Political psychology

1841:(1950) explained the authoritarian personality type from a psychoanalytic point of view suggesting it to be a result of highly controlled and conventional parenting. Adorno (1950) explained that individuals with an authoritarian personality type had been stunted in terms of developing an ability to control the sexual and aggressive id impulses. This resulted in a fear of them and thus development of defense mechanisms to avoid confronting them. Authoritarian personality types are persons described as swinging between depending on yet resenting authority. The syndrome was theorized to encompass nine characteristics; conventionalism, authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, anti-intraception (an opposition to subjective or imaginative tendencies), superstition and stereotypy, power and toughness, destructiveness and cynicism, sex obsession, and projectivity. The authoritarian personality type is suggested to be: ethnocentric, ego-defensive, mentally rigid, conforming and conventional, adverse to the out of the ordinary, and as having conservative political views. The book 2257:

group could be a method to remedy individual uncertainty. Taylor and Louis (2004) explained that individuals strive for meaningful behavior. This can also be used to explain why terrorists look for such radical beliefs and demonstrations. Studies on children in northern Ireland by Field (1979) have shown that exposure to violence can lead to terrorist behavior later on. Implicating the effect of developing acceptable norms in groups. However this view has also been criticized (Taylor, 1998). Other theories suggest that goal frustration can result in aggression (Dollard, Doob. Miller, mower, and Sears, 1939) and that aggression can lead to frustration (Borum, 2004). Group settings can cause a social identity and terrorist behavior to manifest. Methods such as dehumanization allow individuals to detach more easily from moral responsibility, and group influence increase the chance that individuals will concede to conformity and compliance. Manipulations of social control and propaganda can also instrument terrorist involvement.

1682:(1901–1984), who founded the "American Institute of Public Opinion". The 1940s election in America drew a lot of attention in connection with the start of World War II. Gallup, Roper and Crossley instigated research into the chances of Roosevelt being re-elected. Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet (1944) also conducted a famous panel study "The People's Choice" on the 1940s election campaign. These studies drew attention to the possibility of measuring political techniques using psychological theories. The entry of the US into World War II spiraled vast research into fields such as war technique, propaganda, group moral, psycho-biography and culture conflict to name a few, with the U.S. army and Navy recruiting young psychologists. Thus the discipline quickly developed and gained international accreditation. 1794:. These categories were grouped by Winter (1996) from Murray's (1938) twenty suggested common human goals. Need for power affects the style in which a leader performs. Winter and Stewart (1977) suggested that leaders high in power motivation and low in need of affiliation intimacy motivation make better presidents. Affiliation-motivated leaders alternatively tend to collaborate joint efforts in the absence of threat. Lastly, achievement motivation has demonstrated to not correspond with political success, especially if it is higher than power motivation (Winter, 2002). Motivation between a leader and those whom they are ruling needs to be consistent with success. Motives have been shown to be correlated more highly with situation and time since last goal-fulfillment, rather than consistent traits. The 1862:(RWA) scale based on the traits: authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism. Altmeyer (1996) suggested that those who score high on the F-scale have low ability for critical thinking and therefore are less able to contradict authority. Altmeyer's theories also incorporate the psychodynamic point of view, suggesting that authoritarian personality types were taught by their parents to believe that the world was a dangerous place and thus their impulses lead them to make impulsive, emotional and irrational decisions. The beliefs and behavior of an authoritarian are suggested to be easily manipulated by authority instead of being based on internal values. Altmeyer also theorized that leaders with authoritarian personality types were more susceptible to the 1907:. The Profiler-Plus is a computer system used to code spontaneous interview answers for seven major characteristics; need for power, cognitive complexity, task-interpersonal emphasis, self-confidence, locus of control, distrust of others, and ethnocentrism. This method can profile large bodies of leadership related text whilst removing any subjective bias from content analysis. It is efficient and has high reliability. Hermann and Preston (1994) suggested 5 distinct variables of leadership style; their involvement in policy making, their willingness to tolerate conflict, their level and reasons for motivation, their information managing strategies, and their conflict resolving strategies. 1893:(1978) proposed the importance of the traits; "dominance", "interpersonal trust", "self-esteem" and "introversion-extroversion", in leadership views and policy shaping. Etheredge found from studies on leaders during the Soviet Union, that those who scored highly on dominance were more likely to support the use of force during debate settlement. He found that the trait introversion can lead to a lack of co-operation, and that extroversion usually leads to cooperation and negotiation. Further he suggested that interpersonal trust and self-esteem were closely related to not advocating force. 2217:

and not "utility maximizers"; people who strive for utility in every moment. Though a group of people, perhaps those who are in the same political coalition, may seem as if they pursue a common utility maximization, it is difficult to generalize the theory of "utility maximizers" into a nation-view because people evolved in small groups. This approach helps scholars to explain seemingly irrational behaviors like aggressiveness in politics and international society because "irrational behavior" would be the result of a mismatch between the modern world and evolutionary psychology.

