557:. But the Court has also held that restrictions on political advertising can be justified in certain circumstances, provided they were proportionate to the public interest they aimed to protect. Certain Member States including the United Kingdom, Ireland and Switzerland have repeatedly refused to remove their blanket bans. An attempted television ad campaign by the Association against Industrial Animal Production (VGT) which drew a comparison between battery farming and the Holocaust was persistently refused in line with Swiss law, and was the subject of two ECtHR cases, the second case resulting from the persistent refusal by Switzerland to modify its laws on political advertising. However, in a similar UK case involving Animal Rights advertising, the Court upheld the UK ban on political advertising on several grounds. It held the UK had consulted widely before legislating, the court recognized the legitimacy of limiting political advertising on television, acknowledging the argument that there was a "risk of distortion" of public debate by wealthy groups having unequal access to advertising, and accepted that the ban was not a ban on free speech given that other methods of communication were available. The court thus recognized that television advertising is especially powerful and thus wealthy groups could block out the valid arguments of less wealthy groups and thus distort public debate. In
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should be accurate and verifiable. The third principle states that campaign materials should be objective and not directed at promoting party interests. Campaign materials must not mention the party in government by name, or directly attack or scorn the views, policies, or actions of others. Fourth, campaigns should be justified and undertaken in an efficient, effective and relevant manner. The last principle states that campaigns must comply with legal requirements and procurement policies and procedures. This is particularly important in respecting laws with broadcasting and media. When broadcasting political advertisements during an election period, the broadcaster must give all parties contesting the election a reasonable opportunity to have election matter broadcast during the election period. This does not need to be done for free. Sponsors or current affair programs must be identified during political advertising. While
Australia does not exactly have a right to free speech, they have an implied freedom of political communication. There are regulations on the format and presentation of political advertising, but little regulation on the content.
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committee created by the Chief
Electoral Officer; the committee consists of The Joint Chief Electoral Officer, a Returning Officer, and one expert. Additionally, the committee will only consider advertisements from registered political parties or groups or organizations whose headquarter are in the National Capital Territory of Delhi. This model was also spread to other states; they are to have a committee consisting of a Joint Chief Electoral Officer, a Returning Officer, and one expert. Just as with Delhi, the other territories are to consider applications from registered political parties or groups or organizations whose headquarter are in the territory. In all cases, the Returning Officer is the one who considers applications for advertisements. Additionally, there is a committee within every state, designated by The Chief Electoral Officer, to handle and complaints. This committee consists of The Chief Electoral Officer, an observer, and an expert. In addition to these 2004 decisions, it was decided in 2007 that these procedures would be extended national parties for the elections in the states of Gujarat and Himachal Pradesh.
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on the issue in reality, but the public may confuse the two as sharing the same interests due to their names. These unknown groups also have an advantage of seemingly having no previous associations with voters, as it does not readily reveal the leadership of the organizations to the public. Unknown interests groups are generally perceived as credible. They can also have names that project a sense of shared, common values or interests. However, they can be deceiving as many of these groups' leadership and/or sponsors is actors with less democratic policy than it seems. For example, Californians to
Protect Our Right to Vote is sponsored by Pacific Gas & Electronic Company. In these cases, the nonprofits names are able to project trustworthiness and expertise while shielding its deceiving donors operating it.
671:) established in 2000 is the regulatory body of broadcast political advertisements. It also serves to protect the message of the political advertisement from the broadcasting service. ICASA's regulations dictate the nature and acceptable content for aired political advertisements. Political party advertisements may only be authorized to be broadcast during the period of elections. A broadcasting service that airs a licensed ad must clearly state that this is in fact a political advertisement. The commercial cannot be longer than 1 minute in duration and cannot exceed 8 time slots within the designated period of elections. There is a required screening process of all political advertisements before being nationally aired. Failure to comply with these restrictions will result in maximum fine of one million Rand.
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inform the viewer, positive campaign ads become an ongoing discussion of character—people understand more than simply just political identity. In an analysis of the dynamics that exist in campaign advertising, Jim
Granato and M.C. Sunny Wong argue that "Not only do voters associate a candidate with a particular party and its policies, but they also assess character and competence of a candidate." Instead of simply representing a candidate by their issues, a candidate is almost created as a character on the screen. These campaigns become affirmations of competency; they give the viewer a multi-faceted understanding of who the candidate is and who the candidate is trying to portray themselves as.
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displaying posters, especially with their own image on them, and greatly limited the use of other publicity tools in an effort to urge candidates to give their messages through government organizations. Critics suggest that this limitation of advertising venue and medium was an attempt by the state to keep standing politicians in office and limit the information available on new candidates. Outside reports from more recent elections and campaigns claim actions such as physical attacks on journalists and campaign heads by unknown parties and the modification of campaign websites and documentaries by state agencies.
