1675:. In his article he recalls one of the first experiences in which he had to tell a young woman that she has malignant terminal cancer. He said to her, "Claire, with this disease, a remission would ordinarily last three to six months. A person could expect to survive between one to two years." He found that this type of strategy (bald on-record) deeply shook the patient (negatively threatened her negative face). He now uses different strategies and realized that with sensitive information tact must be used, but also that the patient must be aware of the true probability of negative outcome. Many doctors, he argues, do not find that balance and tend to hedge information, "More than forty percent of oncologists withhold a prognosis from a patient if he or she does not ask for it or if the family requests that the patient not be told. A similar number speak in
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interpret it. This view shifts the focus from predominantly upon the speaker to upon both speaker and hearer, implying that politeness is socially constructed and therefore not universal, requiring cross-cultural examination. Additionally, a distinction has been made between first- and second-order politeness, due to the appropriation of an
English word for a scientific concept: first-order politeness "correspond to the various ways in which polite behavior is perceived and talked about by members of socio-cultural groups", meaning the connotation of 'politeness' for those not studying it, and second-order politeness is "a theoretical construct, a term within a theory of social behavior and language usage", meaning the scientific application of the term.
1651:, were assessed and analyzed as polite or (im)polite. In reference to the conclusions of study Dynel states, "Specifically, humor may serve politeness and/or impoliteness depending on the speaker's intention and awareness of the consequences his/her utterance may carry, the hearer's recognition of the speaker's intention, as well as his/her ultimate amusement or taking offense." In general, humor can provide face-saving tactics that enable solidarity, but it can also be a risky strategy to use because the speaker and the hearer must be on the same page.
1768:, has different sets of connotations associated with it from the English term "politeness". Gu (1998) pointed out that some face concerns in Western culture are not taken into account in Eastern cultures. In a series of interviews conducted by Blum-Kulka, House and Kasper in 1989 of fifty-two Israeli families, they conclude that as suggested already by the semantic definitions offered for the term "politeness" by Israelis, the constituents of "tact" and its appropriate modes of expression are very much subject to cultural interpretation.
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circumstances to try to mitigate face. They show the available range of verbal politeness strategies to redress loss of face. Face-threatening acts have the ability to mutually threaten face, therefore rational agents seek to avoid face-threatening acts or will try to use certain strategies to minimize the threat. In certain situations, an over application of any particular strategy may actually achieve the opposite of the intended effect, as "certain speakers consistently evaluate polite behavior as unnecessary and offensive."
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requester chooses a person who has low ability/inability to fulfill the request or is unwilling to comply (the person being asked has to refuse the request); choosing a person with low ability suggests the requester has poor relational knowledge. On the other hand, choosing a person with high ability decreases threat to the requester's positive face because it shows the requester's competence; choosing a person with high willingness reinforces the requester's choice and decreases threats to positive face.
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researchers have noted that humor is complex and not all jokes can be considered polite. In fact, many instances of humor usage can negatively affect face for a number of reasons: the hearers ability to understand the joke is tested, the hearer may interpret verification of the willingness to hear a joke as aggressive, and the hearer can be threatened even by non aggressive humor if it tests their ability to understand the joke or their emotions. In a study conducted by
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intend not only to inform about a probability level, but also to manage the hearer's faces or their own...Second, speakers perform face-managing intentions by altering (e.g. lessening or magnifying) the explicitly communicated probablility of a negative outcome...Thus, politeness theory posits that speakers use uncertainty quantifiers to pursue informative intentions and also to sugar-coat threatening news to manage the hearers' or their own faces."
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would consider bald on-record politeness strategy, to communicate with their first officer. On the other hand, the first officers only used hints, similar to what politeness theory would consider an off-record politeness strategy, to communicate with their superior, the captain. Airlines have been taking this issue seriously and have made strides in teaching captains and first officers how to communicate with each other effectively.
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reviews. The study focused on art reviews in
Lithuania in the early and mid-1970s and analyzed the different strategies used by the art reviewers as they attempted to critique pieces of art while maintaining their face as well as the face of the artists. The study was able to identify face-saving acts and all four politeness strategies at work. The author states, "Reviewers usually appear to have in mind the addressee's positive
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comply or not. Focusing on the requester would threaten their relationship with the requester and their long-term autonomy (the requester may be unwilling to comply to future requests when the roles are reversed); however, if the refuser has low ability, focusing on the requester can actually decrease threats to negative face by showing they are unable to comply even if they wanted to.
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friend's stock were going to lose their value. The subjects of the study reported that "speakers intended to manage hearer's faces from threatening news or to manage their own faces from being wrong… speakers communicated an altered (in the case of our scenarios, lower) outcome probability when they intended to be tactful or cautious than when they intended to be informative."
27:
295:". According to Brown and Levinson's assumption in politeness theory based on Goffman's “face”, one's face is categorized into two forms: positive and negative. Brown and Levinson defined positive face two ways: as "the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others executors" (p. 62), or alternatively, "the positive consistent self-image or '
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others," and "deference and respect". However, self-presentation was also a critical feature employers wanted their employees to improve upon. An attractive self-presentation through various nonverbals and word choice would not only reflect the individual's politeness but the corporation's as well. This decision had very positive consequences in the workplace environment.
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off-record (indirect) as well as simply not using the face-threatening act. Jonathan
Culpeper also used these strategies and added on them in his impolitness theory. Several factors contribute to the differences in the use of (im)politeness strategies, including work experience, writing skills, and familiarity with appropriate levels of formality.
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effectively using politeness strategies in
English, such as the reliance on context understanding in Japanese may cause face-threatening acts when in inter-cultural communication with western cultures. Tanaka and Kawade found differences in the usage pattern of politeness strategies among native English speakers and ESL learners.
