:Fever
286:Libya
282:Egypt
90:JSTOR
76:books
2840:Zika
2772:MERS
2676:SARS
2084:and
2040:PMID
1999:ISBN
1984:ISBN
1969:ISBN
1933:PMID
1884:PMID
1781:PMID
1737:PMID
1688:ISBN
1638:ISSN
1553:ISBN
1446:2.53
1424:ISBN
1399:PMID
1381:ISSN
1340:ISBN
1322:2.52
1294:ISSN
1204:2.51
1162:ISBN
1036:ISSN
985:2.49
962:PMID
954:ISSN
908:and
901:Book
774:and
757:rash
497:all.
284:and
194:The
175:Date
62:news
2189:BC)
2094:at
2030:doi
1923:PMC
1915:doi
1874:PMC
1866:doi
1862:181
1833:doi
1771:doi
1727:doi
1545:doi
1389:PMC
1373:doi
1369:375
1284:doi
1245:doi
1241:122
1154:doi
1026:doi
946:doi
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861:or
833:PCR
793:DNA
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