435:, the United States experienced the beginning of a different form of political advertising; one with a much more positive flow and a stronger, more powerful message. With the country in a relatively prosperous state, advertisements in support of Reagan evoked an emotional bond between the country and its president. Visions of Americans going about their daily lives with relative ease were compiled to convince America that voting against Reagan was a vote against prosperity. The positive and emotionally provocative ads proved more successful than negative attack ads. He was so highly successful that he won against
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454:, making him appear soft on crime. He contrasted these negative ads, with the emotional style commercial used by Ronald Reagan, to capitalize on his connection to the former president. Again borrowing from Reagan's campaign practices, he used free publicity as often as possible, making sure he was photographed in various situations that were likely to be aired in the evening news. Although Michael Dukakis tried to discredit the Bush campaign in many ways, he was ultimately unsuccessful, losing to the former vice president by thirty states.
777:, who was notorious for ordering the torture and killing of political enemies, issued a referendum in which the Chilean people could vote "yes" or "no" on the continuation of his regime. Overconfident in the idea that the majority of Chileans viewed him as a benevolent leader, Pinochet allowed his opposition fifteen minutes of airtime on the national television station each day for the twenty-seven days preceding the October 5 referendum. A creative team composed of Eugenio García, Francisco Celedón, and other members of Chile's
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the government. Candidates are not allowed to purchase their own advertisements. The number and type of candidate advertisements are also limited, including the size of newspaper advertisements, and length of television and radio advertisements. Japanese election law discourages negative campaign advertising directed at other candidates, parties, or political organizations. Campaign advertisements can only be broadcast during the two-week official campaign period and are closely monitored for violations of election law.
391:." The commercial showed a young girl picking the petals off a daisy. After she finishes counting, a voice off camera begins a countdown to a nuclear explosion. The ad ends with an appeal to vote Johnson, "because the stakes are too high for you to stay home." The commercial used fear and guilt, an effective advertising principle, to make people take action to protect the next generation. The ad ran for under a minute and only aired once, but due to the right wing, pro-war views of
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714:, "the evidence suggests that campaign ads have small effects that decay rapidly—very rapidly—but just enough of the impact accumulates to make running more advertising than your opponent seem a necessity". Her study with Alexander Coppock and Seth J. Hill, which tested 49 political advertisements in 59 experiments on 34,000 people found that the effects of advertising on persuasion were small regardless of context, message, sender, or receiver.
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For television during the blocks from 7–11am and from 4–8pm, 30% percent of the time will be allocated to campaign advertisement. For the slots from 11am–4pm and 8pm–1am, 20% percent of the time will be allocated for campaign advertisement. For radio the percentage of allocation during these 4 time blocks is flipped, 11am–4pm and 8pm–1am receiving 30% of the time for campaign advertisement, and 20% for the 7–11am and 4–8pm time blocks.
250:
43:
569:. In the latter instance political parties are allowed specific time slots on the broadcast media in which the advert may be aired. These are limited in time, offered to all registered parties and must be aired at times during the schedules that have similar levels of viewership. Furthermore, a moratorium on all election coverage is mandated on the day of the ballot.
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advertisements with a sense of joy, or "alegría". The campaign was overwhelmingly successful; 3.96 out of 7.2 million votes cast opposed the
Pinochet regime. Pinochet stepped down peacefully in 1990, passing on leadership to a democratic civilian government. The results for this election were believed to have large-scale effects for worldwide democracy.
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conflict situations in legal relations of advertising. Moreover, political advertising in Russia has evolved relatively recently, because from 1917 to 1991 there was only one political force in the country, which had no political opponents, and used ideological propaganda as the primary means of political communication.
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The name of an organization can allow campaigners to separate their political interests from their individual identity. For example, American Civil Rights
Institute is an anti-affirmative action group that sounds similar to the American Civil Liberties Union. The two organizations have opposing views
692:
According to the
Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission, the key role of broadcasters is to inform potential voters on issues, political parties and candidates during an election period. This means ensuring equitable airtime for all candidates on each broadcast network. 6.5 hours
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Japan distinguishes between party advertisements and candidate advertisements. There are few restrictions on political advertisements made by parties. One restriction is that party advertisements cannot mention specific candidates. Candidate advertisements have greater limitations and are paid for by
545:
In contrast to advertising in the print, radio and internet media, many Member States of the
European Union have consistently restricted advertising on broadcast media which are aimed at political ends, both party political advertising and political advocacy by non-partisan groups. These restrictions
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found that television campaign ads do affect election outcomes, in particular in down-ballot races. According to political scientists
Stephen Ansolabehere and Shanto Iyengar, negative ads do succeed at driving down overall turnout though. They also find that "negative ads work better for Republicans
617:
The parties are not permitted to take funds from corporate houses and the funds of the parties are non- taxable. The election commission which conducts the election sets out the rules and regulations for every election and enforces these rules as well. For example, all political parties have to stop
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have been proven to play different roles in regards to candidate evaluation. Positive ads, which usually start at the beginning of a campaign aim at introducing or reintroducing a candidate through reinforcing his or her positive image and qualities. Whereas a strictly political advertisement would
679:
Russia, as well as many other countries, does not have a legal definition of "political advertising". Current
Russian legislation regulates the form of political advertising such as election campaigns. This form involves activities to disseminate information about political forces and candidates to
658:
Argentina passed regulations on the allocation of television and radio campaigns in preparation for the 2013 primary and legislative elections. The regulation divides programming into 4 blocks throughout the day and allocates a certain percentage of time during the slots for campaign advertisement.