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therefore minimize the face-threatening act. In 1964, socio-psychologist Edward E. Jones wrote a book on ingratiation and defines it as "a class of strategic behaviors illicitly designed to influence a particular other person concerning the attractiveness of one's personal qualities." The concept of
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Positive politeness strategies can also emerge in situations where the speakers do not know each other well. For example, Charlotte Rees and Lynn Knight have explored the role politeness theory plays in general practice consultations. They found that, in an effort to remain polite, patients agreed to
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Ten years later, Brown characterized positive face by desires to be liked, admired, ratified, and related to positively, noting that one would threaten positive face by ignoring someone. At the same time, she characterized negative face by the desire not to be imposed upon, noting that negative face
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Many academics have critiqued that many cultures use politeness strategies differently than how Brown and
Levinson theorized. Many sociologists criticize that politeness theory is heavily based on Western cultures where individualism is highly valued compared to many non-Western cultures where group
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Various researchers have analyzed the application of politeness theory in communication between different cultural groups. Communicative expectations, patterns of communicative activities and choice of politeness strategies vary among cultures. For instance, Morisaki and
Gudykunst argue that members
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wrote a chapter entitled, "The Ethnic Theory of Plane
Crashes." The chapter attempts to explain why so many planes that crash end up crashing from human error, and not mechanical issues. One of the most prominent reasons, Gladwell points out, is the lack of effective communication due to the power
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Clarrie: Well, what she doesn't know won't hurt her. Of course, I'll be keeping my eye on things, and (SIGNAL OF OPENING) that brings me to my next problem. (EXPLAIN PROBLEM) You see, these young people, they don't want an old codger like me poking my nose in, so I'll make myself scarce, but I still
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Choosing to refuse or not refuse a request can threaten the requester's positive and negative faces in different ways. When a person refuses to comply with a request from an intimate, they are violating relational expectations and increasing threat to their positive face; however, focusing attention
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Linguists Ute
Fischer and Judith Orasanu conducted a study with a group of captains and first officers. They gave them a scenario in which they had to communicate to each other the need to change course to avoid a thunderstorm. Overwhelmingly the captains used commands, or what Brown and Levinson
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Positive politeness strategies are used as a way of giving someone a sense of belonging and as seen in the politeness strategies section, jokes are considered a positive politeness strategy. Therefore, joking can be a way of making someone feel as if though they belong. However, some contemporary
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If S wants H to close the window, he may say "It's cold in here." If H answers "I'll go close the window" then he is responding to this potentially threatening act by giving a "gift" to the original speaker and therefore S avoids the potential threat of ordering H around and H gets credit for being
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to both sides. It often involves signals of openings and markers to be used to clarify the situation (e.g. 'You see,' or 'so,'). The request is often softened, made less direct, and imposing (e.g. past continuous 'I was wondering'; informal tag 'What d'you reckon?). The speaker must also reduce his
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Negative politeness strategies are oriented towards the hearer's negative face and emphasize avoidance of imposition on the hearer. By attempting to avoid imposition from the speaker, the risk of face-threat to the hearer is reduced. These strategies presume that the speaker will be imposing on the
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Bald on-record strategy does not attempt to minimize the threat to the hearer's face, although there are ways that bald on-record politeness can be used in trying to minimize face-threatening acts implicitly, such as giving advice in a non-manipulative way. Often using such a strategy will shock or
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The willingness dimension differentiates between refusals where the refuser states, "I don't want to help you" and "I'd like to help." Ability differentiates between, "I'm short on cash" and "I have some extra money." Focus on-focus away from requester differentiates between, "It's your problem, so
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Scholars suggest power differences vary between strangers and acquaintances, which in turn, shape the effects of the politeness strategies. Social similarity and intimacy are other aspects to consider, as these connections create an increased awareness of the other person's meaning and request and
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Although everyone has face wants, there are different ways strategies they use to accomplish these wants or mitigate face threats based on their culture. For example, negative politeness is the norm in some cultures (Japan and
Britain) but not others that prefer positive politeness (Australia) and
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The study conducted required people to communicate bad news to a friend regarding two scenarios. In the first scenario the subjects had to communicate a 50% probability that their friend's new car was going to break-down, and in the second scenario the subjects communicated a 50% chance that their
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Through new studies there is the possibility that the politeness theory may penetrate deeper areas. For example, maybe more businesses will begin to take on these concepts and incorporate them into their discussion and conflict-resolution strategies. These could be effective in achieving long-term
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In their study of refusals to requests, Johnson et al. argue refusals can threaten both the positive and negative face of the refuser (the person who was asked a favor), and the positive face of the requester (the person asking for a favor). Obstacles, or reasons for non-compliance with a person's
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Spencer-Oatey argues that sociality rights also plays a role in relationship management other than "face", and Brown and
Levinson's "negative face" is not about face concerns but should be conceptualized into sociality rights. Watts (2003) argues that "it is impossible to evaluate (im) politeness
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Various definitions of 'politeness' which make reference to considering others' feelings, establishing levels of mutual comfort, and promoting rapport have been found to be lacking, in that often whether a verbal act is face threatening or not depends upon preemptively knowing how the hearer will
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posits numerous times that with every remark people make, they risk maintaining their face and the face of others. Politeness theory is generally applied when assessing speech acts or remarks. However, a study conducted by Jurgita Sribaitė looked at politeness theory as it applied to written art
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Example: If a professor is working in her office and people are being very loud and disruptive in the next room, she will go over there and tell them to be quiet but the way she does it will differ depending on who it is. If they are students she will use the bald on-record strategy to make sure
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The final politeness strategy outlined by Brown and Levinson is the indirect strategy; This strategy uses indirect language and removes the speaker from the potential to be imposing. The strategy of doing off-record is to express something general or different than the speaker's true meaning and
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away from the requester can decrease threat to the requester's positive face even if they are unwilling to help. In contrast, focusing attention on the requester can increase threat to positive face since it highlights the refuser's unwillingness. Accepting a request is the least threatening act.
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Positive face is threatened when the speaker or hearer does not care about their interactor's feelings, wants, or does not want what the other wants. Positive face threatening acts can also cause damage to the speaker or the hearer. When an individual is forced to be separated from others so that
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Threats to the refuser's negative face vary along the ability and focus dimensions. Focusing away from the requester allows the refuser to maintain their autonomy while maintaining the relationship; this leads to less face-threat if the refuser has high ability because they can choose whether to
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has helped spur further investigation into how its power dynamics play into Brown and Levinson's politeness theory. The claim has been made that Brown and Levinson's theory does not take into account the effect unique dynamic power relations and rankings has on the way people interact with one
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When delivering bad news the speaker has a lot to consider regarding his or her own face and the face of the hearer. In 2015, Miroslav Sirota and Marie Juanchich conducted a study on uncertainty communication with negative outcomes. The authors suggest "First, speakers making a prediction may
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All of this is done in attempt to avoid imposition on the hearer. Negative politeness is concerned with proceeding towards a goal in the smoothest way and with sensitivity to one's interlocutors. In English, deference ('Excuse me, sir, could you please close the window') is associated with the
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An article written by Akio Yabuuchi argues a case for a new trichotomous politeness system to replace politeness theory's dichotomous politeness system; hierarchy politeness The proposed system is made up of fellowship politeness (similar to Brown and Levinson's positive politeness), autonomy
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Politeness strategies are used to formulate messages in order to save the hearer's positive and negative face when face-threatening acts are inevitable or desired. Brown and Levinson outline four main types of politeness strategies: bald on-record, negative politeness, positive politeness, and
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In addition, some other researchers focused on the acquaintance of politeness strategies and knowledge about politeness difference in foreign language education. Japanese researcher Kawai found that there is a lack of “cultural learning” in English education makes the Japanese student weak in
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One study by Cynthia Dunn observed a Japanese business that required etiquette training for their new employees. Employees were taught the company's definition of politeness; they were expected to incorporate these beliefs into their day-to-day behavior, such as "kindness," "consideration for
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argues that all conversationalists are rational beings who are primarily interested in the efficient conveying of messages. Brown and Levinson use this argument in their politeness theory by saying that rational agents will choose the same politeness strategy as any other would under the same
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When a person makes a request, their positive face is threatened mostly along the ability and unwillingness dimensions. People tend to make requests of "intimates," people they are supposed to know well/have a good relationship with. Threat to the requester's positive face increases when the
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Positive politeness strategies seek to minimize the threat to the hearer's positive face. These strategies are used to make the hearer feel good about themselves, their interests or possessions, and are most usually used in situations where the audience knows each other fairly well, or an
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Blum-Kulka, Shoshana. "The metapragmatics of politeness in Israeli society." (n.d.): Rpt. in Politeness in Language: Studies in Its History, Theory, and Practice. Ed. Richard J. Watts, Sachiko Ide, and Konrad Ehlich. New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 2005. 255-280. Ebrary. Web. 16 June
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embarrass the addressee, and so this strategy is most often utilized in situations where the speaker has a close relationship with the listener, such as family or close friends. Brown and Levinson outline various cases in which one might use the bald on-record strategy, including:
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the presence of a student observer during a general practice consultation even when the patient preferred a private consultation. Rees and Knight concluded that politeness strategies in the medical field can inhibit patients from providing complete and accurate information.