2025:(Asch, 1955). Chance of conformity is influenced by several factors; an increase in group size but only to a certain degree at which it plateaus, and degree of unanimity and commitment to the group. Therefore, the degree of popularity of a political group can be influenced by its existing size and the believed unanimity and commitment by the public of the already existing members. The degree by which the group conforms as a whole can also be influenced by the degree of individuation of its members. Also, the conformity within political groups can be related to the term, 1774:'s (1992) "Big Five" personality dimensions are the most recognized; these are: neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience and conscientiousness. Theories in political psychology induce that one's combination of these traits has implications for leadership style and capacity. For example, individuals who score highly on extroversion are demonstrated as having superior leadership skills. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality assessment scale commonly used in the study of political personality and for job profiling. 2005:

should not be discouraged or cause fear of instability. Awareness of group development also allows for models to be implemented in order to manipulate different stages. External influences upon a group will have different effects depending upon which stage the group is at in its course. This has implications for how open a group should be depending upon the stage of development it is at, and on its strength. Consistency is also a key aspect in a group for success (Wood, 1994).

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maximizers. The strategic model rests on three core assumptions which are: (1) terrorists are motivated by relatively stable and consistent political preferences; (2) terrorists evaluate the expected political payoffs of their available options; and (3) terrorism is adopted when the expected political return is superior to those of alternative options. However, it turns out that terrorists' decision-making process does not fully conform to the strategic model. According to

2029:. Humans represent groups as if there was a special category of an individual. For example, for cognitive simplicity, ancestral groups anthropomorphize each other because they have similar thoughts, values, and a historical background. Even though the member of a group may have an irrational or wrong argument about a political issue, there is a high possibility for the other members to conform to it because of the mere fact that they are in the same coalition. 2128:

appropriately to environmental challenges of coalitional conflict using psychological mechanisms and modifications. An example of political conflict would involve state aggression such as war. Psychological mechanisms work to digest what is taken in from internal and external information regarding the current habitat and project it in the most suited form of action such as acts of aggression, retrieval, dominance, submission and so forth.

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implementation of successful decision-making is often enhanced by group decision-making (Hill, 1982) especially if the decision is important to the group and when the group has been working together for an extended period of time (Watson, Michaelson and Sharp, 1991). However, groups can also hinder decision-making if a correct answer is not clear. Janis (1972) introduced the notion of

1993:" theory suggests that groups satisfy the need for control, intimacy and inclusion. Groups also form due to natural attraction. Newcomb (1960) states that we are drawn to others close in socioeconomic status, beliefs, attitudes and physical appearance. Similarity in certain respects can thus be related to how much a person is attracted to joining one group over another. 1866:. There are many weaknesses associated with this syndrome and the F-scale. It may have been more relevant during the period in which it was produced, being shortly after World War II. The authoritarian personality is generally related to a fascist image; however, it is suggested to explain the behavior of individuals across all political ideologies. 2046:

with them, rather than to enforce consequential punishment. However, if coercive power is enforced, success and a trusted leader (Friedland, 1976) are necessary in order for group conflict not to escalate. Extrinsic punishment and reward are also suggested to detract from intrinsic motivation. A sense of freedom must be advocated to the group.