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Australia has five advertising campaign principles. First, campaigns should be relevant to government responsibilities. Secondly, campaign materials in advertising should be presented in an objective, fair and accessible manner and be designed to meet the objectives of the campaign. Facts presented
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was incompatible with a run for the Oval Office. The second and more memorable was the first Kennedy-Nixon debate. In the first of four televised debates, Kennedy appeared tanned and confident in opposition to Nixon, who looked pale and uncomfortable in front of the camera. Seventy-five million
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Campaigning is done through medias, newspapers and radios. By ruling of The Cable Television Network Rules of 1994, political advertisements were prohibited. However, a Supreme Court ruling in 2004 dictated that one may apply for an advertisement to be displayed on TV, but it must be approved by a
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Some Member States regulate the posting of election posters at both national and municipal level. In Ireland there are restrictions on the erection of election posters which mandate the time period after an election by which time the poster must be removed, with fines as a potential sanction. Some
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among voters. In fact one study conducted by Gina Garramone on the effects of political advertising on the political process shows that "by discerning clear differences between candidates, voters may be more likely to strongly like one candidate while strongly disliking the other". This typically
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directly affecting the conduct of elections. The Law on Presidential Elections (LPE), adopted in January 2012, (following the constitutional referendum in 2007 that changed the indirect presidential election system to a direct election of the president by popular vote with an absolute majority of
230:
Campaigns can include several different media (depending on local law). The period over which political campaign advertising is possible varies significantly from country to country, with campaigns in the United States lasting a year or more to places like the UK and Ireland, where advertising is
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Negative or attack ads have been studied for their effects on memory and ability to shape attitude towards candidates. Both variables are measured to determine the effectiveness of negative ads, which tend to be well remembered. The limitation of this technique is that it can sometimes be highly
644:
Iran is made up of mainly Shiite Muslims and a small minority of Sunni Muslims. The history of censorship in Iranian political advertising and campaign tactics has followed the ebb and flow of the country's religiously conservative state, dating back to the birth of the Islamic regime during the
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Direct effects of political campaign advertising include informing voters about candidates' positions and affecting the "preferences and participatory ethos of the electorate". Studies show that voting results are affected by voters' characteristics and the type of ad to which they are exposed.
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ran a campaign free of political attack ads until the very end of his campaign, when he tried to attack Nixon after he realized he was dipping lower in the polls. His attempt proved to be too late, but his neutral style of attack ads against Nixon, featuring white text scrolling across a black
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Political advertising in a broad sense is not regulated by a special law and follows the general rules governing freedom of speech, freedom of information, and freedom of association. Lack of legal definition of political advertising leads to the ambiguity of its understanding, which generates
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of 1979. One of the most recent examples of this censorship dates back to 2007, when Iran's "fundamentalist-based parliament" passed legislation that severely restricted the content and presentation of political advertising. The restrictions limited candidates in the presidential election from
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undertook the effort to air a hard-hitting and impactful political ad campaign against Pinochet. This campaign differed from many others in that it lacked a candidate or central ideology around which to base itself. Instead of using negative attack ads, the campaign's creators imbued their
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than for Democrats, and better for men than for women; unfortunately, negative ads also work better in general than positive ones". Challengers who spend more time campaigning get a higher vote share against incumbents in state house elections. According to political scientist
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of prime programing should be available for the purchase by all parties. On-air personalities running as a candidate in a provincial or federal election are required halt any on-air duties as soon as his or her candidacy is announced or the election is called. According to
343:, government corruption, and the state of the economy. He did not have to shake a half a million hands or travel the country extensively. He won the trust of the American people with his direct approach and subsequently the presidential election. His vice president was
335:, created forty twenty-second television spot commercials entitled, "Eisenhower Answers America" where he answered questions from "ordinary" citizens in an attempt to appear accessible to "the common man". These questions were filmed in one day using visitors to
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has become very important in political messaging, making it possible to message larger groups of constituents with minimal physical effort or expense. Still, the totality of messaging through these channels often needs to be put in the hands of campaign managers.
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have been justified on the basis that the ban offers a level playing field in which money interests cannot gain an unfair advantage in the political discourse of a Member State. The broadcast media has been singled out due to its historical reach and influence.
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that could be raised for any candidate, and set limits on what funds could be spent on election broadcasts, but it did not mandate verifiability in political campaign advertising. As of this time, there is no pending legislation addressing this issue.
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Over the next decade, the United States saw the rise of the televised political attack ad. Richard M. Nixon was especially proficient at this form of advertising, and his commercials proved to be very successful in his reelection campaign during the
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influence voting behaviour. Election campaign is defined as paid by a candidate, an electoral association, or other person acting in the interest of the candidate messages and materials, which encourage citizens to make the proposed action.