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Ex: a person says "Let's get on with dinner" to their spouse in front of the television: by using the first person plural of the imperative form of the verb, the speaker is able to include themself as a recipient of the order, just like the hearer, likewise increasing
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individual's positive face needs, or self-worth, have to be met. In addition to hedging and attempts to avoid conflict, some strategies of positive politeness include statements of friendship, solidarity, compliments, and the following examples from Brown and Levinson:
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Distinguishes kin or friend from a stranger with whom you may have the same social status, but who is still separate because of social distance. Different acts may be seen as face-threatening or non-face threatening depending on the social distance between speaker and
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Three sociological factors affect the choice of politeness strategy and the seriousness of the face threatening action: distance between speaker and listener; the power difference between the speaker and listener; and ranking of the seriousness of the face threat.
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that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants" (p. 61). Negative face was defined as "the want of every 'competent adult member' that his actions be unimpeded by others", or "the basic claim to territories, personal preserves,
1706:, and states, "We mitigate when we're being polite, or when we're ashamed or embarrassed, or when we're being deferential to authority." First officers tend to use mitigated speech when addressing their captain and this has caused plane crashes in the past.
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An individual may have a pattern or way of communicating that they have habitually used in the past that others may consider face threatening or vice versa. Mood may also drive how they choose to respond to a situation regardless of politeness strategies.
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avoidance or downplaying of an imposition; the more we feel we might be imposing, the more deferential we might be. It is clearly a strategy for negative politeness and the redressing of a threat to negative face, through actions such as favor-seeking.
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Although the politeness theory originated from the curiosity of linguistics and language forming, scholars are beginning to see its other benefits: its ability to not only help with interpersonal relationships, workplace environments, and beyond.
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But if they are colleagues she will claim common ground with them using the positive politeness strategy or frame an indirect request for them to stop talking, saying: "I'm working on a lecture and it's really hard to concentrate with all this
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Brown and Levinson's politeness theory is very applicable not only in the area of study within the communication field but also helpful in guiding individuals in ways to improve their speech and actions Two qualities in particular stand out:
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Favor seeking, or a speaker asking the hearer for a favor, is a common example of negative politeness strategies in use. Held observes three main stages in favor-seeking: the preparatory phase, the focal phase, and the final phase:
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relies on the hearer's interpretation to have the speaker's purpose get conveyed. The speaker can get credit for not imposing on the hearer or give the hearer a chance to be helpful and generous. This strategy relies heavily on
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The greater potential for loss of face requires greater redressive action. If the potential for loss of face is too great, the speaker may make the decision to abandon the face-threatening acts completely and say nothing.
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The number next to each strategy corresponds to the danger-level of the particular face-threatening act. The more dangerous the particular face-threatening act is, the more S will tend to use a higher numbered strategy.
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identity is valued over the individual. Some of this intracultural difference is, in part, due to diverse "knowledge and values" within a particular society, but Brown and Levinson argue that their theory is universal.
372:(facial expression, etc.). Based on the terms of conversation in social interactions, face-threatening acts are at times inevitable. At minimum, there must be at least one of the face threatening acts associated with an
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freedom of action. It can cause damage to either the speaker or the hearer, and makes one of the interlocutors submit their will to the other. Freedom of choice and action are impeded when negative face is threatened.
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The speaker misidentifies the hearer in an offensive or embarrassing way. This may occur either accidentally or intentionally. Generally, this refers to the misuse of address terms in relation to status, gender, or
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Goldsmith, D. J. (2006). Brown and Levinson's politeness theory. In B. Whaley & W. Samter (Eds.) Explaining communication: Contemporary theories and exemplars (pp. 219–236). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
1634:(the desire to be left free to act as he chooses)." The examples given show that even the reviewers, who hold the obvious advantage over the addressees, cared to save both their face and the face of the artists.
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The concept of face was derived from Chinese into English in the 19th century. “Face” conceptualized as an individual's positive claim of social values in socializing contact was introduced into academia by
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The focal stage is subdivided into elements such as asker's reasons or constraints (e.g. 'I've tried everywhere but can't get one'), the other's face (e.g. 'You're the only person I can turn to'), and more.
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goals. Whatever the case may be, the politeness theory has a solid foundation in the field of communication and will certainly contribute positively to the assimilation of language and civility.
344:; it has been argued that the notion of face is the actual universal component to their proposed politeness theory. A face threatening act is an act that inherently damages the face of the
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from individualist cultures prefer to use negative politeness strategies in conflict management, while members from collectivist cultures would rather use positive politeness strategies. 12
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to maintain each other's face. Participants can do this by using positive politeness and negative politeness, which pay attention to people's positive and negative face needs respectively.
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Additionally if they are really high status directors of the department she may end up saying nothing at all or apologize for interrupting them, refraining from the face-threatening act.
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listener and there is a higher potential for awkwardness or embarrassment than in bald on record strategies and positive politeness strategies. Examples from Brown and Levinson include:
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politeness (similar to Brown and Levinson's negative politeness), and hierarchy politeness. Hierarchy politeness recognizes ingratiation as a way to communicate within power dynamics.
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The speaker increases the possibility that a face-threatening act will occur. This situation is created when a topic is brought up by the speaker that is a sensitive societal subject.
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Broad Scope: This theory considers factors that play a role in the field of communication such as "language, identity, relational definition ... social power, distance, and culture".
2012:
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Ifert Johnson, Danette; Roloff, Michael E.; Riffee, Melissa A. (Summer 2004). "Politeness theory and refusals of requests: Face threat as a function of expressed obstacles".
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An act that expresses speaker’s future imposing of positive effects toward the hearer, as either rejection or acceptance put pressure on the hearer and may incur a debt.
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Example: We may use less elaborate positive strategies or we may choose to use positive rather than negative politeness when speaking with family rather than a stranger
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Examples: expressing thanks, acceptance of gratitude or apology, excuse, acceptance of offers, pretending unaware of H’s mistakes, committing to something unfavorable.
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Sometimes nonverbal actions speak louder than verbal communication and might alter how the politeness strategy is interpreted or which politeness strategy is used.
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of action and freedom from imposition". Whereas positive face involves a desire for connection with others, negative face needs include autonomy and independence.