1633:(1861–1948) noted political psychology (1917) as a sub-discipline of history. Motivated by social and political behavior during World War I, he deemed a new branch of historical science, "The Psychology of Men Acting in Masses". He referred to science to instrument the clarification of mistaken beliefs about intention. The intellectual 2295: 598: 1750:. The psychoanalytic approach has also been used extensively in psychobiographies of political leaders. Psychobiographies draw inferences from personal, social and political development, starting from childhood, to understand behavior patterns that can be implemented to predict decision-making motives and strategies. 2045:

and expert power. The way in which power is exerted upon a group can have repercussive outcomes for popularity. Referent power results in greater popularity of a political group or leader than coercive power (Shaw and Condelli, 1986). This has implications for leaders to manipulate others to identify

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In fact, a strategic model has been proposed to examine the political motivations of terrorists. The strategic model, the dominant paradigm in terrorism studies, considers terrorists are rational actors who attack civilians for political ends. According to this view, terrorists are political utility

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as follows: "Preschool children who 20 years later were relatively liberal were characterized as: developing close relationships, self-reliant, energetic, somewhat dominating, relatively under-controlled, and resilient. Preschool children subsequently relatively conservative at age 23 were described

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Studying the purpose for formation of a group, whether it is serving a "functional" purpose or an "interpersonal attraction" purpose (Mackie and Goethals, 1987), has implications for political popularity. Often people join groups in order to fulfill certain survival, interpersonal, informational and

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Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) made significant contributions to the study of personality in political psychology through his theories on the unconscious motives of behavior. Freud suggested that a leader's behavior and decision-making skill were largely determined by the interaction in their personality

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In terms of explaining reasons for which individuals join terrorist groups, motivational theories such as need for power and need for affiliation intimacy are suggested. Festinger (1954) explained that people often join groups in order to compare their own beliefs and attitudes. Joining a terrorist

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designed since ancestral times. During those times men had more to earn when winning wars compared to women (they had more chance of finding a mate, or even many mates). Also, the victorious men had more chance of reproduction which eventually led to the succession of aggressive, eager-to-war DNAs.

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uses this idea to give out a hypothesis to explain political events. According to the authors, instincts and psychological characteristics developed through evolution is still existent with modern people. They suggest human being as "adaptation executers"; people designed through natural selection,

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On an individual level participators in situations of conflict can either be perpetrators, bystanders or altruists. The behavior of perpetrators is often explained through the authoritarian personality type. Individual differences in levels of empathy have been used to explain whether an individual

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The amount of research done on children and the impact their childhoods have on their political views or identity is limited. However, an increasing amount of empirical work on children and their environment could be highly revealing of how their political awareness and attitudes develop very early

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is best understood through theories on the formation of attitudes, beliefs, schema, knowledge structures and the practice of information processing. The degree to which voting decision is affected by internal processing systems of political information and external influences, alters the quality of

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established the Institute for International Social Research to focus "attention primarily on psychological changes which influence political behavior in ways that have significant effect on international relations." They studied "governments and why, in terms of psychological variables, they behave

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Some prominent academics in the field include Dr. Chadly Daniel Stern, who currently works at the Department of Psychology at the University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign. His research centers around answering social cognitive questions of how a person's political belief systems shape the way that

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is key in the structure, stability, popularity and ability to make successful decisions of political parties. Individual behavior deviates substantially in a group setting therefore it is difficult to determine group behavior by looking solely at the individuals that comprise the group. Group form

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has demonstrated that individuals are resistant to accepting new political views even if they are presented with evidence that challenges their views. The research also demonstrated that if the individual was required to write a few sentences about experiences they enjoyed or spend a few moments

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tends to happen in several stages; forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning (Tuckman, 1965). Group awareness of these stages is important in order for members to acknowledge that a process is taking place and that certain stages such as storming are part of progression and that they

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can actually cause an individual to analyze information more rationally and carefully, resulting in more well-informed and successful decisions. The psychology of decision-making however must be analyzed in accordance with whether it is within a leadership context or a between-group context. The

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in political psychology focuses on the effects of leadership personality on decision-making, and the consequences of mass personality on leadership boundaries. Key personality approaches utilized in political psychology are psychoanalytic theories, trait-based theories and motive-based theories.

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explains that during the Holocaust of World War II political leaders used the Jews as an out-group in order to increase in-group cohesion. This allowed for the perpetrators to depersonalize from the situation and to diffuse their responsibility. The out-groups were held in separate confines and

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Techniques to establish more effective decision-making skills in political dimensions have been suggested. Hirt and Markman (1995) claim that implementing an individual in a group to find faults and to critique will enable the members to establish alternative viewpoints. George (1980) suggested

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Group size has various consequences. In smaller groups individuals are more committed (Patterson and Schaeffer, 1997) and there is a lower turnover rate (Widmeyer, Brawley and Carron, 1990). Large groups display greater levels of divergence (O'Dell, 1968) and less conformity (Olson and Caddell,