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A 2022 study found that candidate-centered campaign advertising became increasingly more prevalent in the United States around 1910. The study linked the increased frequency of candidate-centered advertising to the introduction of
1125:. Six Ph.D. researchers at the Human Rights Centre of the Faculty of Law of Ghent University, Belgium, who work on the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights under the supervision of Prof. Eva Brems. 24 April 2013
1330:"Short-term Interim Guidelines on Information and Advertising Campaigns by Australian Government Departments and Agencies." Australian Government Department of Finance. Commonwealth of Australia, June 2014. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.
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created approximately 200 commercials during his campaign, but there were two that made Nixon's efforts futile. The first was a thirty-minute commercial created from a speech he delivered in Houston, where he called for
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requires that the contracts for political ads shown on broadcast stations be posted online, but the agency is considering a proposal to expand that disclosure requirement to other platforms, including radio and cable.
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viewers watched the debates, and although Nixon was initially thought to be the natural successor to Eisenhower, the election results proved otherwise, and Kennedy was ultimately declared the winner.
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was proud of his accomplishment of shaking approximately 500,000 hands and covering 31,000 miles of ground across the nation. But that accomplishment was soon to pale in comparison when in 1952, the
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Political science research generally finds negative advertisement (which has increased over time) to be ineffective both at reducing the support and turnout for the opponent. A 2021 study in the
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valid votes) regulates aspects of the new presidential election system. It was adopted in an expedited manner with limited debate and no public consultation nor support of opposition parties.
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204:, many countries do not permit paid-for TV or radio advertising for fear that wealthy groups will gain control of airtime, making fair play impossible and distorting the political debate.
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campaigning forty eight hours before the election. Similarly, politicians facing criminal charges are often disqualified and communal content in speeches are also not permitted.
697:, there are restrictions regarding when political advertising may be aired and restrictions on the rates broadcasters and publishing facilities can charge for said advertising.
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1212:"INTERNATIONAL ELECTION OBSERVATION MISSION : Republic of Turkey – Presidential Election, 10 August 2014 : STATEMENT OF PRELIMINARY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS"
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2015:
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Garamone, Gina M.; Charles K. Atkin; Bruce E. Pinkleton; Richard T. Cole (Summer 1990). "Effects of Negative Political Advertising on the Political Process".
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1802:"The small effects of political advertising are small regardless of context, message, sender, or receiver: Evidence from 59 real-time randomized experiments"
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and government corruption, and to show Americans that he was the stronger, more experienced candidate. On the other side of the fence, Catholic born
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Diamond, E., & Bates, S. (1992). The Spot: The Rise of Political Advertising on Television, 3rd Edition. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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1095:"Colgan v. Independent Radio and Television Commission [1998] IEHC 117; [2000] 2 IR 490; [1999] 1 ILRM 22 (20th July, 1998)"
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Many municipalities in France restrict the placement of election posters to specific areas, often erecting stands specifically for that purpose.
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One of the most historically effective and unprecedented uses of campaign advertising took place in Chile in 1988. Chile's president, General
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Lau, Richard R.; Sigelman, Lee; Rovner, Ivy Brown (2007-11-01). "The Effects of Negative Political Campaigns: A Meta-Analytic Reassessment".
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Straubhaar, J., LaRose, R., & Davenport, L. (2010). Media Now: Understanding Media, Culture, and Technology. Boston: Cengage Learning.
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and political campaign staff design these ads. Many countries restrict the use of broadcast media to broadcast political messages. In the
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423:. It was also the first time that a family member was also used to attack the opposing candidate. One particular advertisement showed
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issues when Reagan used political action committees to solicit funds on his behalf. However, in Reagan's reelection bid during the
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Miller, Michael G. (2016-05-01). "The Power of an Hour: Effects of Candidate Time Expenditure in State Legislative Elections".
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leads to higher levels of confidence within voters choices and can widen the degree of participation in the electoral process.
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Broadcasting Authority of Ireland, Broadcasting Code on Referenda and Election Coverage pursuant to the Broadcasting Act 2009
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Dretzin, R. (Director), & Goodman, B. (Director). (2004). The Persuaders. . United States: Public Broadcasting Systems.
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387:. One of the first negative and maybe the most controversial commercial, perhaps of all time, was an advertisement dubbed "
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354:, Vice President Nixon used a formal television address in his presidential campaign, designed to answer questions about
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local councils have voted to ban the placement of election posters, citing the cost of removal and the waste generated.
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565:) are restricted to specific circumstances such as political party conferences and a limited time period before a
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1339:"Campaign Finance: Australia." Library of Congress Home. Library of Congress, 16 Sept. 2014. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.
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stated in their election report that LPE and Law on Basic Provisions are not harmonized and LPE lacks clarity.
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1977:"Reading the Fine Print: Issue Advertisements and the Persuasive Effects of Campaign Finance Disclosures"
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background, became what is now seen as a fairly common method used in political and product advertising.