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Notable concepts include positive and negative face, the face threatening act (FTA), strategies surrounding FTAs and factors influencing the choices of strategies.
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Examples: apologies, acceptance of compliment, inability to control one’s physical self, inability to control one’s emotional self, self-humiliation, confessions.
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minimizes threatening aspect by assuring that S considers to be of the same kind with H, increasing the sense of solidarity and decreasing their social distance
1679:, skirting the truth." This statement reads similarly to the Sirota and Juanchich study; bad news is very frequently sugar-coated in attempt to save face.
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Some impositions are considered more serious than others. Highly imposing acts like requests demand more redress to mitigate their increased threat level.
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Rees, Charlotte; Knight, Lynn (2008). "Thinking 'no' but Saying 'yes' to Student Presence in General Practice Consultations: Politeness Theory Insights".
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The third stage is the final stage which consists of anticipatory thanks, promises, and compliments (e.g. 'I knew you would say yes. You're an angel.').
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The speaker indicates that he is indifferent to the positive face wants of the hearer. This is most often expressed in obvious non-cooperative behavior.
1780:(of any politeness strategy) can have multiple consequences, rather than affecting only positive face or negative face as the current theory suggests.
673:*Note: the requester and refuser would be analogous to the "speaker" and "hearer" roles discussed earlier in the section "Face-threatening acts".
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Guan, Xiaowen; Lee, Hye Eun (May 2017). "Fight and flight: A multilevel analysis of facework strategies in intercultural face-threatening acts".
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Value: This theory has motivated scholars to implement more research into grasping these ideas or finding alternatives to this way of thinking.
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need to be closer to hand, you see. So, (ASK FAVOR) I was wondering, would it be all right if I came over here on the night? What d'you reckon?
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1992:
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Some claim that a few of these techniques may be used in more than one type of situation or more than one at a time. Additionally, a given
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The speaker directly or indirectly indicating that he dislikes some aspect of the hearer's possessions, desires, or personal attributes.
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applicable, their theory has been challenged by other scholars both theoretically and with respect to its cross-cultural applicability.
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Dunn, Cynthia Dickel (December 2011). "Formal forms or verbal strategies? Politeness theory and Japanese business etiquette training".
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We are inclined to speak to our social equals differently than those whose status is higher or lower than our own in a given situation.
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McCarthy and Carter provide an example of negative politeness using the following dialogue from the Australian television soap opera, "
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Brown, Penelope and Stephen C. Levinson. 1987. Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1581:*S has the opportunity to evade responsibility by claiming that H's interpretation of the utterance as a face-threatening act is wrong
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S gets credit for honesty, outspokenness which avoids the danger of seeming manipulative, yet can come across as abrasive and tactless
40:
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Carter, Ronald and McCarthy, Michael. 1994. Language as Discourse- Perspectives for Language Teaching. Longman Publishing, New York.
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1960:
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when S includes themself equally as a participant in the request or offer, it may lessen the potential for face-threatening act debt
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107:
54:
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request, can "vary on three dimensions: willingness-unwillingness, ability-inability, and focus on-focus away from the requester".
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140:
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An act that affirms or denies a future act of the hearer creates pressure on the hearer to either perform or not perform the act.
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recordings in which the first officer hints at a problem instead of addressing it outright. He introduces the linguistic term,
190:
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On the other hand, Although Brown and Levinson's theory is widely applicable, some weaknesses in their theory have been noted.
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Nodoushan, Salmani; Ali, Mohammad (2019). "Clearing the mist: The border between linguistic politeness and social etiquette".
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Goldsmith, Daena J. (April 2000). "The Impact of Politeness and Relationship on Perceived Quality of Advice About a Problem".
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An act that expresses the speaker's negative assessment of the hearer's positive face or an element of his/her positive face.
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S avoids danger of being misunderstood by putting intended meaning directly into utterance without the reliance upon the
169:
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1975. "Logic and conversation". In Cole, P. and Morgan, J. (eds.) Syntax and semantics, vol 3. New York: Academic Press.
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behaviour out of the context of real, ongoing verbal interaction" and also "social interaction is negotiated on-line."
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Dunn, C. D. (2011). "Formal forms or verbal strategies? politeness theory and Japanese business etiquette training".
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pays respect or deference by assuming that you may be intruding on the hearer in return for the face-threatening act.
85:
78:
385:
345:
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An act that shows that the speaker is in some sense wrong, has own dignity offended, or unable to control himself.
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In most cooperative circumstances where 3. is greater than 2., S will want to minimize the face-threatening act.
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An act that speaker’s humbles his own face or accept debt to maintain hearer’s face and make good for the hearer.
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Abu-Rumman, Marah Ahmad; Altakhaineh, Abdel Rahman Mitib; Al-Badawi, Mohammed; Hammouri, Yazeed (2024-06-25).
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2983:"A direct and comprehensive test of two postulates of politeness theory applied to uncertainty communication"
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Clarrie: Oh (MINIMIZATION) I'd be no bother. (REINFORCE EXPLANATION) It'd mean a heck of a lot to those kids.
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The following are cases in which the positive face of the hearer (the person being spoken to) is threatened.
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The following are cases in which the negative face of the hearer (the person being spoken to) is threatened.
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The speaker expresses disapproval by stating or implying that the hearer is wrong, irrational, or misguided.
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349:
320:, while negative face refers to one's freedom to act. These two aspects of face are the basic wants in any
1558:*S satisfies H's desires to be unimpeded—the want that is directly challenged by the face-threatening act.
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Negative face is threatened when an individual does not avoid or intend to avoid the obstruction of their
46:
3100:
3027:
Groopman, Jerome (2002). "Dying Words; How should doctor's deliver bad news?" – via Newyorker.com.
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Examples: disapproval, criticism, contempt or ridicule, complaints and reprimands, accusations, insults.
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Fukada, Atsushi (2002). "Universal Politeness Theory: Application to the Use of Japanese Honorifics".
3075:
Tanaka, Shigenori, and Kawade, Saiki (1982). "Politeness Strategies and Second Language Acquisition".
2884:
Dynel, Marta (2016). "Conceptualizing conversational humor as (im)politeness: The case of film talk".
2721:
Pinker, Steven (2007-01-20). "The evolutionary social psychology of off-record indirect speech acts".
626:
The following are cases in which the positive face of the speaker (the person talking) is threatened.
460:
The following are cases in which the negative face of the speaker (the person talking) is threatened.
1510:
Weight = Social distance (speaker, hearer) + power difference (speaker, hearer) + rank of imposition
1278:
In deciding which strategy to use, the speaker runs through the individual payoffs of each strategy.
426:
2545:
2110:
Politeness in Shakespeare: Applying Brown and Levinson´s Politeness Theory to Shakespeare's Comedies
3424:
2044:
1761:
248:
3262:
3088:
3004:
2901:
2794:
2746:
2703:
2634:
2546:"Undergraduate and postgraduate students' emails to faculty members: an impoliteness perspective"
2437:
2316:
2251:
2228:
2204:
1470:
361:
321:
275:
268:
1397:
give the addressee an opportunity to seem to care for S because it tests H's feelings towards S
183:
3140:
3052:
2786:
2738:
2695:
2655:
2626:
2561:
2500:
2473:
2387:
2371:
2308:
2288:
2192:
2162:
2087:
2020:
1988:
1956:
1908:
1875:
1847:
1648:
3370:
Nodoushan, Salmani; Ali, Mohammad (2014). "Speech acts or language micro- and macro-games?".