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Although political behavior is governed and represented by a leader the consequential influence of the leader largely depends upon the context in which they are placed and in which type of political climate they are running. For this reason group behavior is also instrumental for understanding

1762:(1897–1967) realized the study of traits introducing central, secondary, cardinal and common traits. These four distinctions suggest that people demonstrate traits to varying degrees, and further that there is a difference between individual and common traits to be recognized within a society. 2191:

introduced by Darley and Latane (1968) demonstrates that group behavior causes individuals to monitor whether others think it is necessary to react in a situation and thus base their behavior on this judgment. They also found that individuals are more likely to diffuse responsibility in group

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in political personality analysis. Barber suggested that leadership personality comprised three dimensions; "character", "world view", and "style". Barber also proposed that leadership typology followed a pattern leading from an individual's first political success and that it is includes two

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is key. Cohesion is affected by several factors; the amount of time members spend in the group, the amount that members like one another, the amount of reward that the group offers, the amount of external threat to the group and the level of warmth offered by leaders. These factors should be

1926:(VIC) coding system employed through the Profiler-Plus computer program once again allows substantial bodies of written and spoken speech, interviews and writings to be analyzed subjectively. The method attempts to be able to predict behavior thorough applying knowledge of various beliefs. 2127:

plays a significant role in understanding how the current political regime came to be. It is an approach that focuses on the structure of human behavior claiming its dependence on the social and ecological environment. Developed through natural selection, the human brain functions to react

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perspective, and psychological processes using socio-political perspectives. The relationship between politics and psychology is considered bidirectional, with psychology being used as a lens for understanding politics and politics being used as a lens for understanding psychology. As an

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Political psychology originated from Western Europe, France, where it was closely tied to the emergence of new disciplines and paradigms as well as to the precise social and political context in various countries. The discipline political psychology was formally introduced during the

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which measures from where and to what degree fascist attitudes develop, the anti-Semitism scale, the ethnocentrism scale and the politico economic conservatism scale. The F-scale, however, is the only scale that is expected to measure implicit authoritarian personality tendencies.

1971:(Maznevski, 1994). This has implications for political parties based in strongly colonial or multiracial nations. Member diversity has consequences for; status, role allocation and role strain within a group, all of which can cause disagreement. Thus, maintenance of 1550:(1897–1957), inspired by the effects of World War II, was interested in whether personality types varied according to epoch, culture and class. He described the bidirectional effect of group, society and the environment with personality. He combined Freudian and 1976:

considered when attempting to form an efficient political group. President decision efficiency for example is affected by the degree to which members of the advisory group have a hierarchical status and by the roles that each member is assigned.

1641:(1908). Wallace emphasized the importance of enlightening politicians and the public about the psychological processes in order to raise awareness on exploitation while developing control over one's own psychological intellect. He suggested in 2090:

that advocates an increased chance of groups making faulty decisions under several conditions; strong group cohesion, isolation of group decision from public review, the presence of a directive leader in the group, and high-stress levels.

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The application of psychology for understanding conflict and extreme acts of violence can be understood in both individual and group terms. Political conflict is often a consequence of ethnic disparity and "ethnocentrism" Sumner (1906).

1798:(TAT) is commonly used for assessing motives. However, in the case of leadership assessment this test is more difficult to implement therefore more applicable tests are often used such as content analysis of speeches and interviews. 2248:

are used by terrorists. Others such as Silke (2004) and Mastors and Deffenbaugh (2007) refute this view. Crenshaw (2004) showed that certain terrorist groups are actually careful in not enlisting those demonstrating pathology. The

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refers to "a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' striving for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action."

1663:(1927) discussed the use of applying psychological theories in order to enhance propaganda technique. Lasswell moved to Europe shortly after where he started to tie Freudian and Adler personality theories to politics and published 2136:

In order to make inferences and predictions about behavior concerning voting decision, certain key public influences must be considered. These influences include the role of emotions, political socialization,

1678:(1929). The methodological revolution in social science gave quantitative grounds and therefore more credibility to Political Psychology. Research into political preference during campaigns was spurred by 1628:

introduced disciplinary political psychology courses such as "The Sciences of the Man", along with the foundation of the Psychological society (1901) and the Sociological society (1904). Oxford historian

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As a result, the authors hypothesize that countries with more men will tend to show more aggressive politics thereby having more possibility of triggering conflicts within and especially among states.