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1266:"Political Advertisements on Television and Cable Networks : Review of relevant regulations"
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1378:
1119:"Ban on Political Advertising Does Not Violate Article 10: Animal Defenders International v. UK"
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427:(Reagan's wife) accusing Carter of a weak foreign policy. This campaign also saw the rise of
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Granato, Jim; Wong, M. C. Sunny (1 January 2004). "Political Campaign Advertising Dynamics".
1404:"Iran Human Rights Documentation Center - Harassment and Censorship Continue on Election Day"
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1074:"European Court of Human Rights : Case of VGT Verein gegen Tierfabriken v. Switzerland"
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saw a major change in how candidates reached their potential audiences. With the advent of
215:, paid advertisements are forbidden, though political parties are allowed a small number of
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Croteau, D., & Hoynes, W. (2003). Media Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
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395:, the Republican candidate, it resulted in a 44 to 6 state victory for Lyndon B. Johnson.
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Museum of the Moving Image. (2010). The Living Room Candidate. Retrieved March 18, 2011
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Outright bans on advertising engaged in political advocacy have been referred to the
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allows paid-for political broadcasts but requires equitable access to the airwaves.
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Akuto, Hiroshi. "Media and Electoral Campaigning in Japan and the United States."
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Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars: The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency, 1988
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1182:"Radikal-çevrimiçi / Politika / Referandumdan 'Evet' çıktı, CHP'nin itirazı var"
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Campaign advertisement for all elections is heavily regulated in Turkey through
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Use of an advertising campaign through the media to influence a political debate
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Hirano, Shigeo; Kaslovsky, Jaclyn; Olson, Michael P.; Snyder, James M. (2022).
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Persuasion Principles Principles for Making Applications. A Creativity Exercise
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2016:"How Chile's ad men ousted Pinochet: the real life story behind new film 'No'"
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Going negative: How campaign advertising shrinks and polarizes the electorate
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Krauss, Ellis S., and Pharr, Susan J., eds. University of Hawaii Press, 1996.
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One other effect of political campaign advertising includes greater attitude
553:, which has held that such restrictions may be a breach of Article 10 of the
505:, there is generally little regulation of political advertising content. The
339:, who were filmed gazing up at Eisenhower as he answered questions about the
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948:"How A Murderer And Rapist Became The Bush Campaign's Most Valuable Player"
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regime in 1982, contains a number of restrictions to fundamental civil and
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Party Politics in Japan: Political Chaos and Stalemate in the 21st Century
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2067:"Voting for Democracy: Campaign Effects in Chile's Democratic Transition"
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1002:"The FCC could start posting more information about political ads online"
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for example, party political advertisements on broadcast media (known as
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restricted by law to just a short period of weeks before the election.
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In most EU Member States, campaign advertising is heavily regulated.
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1028:"The Growth of Campaign Advertising in the United States, 1880–1930"
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counterproductive as ads turn out to harm the attacking candidate.
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Attack ads continued to become the norm in political advertising.
1655:"The Effect of Television Advertising in United States Elections"
1517:"Elections and Political Advertising on TV and Radio | CRTC"
1295:. Hrebenar, Ronald A., and Nakamura, Akira, eds. Routledge, 2014.
586:
The 1961 Law on Basic Provisions on Elections and Voter Registers
2487:
1491:
602:
2114:
1800:
Coppock, Alexander; Hill, Seth J.; Vavreck, Lynn (2020-09-01).
1769:"Yes, Political Ads Are Still Important, Even for Donald Trump"
721:
President Reagan giving Campaign speech in Austin, Texas, 1984
243:
36:
1291:
Christensen, Ray. "The Rules of the Election Game in Japan."
259:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
893:"ARCHIVED - Broadcasting Information Bulletin CRTC 2011-218"
160:
One of the most controversial campaign adverts of the time,
307:
Political advertising has changed drastically over time.
223:
has a very free market for broadcast political messaging.
1434:"Government Outlines Election Campaign Media Regulations"
268:
1241:"The Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995"
501:
While there have been some increases in regulation of
403:, where he won handily with a 49 to 1 state victory.
1705:
Ansolabehere, Stephen; Iyengar, Shanto (1997-08-01).
667:
Independent Communication Authority of South Africa (
3059:
3004:
2936:
2878:
2810:
2727:
2644:
2596:
2486:
2397:
2324:
2214:
2148:
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2042:"Foes of Pinochet win referendum; regime condedes"
1566:Dowling, Conor M.; Krupnikov, Yanna (2016-11-22).
1372:
1370:
450:used campaign ads that ridiculed his opponent
2126:
379:, aggressive advertising paved the way for a
257:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
1317:Kaid, Lynda Lee, and Christina Holtz-Bacha.
446:, attack ads returned with a renewed vigor.
1319:The Sage handbook of political advertising.
2133:
2119:
2111:
1492:"Политическая реклама - Индустрия рекламы"
480:Political advertising truck in India, 2014
1835:
1817:
1670:
472:Candidate placards in New Hampshire, 2013
295:Learn how and when to remove this message
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
1572:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics
444:1988 United States presidential election
433:1984 United States presidential election
421:1980 United States presidential election
401:1972 United States presidential election
377:1964 United States presidential election
352:1960 United States presidential election
325:1952 United States presidential election
317:1948 United States presidential election
166:1964 United States presidential election
138:
884:
786:List of election advertising techniques
1859:Ansolabehere, S.; Iyengar, S. (1995).