2128:
Armaşu, Veronica-Diana (2012). "Modern Approaches to Politeness Theory. A Cultural Context".
1538:*S satisfies a wide range of H's desires not necessarily related to the face-threatening act.
1124:
The preparatory phase is when the favor-seeking is preceded by elaborate precautions against
568:
The speaker indicates that he is willing to disregard the emotional well being of the hearer.
562:
Examples: disrespect, mention of topics which are inappropriate in general or in the context.
3313:
3254:
3199:
3172:
3080:
2994:
2958:
2893:
2835:
2778:
2730:
2687:
2618:
2588:
2553:
2429:
2300:
2243:
2079:
1948:
1940:
1900:
1703:
1694:
300:
296:
3335:
Goffman, Erving. 1955. On Face-Work: An analysis of ritual elements in social interaction,
1431:
An example might be a physician avoiding bringing up the need for a patient to lose weight.
1699:
1689:
1449:
1129:
own self-importance in the matter and exaggerate the hearer's (down-scaling compliments).
1216:-S: Do you have a free chair over there? -H: Yes, I do. (grab the chair for the speaker)
1057:
Use obviating structures, like nominalizations, passives, or statements of general rules
417:
An act that expresses the speaker's sentiments of the hearer or the hearer's belongings.
3245:
Yabuuchi, Akio (2006). "Hierarchy politeness: What Brown and Levinson refused to see".
2592:
1622:
1147:
Clarrie: So I said to him, forget your books for one night, throw a party next weekend.
965:. Again, this type of formal speech can be used to protect the hearer's positive face.
340:
According to Brown and Levinson, positive and negative face exist universally in human
288:
244:
89:
1361:
Helps avoid future debt by keeping social distance and not getting too familiar with H
537:
An act that expresses the speaker's indifference toward the addressee's positive face.
329:
3413:
3266:
3176:
3163:
Mao, LuMing Robert (1993). "Beyond Politeness Theory: 'Face' Revisited and Renewed".
3092:
2962:
2905:
2798:
2750:
2707:
2622:
2441:
2320:
2255:
3008:
2638:
1326:
criticism may lose much of its sting if done in a way that asserts mutual friendship
2858:
Sriubaite, Jurgita (2014). "Face-Saving and Face-Threatening Acts in Art Reviews".
2083:
1820:
1125:
425:
Examples: compliments, expressions of envy or admiration, or expressions of strong
357:
2520:
1760:
some cultures use politeness strategies when there is no face threat, such as the
409:
Examples: orders, requests, suggestions, advice, remindings, threats, or warnings.
3317:
3203:
2839:
2691:
2304:
1698:
dynamic between the captain and the first officer. He uses numerous examples of
556:
The speaker indicates that he doesn't have the same values or fears as the hearer
2142:
Mills, Sara. 2003. Gender and Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1644:
657:
you take care of it" and "It's terrible that your mom won't give you the money."
353:
325:
317:
256:
125:
84:
The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of
2289:"Examining Chinese gift-giving behavior from the politeness theory perspective"
1904:
1874:
Foley, William. 1997. Anthropological Linguistics: An introduction. Blackwell.
376:. It is also possible to have multiple acts working within a single utterance.
3084:
2999:
2982:
2782:
2494:
2433:
1777:
1298:
1249:
1188:
1140:
365:
348:
or the speaker by acting in opposition to the wants and desires of the other.
264:
260:
252:
3045:
2790:
2742:
2699:
2565:
2312:
2196:
2091:
2024:
1486:
there is no confusion in what she is asking, saying: "Stop talking so loud!".
1291:
enlists public pressure, puts H in the public eye if there are others present
316:
could be impinged upon by imposing on someone. Positive face refers to one's
3357:
Nodoushan, Salmani; Ali, Mohammad (2012). "Rethinking face and politeness".
1737:
1676:
1474:
1192:
373:
2949:
Zajdman, Anat (1995). "Humorous face-threatening acts: Humor as strategy".
2630:
1985:
Culturally Speaking: Culture, Communication and Politeness Theory-Continuum
1260:
the want to communicate the content of the face-threatening act in question
1208:· Minimizing the threaten toward the hearer's freedom (S-Speaker, H-Hearer)
486:
their well-being is treated less importantly, positive face is threatened.
2557:
1944:
1530:*Bald On-Record- leaves no way for H to minimize the face-threatening act.
2897:
2386:
Coates, Jennifer. 1998. Language and Gender: A Reader. Wiley-Blackwell.
2247:
1668:
1453:
1237:-S: My head aches a lot. -H: Oh, I’ll get some pain-killer pills for you.
1170:
Clarrie: (THANK WITH BOOST) I knew you'd say yes. You're an angel, Helen.
3258:
2734:
1952:
1764:
system. Ide et al. shows that the roughly equivalent term in Japanese,
1229:
Giving the hearer a chance to show good personality in caring for others
3349:
Lakoff, R. 1973. The logic of Politeness; or minding your p's and q's.
1028:
You couldn't find your way to lending me a thousand dollars, could you?
341:
309:
961:
Another use of positive politeness is polite or formal speech such as
1647:, in 2016, different occasions of humor used in the television show,
1394:
avoid responsibility for the potentially face-damaging interpretation
1091:
I'm sorry; it's a lot to ask, but can you lend me a thousand dollars?
2046:
THE APPLICATION OF POLITENESS THEORY INTO ENGLISH EDUCATION IN JAPAN
1630:(the desire to be liked and be approved of) as well as his negative
1573:*This implies that the matter is important enough for S to disturb H
2470:
Politeness in Language: Studies in its History, Theory and Practice
2769:
SIFIANOU, MARIA (1997). "Politeness and off-record indirectness".
1371:
Ex: "I don't mean to bother you, but can I ask a quick question?"
305:
3351:
Papers from the 9th Regional Meeting, Chicago Linguistics Society
1507:
Overall the formula for the weight of a face-threatening act is:
2919:
Sacks, Harvey (1974). Richard Bouman, & Joel Sherzer (ed.).
2676:"Direct off-record requests? – 'Hinting' in family interactions"
1498:
The absolute ranking of the threat of the face-threatening act
757:
Doing the face-threatening act is in the interest of the hearer
611:
Example: Addressing a young woman as "ma'am" instead of "miss."
119:
61:
20:
3139:. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 219–236.
3137:
Explaining Communication: Contemporary Theories and Exemplars
255:, construed as efforts to redress the affronts to a person's
2287:
Feng, Hairong; Chang, Hui-Ching; Holt, Richard (June 2011).
929:
Yeah, it's rather long; it only looks short from a distance.
1049:
It's not too much out of your way, just a couple of blocks.