1600:(1950) attempts to determine the personality type susceptible to following fascism and anti-democratic propaganda. Nazi movements during World War II also spurred controversial psychologists such as 2146:

making truly democratic decisions. Perceiving external events such as terrorist attacks, governmental warnings, and shifts in racial demography can lead to shifts in political opinion (Jost, 2017).

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Indeed, some exceptions do exist in this theory as this is just a hypothesis. However, it is viable enough to be a hypothesis to be tested to explain certain political events like war and crisis.

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Strategy", there are seven common tendencies that represent important empirical puzzles for the strategic model, going against the conventional thought that terrorists are rational actors.

1837:(1950) at The University of California. The American Jewish Committee subsidized research and publishing on the theory since it revolved around ideas developed from World War II events. 3655: 2236:

On an individual level terrorism has been explained in terms of psychopathology. Terrorists have demonstrated to show narcissistic personality traits (Lasch, 1979, Pearlstein, 1991).

1510:(1875–1936). Michels was a German socialist fascinated by the distinction between the largely lower class run parliament in Germany and upper class run parliament in Italy. He wrote 2017:

is key for understanding group influence in political behaviour. Decision making within a group is largely influenced by conformity. It is theorized to occur based on two motives;

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and voting behavior studies in the 1960s and 1970s characterized by the popularity of "rational man" assumptions. (3) An era since the 1980s and 1990s, which has focused on

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situations. These theories can be applied to situations of conflict and genocide in which individuals remove personal responsibility and therefore justify their behavior.

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decisions are generally made during emotional periods. For example, an unpopular political party may receive more votes during a period of actual or perceived economic or

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Traits are personality characteristics that show to be stable over time and in different situations, creating predispositions to perceive and respond in particular ways.

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collective needs. A political party that provides; stability, clear information, offers power to individuals and satisfies a sense of affiliation, will gain popularity.

1437:(1835–1906), was a famous explorer of social, political and geographical concepts of national interactions. He contributed various works on political psychology such as 1452:(1841–1931) suggested that crowd activity subdued will and polluted rational thought which resulted in uncontrollable impulses and emotions. He suggested in his works 1990: 2326: 1534: 628: 3160: 3019:

Lankford, Adam (August 2014). "Précis of The Myth of Martyrdom: What Really Drives Suicide Bombers, Rampage Shooters, and Other Self-Destructive Killers".

2104:"multiple advocacy" which implements that a neutral person analyses the pros and cons of various advocate suggestions and thus makes an informed decision. 1232: 3991: 1967:, which largely affects its efficiency. Individual diversity with in a group has proven to demonstrate less communication and therefore to increase 1887:

variables; the effort that a leader puts in and the personal satisfaction that the leader gains. This typology is fairly limited in its dimensions.

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is an important political process which influences the course of a country's policy. Group decision-making is largely influenced by three rules; "

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and stability is based upon several variables; size, structure, the purpose that the group serves, group development and influences upon a group.

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Another contributing factor to the development of Political Psychology was the introduction of psychometrics and "The Measurement of Attitude" by

1380:. In essence political psychologists study the foundations, dynamics, and outcomes of political behavior using cognitive and social explanations. 4595: 4086: 565: 3595: 3569: 3543: 3411: 3291: 3652: 3686: 2038: 1460:(1910) that in the uncontrollable state of a crowd people were more vulnerable to submission and leadership, and suggested that embracing 4523: 4154: 1329: 2163:

as: feeling easily victimized, easily offended, indecisive, fearful, rigid, inhibited, and relatively over-controlled and vulnerable."

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For example, according to evolutionary psychology, coalitional aggression is more commonly found in males. This is because of their

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Mass Movements in Darwinist, Freudian and Marxist Perspective: Trotter, Freud and Reich on War, Revolution and Reaction, 1900–1933

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can also explain conflicts in politics and the international society. A journal article by Anthony C. Lopez, Rose McDermott and

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theory in personality psychology has also been used to determine individual differences in reaction to situations of conflict.