331:, war hero and presidential candidate
2040:Christian, Shirley (6 October 1988).
1927:. Psychological Processes, Volume 1.
1700:
1698:
1580:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.51
1568:"The Effects of Negative Advertising"
1464:"Government Gazette : No. 37350"
503:campaign finance in the United States
7:
1924:Television and Political Advertising
219:in the run-up to election time. The
192:a political debate and, ultimately,
65:adding citations to reliable sources
555:European Convention on Human Rights
1975:Lesenyie, Matthew (January 2020).
946:Simon, Roger (November 11, 1990).
25:
2014:Kendall, Paul (7 February 2013).
1659:American Political Science Review
1379:"Iran bans political campaigning"
707:American Political Science Review
523:Federal Communications Commission
1865:. New York: The Free Press.p.3.
1617:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00618.x
509:of 2002 addressed the issue of "
248:
41:
2777:Party platforms (or manifestos)
1653:; Warshaw, Christopher (2021).
588:(Law on Basic Provisions). The
52:needs additional citations for
551:European Court of Human Rights
507:Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act
439:with a 49 to 1 state victory.
367:in response to criticism that
1:
3140:Political campaign techniques
1734:Legislative Studies Quarterly
1377:Tait, Robert (13 July 2007).
764:2013 Chilean general election
2865:Rally 'round the flag effect
1888:Political Research Quarterly
1767:Vavreck, Lynn (2016-06-20).
1306:Media and Politics in Japan.
1156:"Town bans election posters"
842:Personalized audio messaging
534:and nonpartisan elections.
271:, discuss the issue on the
3156:
1981:American Politics Research
779:Christian Democratic Party
563:Party Political Broadcasts
490:Liberal Party of Australia
461:
217:party political broadcasts
29:
2206:Manipulation (psychology)
1962:10.1080/08838159009386744
1672:10.1017/S000305542100112X
1392:– via The Guardian.
975:. Warner Books. pp.
969:; Jules Witcover (1989).
464:Party political broadcast
2384:Criticism of advertising
1993:10.1177/1532673X19865881
1542:"Advertising Guidelines"
1438:Argentinaindependent.com
1321:Sage Publications, 2006.
847:Political text messaging
315:In his campaign for the
30:Not to be confused with
3046:Promotional merchandise
2757:Character assassination
2694:Narcotizing dysfunction
2568:Photograph manipulation
2281:Guerrilla communication
1950:Journal of Broadcasting
1921:Biocca, Frank. (1990).
1032:The Journal of Politics
762:Advertisement from the
18:Political advertisement
3029:Product demonstrations
2458:Historical negationism
1819:10.1126/sciadv.abc4046
934:Advertising Principles
874:I approve this message
770:
731:negative advertisement
722:
493:
481:
473:
173:
164:, helped to swing the
76:"Campaign advertising"
2961:Reputation management
2880:Psychological warfare
2729:Political campaigning
2538:Firehose of falsehood
761:
720:
487:
479:
471:
337:Radio City Music Hall
198:Political consultants
188:through the media to
159:
3135:Election campaigning
2996:Corporate propaganda
1123:Strasbourg Observers
932:J. Scott Armstrong.
917:J. Scott Armstrong.
832:Negative campaigning
590:Turkish Constitution
333:Dwight D. Eisenhower
277:create a new article
269:improve this article
182:campaign advertising
61:improve this article
32:Advertising campaign
3084:Media concentration
2956:Non-apology apology
2946:Cult of personality
2674:Emotive conjugation
2428:Burying of scholars
1605:Journal of Politics
1006:The Washington Post
837:Opposition research
365:religious tolerance
3067:Influence-for-hire
2860:National mythology
2830:Crowd manipulation
2719:Tabloid journalism
2588:Video manipulation
2533:Fictitious entries
2256:Civil disobedience
2142:Media manipulation
2046:The New York Times
1773:The New York Times
1354:The New York Times
771:
729:Both positive and
723:
647:Iranian Revolution
494:
482:
474:
415:used them against
174:
3122:
3121:
2888:Airborne leaflets
2767:Election promises
2621:Product placement
2496:Alternative facts
2236:Alternative media
1746:10.1111/lsq.12116
1273:Indiatogether.org
1000:Schwarz, Hunter.
986:978-0-446-51424-8
953:The Baltimore Sun
768:Michelle Bachelet
695:Elections Ontario
448:George H. W. Bush
385:Lyndon B. Johnson
381:landslide victory
305:
304:
297:
279:, as appropriate.
170:Lyndon B. Johnson
157:
137:
136:
129:
111:
16:(Redirected from
3147:
3114:Media proprietor
2938:Public relations
2918:Public diplomacy
2903:Information (IT)
2782:Name recognition
2407:Media regulation
2389:Annoyance factor
2246:Call-out culture
2161:Crowd psychology
2135:
2128:
2121:
2112:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2080:
2071:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1839:
1821:
1812:(36): eabc4046.