544:
The addressee might be embarrassed for or fear the speaker.
2923:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 337–353.
1671:
by the name of Jerome Groopman wrote an article entitled,
2527:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 71–112, 2011-01-06
1221:-S: Are you going out? -H: Yes, but I’ll come home early.
1191:
to convey the intended meaning while still utilizing the
1150:
Helen: A party at number 30! What will Dorothy say about
586:
Examples: topics that relate to politics, race, religion.
2468:
Watts, Richard J.; Ide, Sachiko; Ehlich, Konrad (2005).
647:
Refusals as threatening both positive and negative face
1987:. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group.
527:
Examples: contradictions or disagreements, challenges.
2604:
2602:
2017:
The Journal of Nagasaki University of Foreign Studies
1195:
meaning as a way to avoid losing face (see below in
1033:
So I suppose some help is out of the question, then?
2274:
Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior
1619:
Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior
897:
If you wash the dishes, then I'll vacuum the floor.
873:
Include both speaker (S) and hearer (H) in activity
771:
Situations where the threat is minimized implicitly
360:(conveyed in the characteristics of speech such as
3044:
2771:International Journal of the Sociology of Language
2189:Politeness Theory : Its Trend and Development
274:Though Brown and Levinson proposed their model as
3135:Goldsmith, Daena J. (2006). Samter, Wendy (ed.).
2157:Eckert, Penelope; McConnell-Ginet, Sally (2013).
1673:Dying Words; How should doctors deliver bad news?
1428:S also fails to achieve his desired communication
429:toward the hearer (e.g. hatred, anger, distrust).
2072:International Journal of Intercultural Relations
3282:Brown, Penelope and Stephen C. Levinson. 1987.
3337:Psychiatry: Journal of Interpersonal Relations
3051:. New York: Back Bay Books. pp. 177–223.
745:Little or no desire to maintain someone's face
3284:Politeness: Some universals in language usage
3231:. New York: Irvington Publishers. p. 10.
3229:Ingratiation: A Social Psychological Analysis
2936:Conversational joking: Humor in everyday talk
2187:村田, 和代 ムラタ, カズヨ MURATA, Kazuyo (2008-01-31).
1801:Issues with terminology and their definitions
8:
3342:Kadar, Daniel Z., and Michael Haugh (2013).
3326:Anthropological Linguistics: An introduction
3105:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2209:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1893:Encyclopedia of Human Relationships: Vol. 1-
550:Examples: excessively emotional expressions.
3158:
3156:
2981:Sirota, Miroslav; Juanchich, Marie (2015).
2921:Explorations in the ethnography of speaking
1266:the want to maintain H's face to any degree
55:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1391:get credit for being tactful, non-coercive
913:That's a nice haircut. Where'd you get it?
905:Exaggerate interest in H and his interests
16:Social and linguistic theory of politeness
3385:International Journal of Language Studies
3372:International Journal of Language Studies
3359:International Journal of Language Studies
3286:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2998:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2352:
2350:
292:
228:Learn how and when to remove this message
210:Learn how and when to remove this message
108:Learn how and when to remove this message
3346:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2938:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
2650:
2648:
2348:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2336:
2334:
2332:
2330:
2229:"Chinese politeness is not about "face""
2161:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
945:Your hair's even longer than my uncle's!
841:Use solidarity in-group identity markers
3353:. Chicago: Chicago Linguistics Society.
1870:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1196:
1007:Perhaps, he might have taken it, maybe.
849:Hey, mate, could you lend me 3 dollars?
3240:
3238:
3098:
3077:Studies in Second Language Acquisition
3070:
3068:
3038:
3036:
3034:
3022:
3020:
3018:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2669:
2667:
2267:
2265:
2222:
2220:
2202:
2182:
2180:
2178:
1772:Inclusiveness of politeness strategies
991:Would you know where Oxford Street is?
881:You and I are going swimming together!
702:Situations with no threat minimization
598:Examples: interrupting, non sequiturs.
146:Please improve this article by adding
3130:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3118:
3116:
2976:
2974:
2972:
2879:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2463:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2453:
2451:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2152:
2150:
2148:
2103:
2101:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2006:
2004:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1274:Payoffs associated with each strategy
825:Attend to H's interests, needs, wants
7:
2123:
2121:
2119:
291:through his theories of "face" and "
1897:Encyclopedia of Human Relationships
2593:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2000.tb00757.x
1891:Metts, Sandra (2009). "Facework".
1784:Nonverbal aspects of communication
1586:Don't do the face-threatening act.
1416:Don't do the face-threatening act.
1263:the want to be efficient or urgent
1115:Three main stages of favor seeking
14:
2674:Ogiermann, Eva (September 2015).
2493:Culpeper, Jonathan (2011-01-06).
1838:Complimentary language and gender
1065:I hope offense will not be taken.
865:Don't worry. You'll do just fine!
751:Don't forget to clean the blinds!
574:Examples: belittling or boasting.
324:; during any social interaction,
36:This article has multiple issues.
3298:The handbook of sociolinguistics
2623:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2008.03173.x
124:
66:
25:
2052:(Thesis). Linköping University.
1935:Henningsen, Mary L. M. (2017).
1075:Spitting will not be tolerated.
1012:Could you please pass the rice?
44:or discuss these issues on the
3047:Outliers: The story of Success
2886:Journal of Politeness Research
2860:Language in Different Contexts
2499:. Cambridge University Press.
2293:Asian Journal of Communication
2236:Journal of Politeness Research
2084:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2017.04.008
833:You look sad. Can I help you?
796:Leave it, I'll clean up later.
481:Positive face-threatening acts
445:Examples: offers and promises.
380:Negative face-threatening acts
1:
3291:Working with Spoken Discourse
1983:Spencer-Oatey, Helen (2008).
1824:another (i.e. ingratiation).
1544:**Claims common ground with H
148:secondary or tertiary sources
3318:10.1016/j.pragma.2011.06.003
3204:10.1016/j.pragma.2003.11.006
3177:10.1016/0378-2166(94)90025-6
2987:Judgment and Decision Making
2963:10.1016/0378-2166(94)00038-g
2840:10.1016/j.pragma.2011.06.003
2692:10.1016/j.pragma.2015.06.006
2581:Human Communication Research
2521:"Impoliteness metadiscourse"
2305:10.1080/01292986.2011.559257
2130:Lingua. Language and Culture
2112:. Hamburg: Diplomica Verlag.
2108:Bouchara, Abdelaziz (2009).
1561:**Be conventionally indirect
721:When efficiency is necessary
308:to non-distraction—i.e. the
2043:Kawai, Maho (August 2013).
2019:(in Japanese) (22): 43–52.
1714:Intercultural Communication
1555:Negative redressive action
1535:Positive redressive action
1473:relations between parties (
1425:S avoids offending H at all
299:' (crucially including the
251:, centers on the notion of
3441:
3406:. Oxford University Press.
3395:Schiffrin, Deborah. 1994.
3043:Gladwell, Malcolm (2008).
1905:10.4135/9781412958479.n190
1899:. SAGE Publications, Inc.