1743: 1667:(1930). His major theories involved the motives of the politically active and the relation between propaganda and personality. 4570: 4021: 2321: 2022: 1919: 1556: 1539: 1476:(1870) instigated various social reforms and voting rights. The large division in social class during this period led lawyer 1312:

Political psychology aims to understand interdependent relationships between individuals and contexts that are influenced by

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1994). Group performance also diminishes with size increase, due to decreased co-ordination and free-riding. The size of a

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McGuire identifies three broad phases in the development of political psychology, these three phases are: (1) The era of

4610: 4232: 2245: 1787: 1425: 859: 691: 662: 580: 493: 1859: 1163: 614: 1496:(1902–1903) to the discipline of political psychology, theorizing on the role of class and social systems. His work 4433: 3731: 3402:

Mols, Frank; 't Hart, Paul (2018). "Political Psychology". In Lowndes, Vivien; Marsh, David; Stoker, Gerry (eds.).

3218: 2018: 1848: 1795: 1542:(1967) developed the first psychobiographical explanation to how the personality characteristics of U.S. President 696: 667: 86: 3526:(1988). "Outline of a Cultural History of Political Psychology". In Stone, William F.; Schaffner, Paul E. (eds.). 3357:; Petersen, Michael Bang (2011). "States in Mind: Evolution, Coalitional Psychology, and International Politics". 4565: 4557: 4187: 3921: 3797: 2250: 1818: 1812: 1218: 823: 535: 526: 448: 270: 151: 4648: 3199: 3807: 3775: 3711: 3679: 2138: 2041:

allocates the following types of power as the most successful; reward power, coercive power, legitimate power,

938: 828: 161: 129: 4628: 2095:(Janis, 1972) suggests that group decision-making is often more extreme whether is it more risky or cautious. 1564:(1934–1938) which was the first journal to present political psychology in the principal of western language. 1900: 4590: 4197: 4119: 3877: 3842: 3827: 3822: 3812: 3761: 2968:"Political Ideology in Early Childhood: Making the Case for Studying Young Children in Political Psychology" 2221: 2209: 2124: 1282: 868: 560: 458: 231: 196: 181: 176: 166: 115: 75: 4605: 4408: 4247: 4124: 4104: 4051: 3961: 3916: 3887: 3862: 3792: 3780: 3746: 2241: 2193: 1717: 1643: 1423:(1828–1893), a founder of the Ecole Libre de Sciences Politiques, applied Bastian's theories in his works 1105: 1047: 993: 575: 508: 398: 310: 265: 241: 216: 146: 134: 100: 4638: 4633: 4585: 4580: 4265: 4207: 4159: 3986: 3951: 3926: 3817: 3706: 2213: 2074: 1826: 1735: 1731: 1430: 1337: 1290: 925: 758: 555: 550: 468: 335: 300: 275: 171: 70: 65: 3484: 1708:, information processing and decision making, and has dealt in particular with international politics. 1705: 2158:

In 2006, scientists reported a relationship between personality and political views of Americans on a

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Abrahms, Max (2008). "What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and Counterterrorism Strategy".

2431:"G. B. Grundy's 1917 Proposal for Political Psychology: 'A Science Which Has Yet to Be Created'" 2315: 1625: 1604:(1932) to lecture and write about political psychology that identified with Hitler. The psychologist 1601: 1498: 1340:

formation. Political psychological theory and approaches have been applied in many contexts such as:

1035: 896: 881: 808: 726: 453: 290: 125: 110: 31: 1847:(1950) introduces several scales based on different authoritarian personality types. These are: the 1415: 4036: 4026: 4011: 3976: 3971: 3956: 3936: 3931: 3802: 3741: 3672: 3433: 2430: 2331: 1904: 1701: 1697: 1659:(1902–1978) whose research was also spurred by a sociological fascination of World War I. His work 1395: 1269:

interdisciplinary field, political psychology borrows from a wide range of disciplines, including:

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affirming their self-worth, the individual was more likely to accept the new political position.

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or nation can therefore have consequential effects on their ability to co-ordinate and progress.

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Idrees Kahloon, "Border Control: The economics of immigration vs. the politics of immigration",

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A large psychoanalytical influence was contributed to the discipline of political psychology by

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Applied psychology theories to improve productivity of political groups include implementing "