1806:Science Advances
1797:
1791:
1790:
1788:
1787:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1702:
1693:
1692:
1674:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1611:(4): 1176–1209.
1600:
1594:
1593:
1563:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1553:
1544:. Archived from
1538:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1528:
1519:. Archived from
1513:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1478:
1468:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1440:. Archived from
1430:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1410:. Archived from
1400:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1374:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1346:
1340:
1337:
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1322:
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1296:
1289:
1283:
1282:
1280:
1279:
1270:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1252:
1243:. Archived from
1237:
1231:
1230:
1228:
1227:
1216:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1188:. Archived from
1178:
1172:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1152:
1146:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1115:
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1108:
1106:
1105:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1070:
1064:
1063:
1038:(3): 1482–1496.
1023:
1017:
1016:
1014:
1012:
997:
991:
990:
967:Germond, Jack W.
963:
957:
944:
938:
937:
929:
923:
922:
914:
908:
907:
905:
904:
889:
869:Election promise
822:Get out the vote
817:Election promise
812:Direct marketing
775:Augusto Pinochet
598:political rights
567:General Election
532:direct primaries
429:campaign finance
345:Richard M. Nixon
300:
293:
289:
286:
280:
252:
251:
244:
158:
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
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3154:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3146:
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3144:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3118:
3109:Media influence
3104:Media franchise
3089:Media democracy
3055:
3000:
2932:
2874:
2855:Loaded language
2806:
2723:
2640:
2592:
2482:
2411:
2393:
2320:
2261:Culture jamming
2210:
2144:
2139:
2092:
2087:
2078:
2076:
2069:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2050:
2048:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2024:
2022:
2020:Telegraph.co.uk
2013:
2012:
2008:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1947:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1920:
1919:
1915:
1900:10.2307/3219846
1885:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1858:
1857:
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1383:Theguardian.com
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1160:Breakingnews.ie
1154:
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1101:
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900:
899:. 29 March 2011
891:
890:
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802:Campaign button
788:
756:
703:
690:
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665:
656:
642:
633:
624:
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592:reformed under
582:
540:
499:
488:Advert for the
466:
460:
452:Michael Dukakis
405:George McGovern
393:Barry Goldwater
360:John F. Kennedy
321:Harry S. Truman
313:
301:
290:
284:
281:
266:
253:
249:
242:
139:
133:
122:
116:
113:
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2986:Understatement
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2850:Indoctrination
2847:
2842:
2837:
2835:Disinformation
2832:
2827:
2822:
2816:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2804:
2799:
2797:Smear campaign
2794:
2789:
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2779:
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2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2733:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2714:Sensationalism
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
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2666:
2661:
2656:
2654:Agenda-setting
2650:
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2580:
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2530:
2528:False document
2525:
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2498:
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2490:
2484:
2483:
2481:
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2445:
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2433:Catch and kill
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2266:Demonstrations
2263:
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2251:Cancel culture
2248:
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2006:
1987:(1): 155–174.
1967:
1956:(3): 299–311.
1940:
1933:
1913:
1894:(3): 349–361.
1878:
1871:
1851:
1792:
1759:
1740:(2): 327–359.
1724:
1717:
1711:. Free Press.
1708:Going Negative
1694:
1665:(2): 702–718.
1638:
1595:
1588:
1558:
1533:
1508:
1483:
1455:
1425:
1414:on 5 July 2016
1395:
1366:
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1332:
1323:
1310:
1297:
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1257:
1232:
1203:
1186:Radikal.com.tr
1173:
1162:. 8 April 2009
1147:
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1044:10.1086/719008
1018:
992:
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958:
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909:
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876:
871:
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854:
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814:
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799:
797:Bumper sticker
794:
787:
784:
755:
752:
702:
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655:
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539:
538:European Union
536:
521:Currently the
498:
495:
459:
456:
437:Walter Mondale
389:The Daisy Girl