1564:**Minimize imposition on H
282:Positive and negative face
3227:Jones, Edward E. (1975).
3085:10.1017/S0272263100004575
3000:10.1017/S1930297500004642
2783:10.1515/ijsl.1997.126.163
2550:Lodz Papers in Pragmatics
2434:10.1080/10510970409388616
2011:NetCommons (2018-12-30).
1070:Visitors sign the ledger.
953:Other purposes and usages
3344:Understanding Politeness
3339:18:3, pp. 213–231 .
3296:Coulmas, Florian. 1998.
3289:Cameron, Deborah. 2001.
3247:Intercultural Pragmatics
2723:Intercultural Pragmatics
2272:Goffman, Erving (1967).
1256:Speaker (S) will weigh:
1161:Helen: Oh, Clarrie, I...
1107:We regret to inform you.
356:(using words/language),
3397:Approaches to Discourse
2227:Hinze, Carl G. (2012).
1514:Hierarchy of strategies
1405:generous or cooperative
1203:Situations and examples
1041:Minimize the imposition
999:Use hedges or questions
978:Situations and examples
889:Make offers or promises
820:Situations and examples
763:Your headlights are on!
695:Situations and examples
3324:Foley, William. 1997.
2934:Norrick, Neal (1993).
2276:. New York: Doubleday.
1792:Individual differences
1440:Sociological variables
709:Urgency or desperation
659:
474:
328:is needed amongst the
135:relies excessively on
3306:Journal of Pragmatics
3192:Journal of Pragmatics
3165:Journal of Pragmatics
3079:. 5.1 (1982): 18–33.
2951:Journal of Pragmatics
2828:Journal of Pragmatics
2680:Journal of Pragmatics
2558:10.1515/lpp-2024-2006
2472:. Walter de Gruyter.
2422:Communication Studies
1945:10.4135/9781483381411
1843:Cooperative principle
1541:**Shows interest in H
1527:No redressive action
1182:Off-record (indirect)
677:Politeness strategies
654:
621:Damage to the speaker
468:
455:Damage to the speaker
350:Face threatening acts
336:Face-threatening acts
3402:Yule, George. 1996.
2898:10.1515/pr-2015-0023
2248:10.1515/pr-2012-0002
1814:Hierarchy politeness
1751:Cultural differences
1591:Application examples
490:Damage to the hearer
393:Damage to the hearer
269:social interactions.
3259:10.1515/ip.2006.019
2735:10.1515/ip.2007.023
2159:Language and Gender
1655:Delivering bad news
1475:asymmetric relation
1352:Negative politeness
1310:Positive politeness
1173:Helen: Ha! (laughs)
1099:Use plural pronouns
969:Negative politeness
963:Japanese honorifics
811:Positive politeness
739:Pass me the hammer.
159:"Politeness theory"
3420:Discourse analysis
3399:. Wiley-Blackwell.
3300:. Wiley-Blackwell.
3293:. Sage Productions
1762:Japanese honorific
1617:In his 1967 work,
1454:symmetric relation
1245:Choice of strategy
1197:Choice of strategy
921:Avoid disagreement
322:social interaction
241:Politeness theory,
3312:(15): 3643–3654.
3198:(11): 1991–2002.
3146:978-0-8058-3959-3
3058:978-0-316-01793-0
2834:(15): 3643–3654.
2611:Medical Education
2506:978-0-521-86967-6
2479:978-3-11-019981-9
2392:978-0-631-19595-5
2376:978-0-521-31355-1
2168:978-1-107-02905-7
1937:Politeness Theory
1880:978-0-631-15122-7
1848:Politeness maxims
1567:**Beg forgiveness
1547:**Seeks agreement
1452:between parties (
1167:Helen: All right.
238:
237:
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220:
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212:
194:
118:
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59:
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2053:
2051:
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2008:
1999:
1998:
1994:978-08264-9310-1
1980:
1967:
1966:
1932:
1919:
1918:
1888:
1882:
1872:
1704:mitigated speech
1695:Malcolm Gladwell
1683:Mitigated speech
1570:**Give deference
1550:**Gives sympathy
427:negative emotion
259:or face (as in "
249:Stephen Levinson
233:
226:
215:
208:
204:
201:
195:
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3277:Further reading
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2719:
2715:
2673:
2672:
2665:
2653:
2646:
2608:
2607:
2600:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2530:
2528:
2519:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2480:
2467:
2466:
2449:
2419:
2418:
2397:
2385:
2381:
2369:
2328:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2271:
2270:
2263:
2231:
2226:
2225:
2218:
2201:
2191:. 龍谷大学龍谷紀要編集会.
2186:
2185:
2176:
2169:
2156:
2155:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2127:
2126:
2117:
2107:
2106:
2099:
2069:
2068:
2057:
2049:
2042:
2041:
2032:
2010:
2009:
2002:
1995:
1982:
1981:
1970:
1963:
1934:
1933:
1922:
1915:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1873:
1860:
1856:
1834:
1816:
1803:
1794:
1786:
1774:
1753:
1729:
1716:
1685:
1657:
1640:
1615:
1602:
1593:
1516:
1450:Social distance
1442:
1276:
1247:
1205:
1184:
1117:
980:
971:
955:
822:
813:
727:Hear me out:...
697:
688:
679:
649:
623:
492:
483:
457:
395:
382:
338:
284:
234:
223:
222:
221:
216:
205:
199:
196:
153:
151:
145:
141:primary sources
129:
114:
103:
97:
94:
83:
77:has an unclear
71:
67:
30:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3438:
3436:
3428:
3427:
3422:
3412:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3400:
3393:
3380:
3367:
3354:
3347:
3340:
3333:
3329:
3322:
3301:
3294:
3287:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3272:
3253:(3): 323–351.
3234:
3219:
3209:
3182:
3171:(5): 451–486.
3152:
3145:
3112:
3064:
3057:
3030:
3014:
2993:(3): 232–240.
2968:
2957:(3): 325–339.
2941:
2926:
2911:
2892:(1): 117–147.
2869:
2845:
2813:
2804:
2756:
2713:
2663:
2644:
2617:(12): 1152–4.
2598:
2587:(2): 234–263.
2571:
2536:
2512:
2505:
2485:
2478:
2447:
2428:(2): 227–238.
2395:
2379:
2326:
2299:(3): 301–317.