312:
309:
303:
302:
263:of the subject
261:worldwide view
256:
254:
247:
241:
238:
209:United Kingdom
202:European Union
168:, in favor of
135:
134:
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47:
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3100:
3097:
3095:
3094:Media ecology
3092:
3090:
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3082:
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3077:United States
3075:
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3051:Telemarketing
3049:
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2840:Fearmongering
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2679:False balance
2677:
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2660:
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2655:
2652:
2651:
2649:
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2637:
2636:Word of mouth
2634:
2632:
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78: –
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72:Find sources:
66:
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50:This article
48:
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39:
38:
33:
19:
3099:Media ethics
3019:Door-to-door
3014:Cold calling
2991:Weasel words
2898:Fifth column
2792:Push polling
2742:Astroturfing
2736:
2704:Pseudo-event
2684:Infotainment
2659:Broadcasting
2578:Urban legend
2501:April Fools'
2374:Testimonials
2344:Infomercials
2171:Dumbing down
2077:. Retrieved
2073:
2061:
2051:15 September
2049:. Retrieved
2045:
2035:
2025:15 September
2023:. Retrieved
2019:
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1550:. Retrieved
1546:the original
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1521:the original
1511:
1501:15 September
1499:. Retrieved
1495:
1486:
1475:. Retrieved
1473:. 2014-02-17
1471:Icasa.org.za
1470:
1458:
1448:15 September
1446:. Retrieved
1442:the original
1437:
1428:
1418:15 September
1416:. Retrieved
1412:the original
1408:Iranhrdc.org
1407:
1398:
1388:15 September
1386:. Retrieved
1382:
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1357:. Retrieved
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1245:the original
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743:polarization
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712:Lynn Vavreck
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425:Nancy Reagan
417:Jimmy Carter
410:
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356:The Cold War
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258:
233:Social media
229:
207:In both the
206:
181:
175:
123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
2971:Sound bites
2951:Doublespeak
2802:Wedge issue
2762:Dog whistle
2737:Advertising
2563:Lying press
2548:Gaslighting
2326:Advertising
2301:Occupations
2191:Obfuscation
2181:Half-truths
1647:Sides, John
594:coup d'état
419:during the
369:Catholicism
3129:Categories
3072:Media bias
2928:Subversion
2893:False flag
2870:Techniques
2812:Propaganda
2772:Lawn signs
2752:Canvassing
2646:News media
2402:Censorship
2334:Billboards
2286:Hacktivism
2276:Grassroots
2201:Persuasion
2079:2016-09-16
1786:2016-06-20
1552:2014-12-15
1527:2014-12-15
1477:2016-09-16
1278:2016-09-16
1251:2014-10-23
1226:2016-09-16
1104:2016-09-16
1099:Bailii.org
903:2016-09-16
897:Crtc.gc.ca
880:References
807:Canvassing
515:hard money
511:soft money
462:See also:
458:Regulation
341:Korean War
329:television
186:propaganda
87:newspapers
3034:Promotion
2913:Political
2820:Bandwagon
2747:Attack ad
2626:Publicity
2598:Marketing
2511:Fake news
2473:Religious
2468:Political
2448:Euphemism
2443:Cover-ups
2438:Corporate
2306:Petitions
2196:Orwellian
2166:Deception
2001:1532-673X
1828:2375-2548
1781:0362-4331
1754:1939-9162
1689:232333920
1681:0003-0554
1633:155001726
1625:1468-2508
1060:246058872
1052:0022-3816
1011:11 August
857:Push poll
827:Lawn sign
792:Attack ad
654:Argentina
631:Australia
273:talk page
190:influence
2981:Transfer
2923:Sedition
2787:Negative
2699:Newspeak
2689:Managing
2631:Research
2606:Branding
2558:Literary
2523:Fakelore
2516:websites
2506:Deepfake
2463:Internet
2354:Modeling
2311:Protests
2291:Internet
2224:Advocacy
2216:Activism
1846:32917601
1220:Osce.org
863:See also
267:You may
178:politics
3060:Related
3039:Spaving
3024:Pricing
2966:Slogans
2908:Lawfare
2845:Framing
2825:Big lie
2616:Product
2611:Loyalty
2543:Forgery
2488:Hoaxing
2369:Slogans
2349:Mobiles
2241:Boycott
2149:Context
2090:Sources
1908:3219846
1837:7467695
1129:June 7,
977:159–161
852:Posters
701:Effects
559:Ireland
442:In the
375:In the
350:In the
240:History
213:Ireland
162:"Daisy"
101:scholar
2664:Circus
2573:Racial
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1350:"Iran"
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688:Canada
675:Russia
580:Turkey
492:, 2010
225:Canada
194:voting
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3006:Sales
2709:Scrum
2669:Cycle
2583:Virus
2453:Films
2418:Books
2359:Radio
2339:False
2316:Youth
2296:Media
2229:group
2186:Media
2070:(PDF)
1904:JSTOR
1685:S2CID
1629:S2CID
1467:(PDF)
1269:(PDF)
1215:(PDF)
1056:S2CID
754:Chile
669:ICASA
622:Japan
609:India
275:, or
108:JSTOR
94:books
2976:Spin
2553:List
2478:Self
2156:Bias
2053:2016
2027:2016
1997:ISSN
1929:ISBN
1867:ISBN
1842:PMID
1824:ISSN
1777:ISSN
1750:ISSN
1713:ISBN
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1621:ISSN
1584:ISBN
1503:2016
1450:2016
1420:2016
1390:2016
1361:2016
1198:2016
1168:2016
1131:2014
1081:2016
1048:ISSN
1013:2014
981:ISBN
766:for
640:Iran
603:OSCE
383:for
211:and
80:news
2364:Sex
1989:doi
1958:doi
1896:doi
1832:PMC
1814:doi
1742:doi
1667:doi
1663:116
1613:doi
1576:doi
1040:doi
184:is
176:In
63:by
3131::
2379:TV
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1995:.
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1736:.
1697:^
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1369:^
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