2279:
2261:
2216:
2174:
2167:
2144:
2135:
2115:
2097:
2055:
2030:
2000:
1993:
1968:
1961:
1920:
1913:
1883:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1833:
1830:
1815:
1812:
1802:
1799:
1793:
1790:
1785:
1782:
1773:
1770:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1728:
1725:
1715:
1712:
1684:
1681:
1656:
1653:
1639:
1636:
1614:
1611:
1601:
1600:Business world
1598:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1515:
1512:
1505:
1504:
1503:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1481:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1408:
1407:
1406:
1399:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1384:
1383:
1379:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1362:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1343:
1342:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1295:
1292:
1284:
1283:
1282:Bald on-record
1275:
1272:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1231:
1230:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1210:
1209:
1204:
1201:
1183:
1180:
1175:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1155:
1148:
1137:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1110:
1109:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1022:
1021:
1020:Be pessimistic
1017:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1009:
1001:
1000:
996:
995:
994:
993:
985:
984:
979:
976:
970:
967:
954:
951:
950:
949:
948:
947:
939:
938:
934:
933:
932:
931:
923:
922:
918:
917:
916:
915:
907:
906:
902:
901:
900:
899:
891:
890:
886:
885:
884:
883:
875:
874:
870:
869:
868:
867:
859:
858:
854:
853:
852:
851:
843:
842:
838:
837:
836:
835:
827:
826:
821:
818:
812:
809:
808:
807:
806:
805:
804:
803:
798:
792:
791:
787:
786:
780:
779:
773:
772:
768:
767:
766:
765:
759:
758:
754:
753:
747:
746:
742:
741:
735:
734:
730:
729:
723:
722:
718:
717:
711:
710:
704:
703:
696:
693:
687:
686:Bald on-record
684:
678:
675:
648:
645:
644:
643:
642:
641:
640:
639:
631:
630:
622:
619:
618:
617:
616:
615:
614:
613:
607:
606:
601:
600:
594:
593:
589:
588:
582:
581:
577:
576:
570:
569:
565:
564:
558:
557:
553:
552:
546:
545:
539:
538:
534:
533:
532:
531:
530:
529:
523:
522:
518:
517:
515:
509:
508:
500:
499:
491:
488:
482:
479:
478:
477:
476:
475:
465:
464:
456:
453:
452:
451:
450:
449:
448:
447:
439:
438:
434:
433:
432:
431:
419:
418:
414:
413:
412:
411:
403:
402:
394:
391:
386:interlocutor's
381:
378:
337:
334:
289:Erving Goffman
283:
280:
245:Penelope Brown
236:
235:
218:
217:
132:
130:
123:
116:
115:
79:citation style
74:
72:
65:
60:
34:
33:
31:
24:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3437:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3415:
3405:
3401:
3398:
3394:
3391:(2): 109–120.
3390:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3365:(4): 119–140.
3364:
3360:
3355:
3352:
3348:
3345:
3341:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3302:
3299:
3295:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3281:
3280:
3276:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3230:
3223:
3220:
3213:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3186:
3183:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3159:
3157:
3153:
3148:
3142:
3138:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3123:
3121:
3119:
3117:
3113:
3108:
3102:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3069:
3065:
3060:
3054:
3049:
3048:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3023:
3021:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2945:
2942:
2937:
2930:
2927:
2922:
2915:
2912:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2878:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2866:(1): 332–339.
2865:
2861:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2846:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2814:
2808:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2717:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2660:0-582-08424-5
2657:
2651:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2575:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2540:
2537:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2513:
2508:
2502:
2498:
2497:
2489:
2486:
2481:
2475:
2471:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2380:
2377:
2373:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2280:
2275:
2268:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2230:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2212:
2206:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2175:
2170:
2164:
2160:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2145:
2139:
2136:
2131:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2048:
2047:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1990:
1986:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1969:
1964:
1962:9781483381435
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1916:
1914:9781412958462
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1822:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1800:
1798:
1791:
1789:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1763:
1757:
1750:
1748:
1742:
1739:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1726:
1724:
1720:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1691:
1687:In his book,
1682:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1612:
1610:
1606:
1599:
1597:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1525:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1458:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1439:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1414:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1381:
1380:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1336:
1332:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1280:
1279:
1273:
1271:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1181:
1179:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1122:
1121:
1114:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1098:
1097:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1081:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1044:
1040:
1039:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1003:
1002:
998:
997:
992:
989:
988:
987:
986:
982:
981:
977:
975:
968:
966:
964:
959:
952:
946:
943:
942:
941:
940:
936:
935:
930:
927:
926:
925:
924:
920:
919:
914:
911:
910:
909:
908:
904:
903:
898:
895:
894:
893:
892:
888:
887:
882:
879:
878:
877:
876:
872:
871:
866:
863:
862:
861:
860:
857:Be optimistic
856:
855:
850:
847:
846:
845:
844:
840:
839:
834:
831:
830:
829:
828:
824:
823:
819:
817:
810:
802:
799:
797:
794:
793:
789:
788:
785:
782:
781:
777:
776:
775:
774:
770:
769:
764:
761:
760:
756:
755:
752:
749:
748:
744:
743:
740:
737:
736:
733:Task-oriented
732:
731:
728:
725:
724:
720:
719:
716:
713:
712:
708:
707:
706:
705:
701:
700:
699:
698:
694:
692:
685:
683:
676:
674:
671:
667:
663:
658:
653:
646:
638:
635:
634:
633:
632:
628:
627:
625:
624:
620:
612:
609:
608:
603:
602:
599:
596:
595:
591:
590:
587:
584:
583:
579:
578:
575:
572:
571:
567:
566:
563:
560:
559:
555:
554:
551:
548:
547:
543:
542:
541:
540:
536:
535:
528:
525:
524:
520:
519:
516:
514:
511:
510:
506:
505:
504:
503:
502:
501:
497:
496:
494:
493:
489:
487:
480:
473:
472:
467:
466:
462:
461:
459:
458:
454:
446:
443:
442:
441:
440:
436:
435:
430:
428:
423:
422:
421:
420:
416:
415:
410:
407:
406:
405:
404:
400:
399:
397:
396:
392:
390:
387:
379:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
335:
333:
331:
327:
323:
319:
313:
311:
307:
302:
298:
294:
290:
281:
279:
277:
272:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
232:
229:
214:
211:
203:
192:
189:
185:
182:
178:
175:
171:
168:
164:
161: –
160:
156:
155:Find sources:
149:
143:
142:
138:
133:This article
131:
127:
122:
121:
112:
109:
101:
91:
87:
81:
80:
75:This article
73:
64:
63:
58:
56:
49:
48:
43:
42:
37:
32:
23:
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19:
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1645:Marta Dynel
1578:Off-Record
1341:solidarity.
983:Be indirect
326:cooperation
318:self-esteem
297:personality
276:universally
3425:Pragmatics
3414:Categories
3404:Pragmatics
3378:(4): 1–28.
2531:2024-07-13
1854:References
1778:speech act
1677:euphemisms
1669:oncologist
1382:Off record
1250:Paul Grice
1189:pragmatics
1141:Neighbours
1083:Apologetic
937:Make jokes
715:Watch out!
370:non-verbal
366:inflection
358:paraverbal
253:politeness
200:April 2016
170:newspapers
137:references
98:April 2016
90:footnoting
41:improve it
3267:144562907
3093:145231708
2906:151748069
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2092:0147-1767
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1738:Heuristic
1727:Critiques
1700:black box
1613:Art world
1299:pragmatic
374:utterance
346:addressee
265:lose face
261:save face
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3009:55456292
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1832:See also
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1460:listener
1193:semantic
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293:facework
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1490:noise."
1301:meaning
352:can be
342:culture
310:freedom
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1736:Good
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1638:Humor
1471:Power
191:JSTOR
177:books
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