2001: 1838: 1822: 1747: 1621: 1591: 1298: 1180: 854: 716: 711: 672: 645: 602: 403: 330: 236: 221: 105: 2141:, tolerance of diversity of political views and the media. The effect of these influences on 4538: 4533: 4398: 4393: 4293: 4114: 4061: 4016: 4001: 3996: 3872: 3847: 3531: 3452: 3366: 3331: 3321: 3259: 3175: 3123: 3028: 2979: 2941: 2897: 2266: 2188: 2181: 2108: 2078: 1896: 1771: 1577: 1446: 1130: 886: 740: 408: 365: 350: 345: 226: 201: 1484:(1896), which theorized the presence of the ruling and the ruled classes of all societies. 4508: 4473: 4413: 4363: 3852: 3659: 2286: 2142: 2054: 1952: 1883: 1830: 1656: 1647:(1917) that recognition of such processes could help to build a more functional humanity. 1581: 1528: 1485: 1420: 1353: 1208: 1190: 1015: 1000: 206: 1922:(1979). The code is based on five philosophical beliefs and five instrumental beliefs. A 1434: 27:

Interdisciplinary study of the relationship between political and psychological processes

1858:(1996) deconstructed the authoritarian personality using trait analysis. He developed a 1512:

Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchic Tendencies of Modern Democracy

4548: 4468: 4463: 4428: 4403: 4373: 4368: 4353: 4348: 4328: 4323: 4303: 4094: 3614: 3503: 3421: 3354: 2042: 1986: 1938: 1834: 1759: 1685: 1543: 1507: 1449: 1086: 1005: 959: 901: 4623: 2280: 1594:(1903–1969) also investigated authoritarian individuals and anti-Semitism. His report 1203: 17: 4668: 4453: 4438: 4423: 4378: 4343: 4308: 4288: 4278: 4273: 4252: 4212: 4144: 4046: 4041: 3511: 3480: 3247: 2343: 1915: 1855: 1767: 1679: 1655:

Across the Atlantic the first American to be considered a political psychologist was

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theory has also been used as an explanation for terrorist behavior in individuals.

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but by political psychology – by backlash unconcerned with net benefits." (p. 65.)

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dehumanized in order to aid the in-group to disengage themselves from relating.

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Group behavior during conflict often affects the actions of an individual. The

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Power is another influential factor within a group or between separate groups.

1637:(1859–1932) implicated the significance of studying psychology in politics in 1506:. Mosca and Pareto's texts on the Italian elite contributed to the theories of 4478: 4313: 4109: 3966: 3857: 3695: 3456: 3238:

Cottam, Martha L.; Dietz-Uhler, Beth; Mastors, Elena; Preston, Thomas (2010).

3221:(2004). "The Authoritarian Personality and the Organization of Attitudes". In 3179: 3127: 3032: 2945: 2276: 2087: 2070: 2066: 2014: 1783: 1689: 1341: 1321: 1317: 1302: 1294: 1286: 1265: 1257: 1167: 1157: 1152: 891: 753: 315: 211: 47: 3464: 3378: 3345: 3271: 3135: 2993: 2909: 4513: 4298: 4202: 3643:

The Center for Research in Political Psychology (Queen's University Belfast)

3619: 3406:(4th ed.). Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 142–157. 3301: 3222: 2201: 1890: 1671: 1377: 1325: 1306: 1274: 1052: 950: 833: 788: 768: 463: 3263: 3187: 3040: 1874:

Trait-based frameworks, excluding the Freudian approach, were suggested by

1584:(1898–1979) opened up issues concerning freedom and authority in his book, 3897: 3250:(1958). "Polling Decision Makers: An Experiment in Political Psychology". 4227: 4222: 4182: 3438:"All Politics Is Psychological: A Review of Political Psychology Syllabi" 3370: 2058: 1739: 1503: 1361: 1349: 1253: 1175: 1135: 818: 803: 783: 652: 488: 483: 443: 3386: 3143: 2925:"Nursery school personality and political orientation two decades later" 2065:-wins rule", and "first-shift rule". Decision-making is also coerced by 1576:

control during World War II spurred research into authoritarianism from

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chooses to stand up to authority or ignore a conflict. Rotter's (1954)

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is viewed as goal-oriented behavior driven by a need for four things;

3618:, 12 June 2023, pp. 65–69. "The limits of immigration are not set by 2885: 2767: 2765: 2763: 1369: 1365: 1345: 1313: 1140: 1082: 980: 2265:, the author of "What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and 2115:

Using psychology in the understanding of certain political behaviors

3637: 1700:

in the 1940s and 1950s dominated by psychoanalysis. (2) The era of

1590:(1941), where he suggested groups compromise on individual rights. 2854:

Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes

2062: 2039:

The "critical bases of power" developed by French and Raven (1959)

1675: 2886:"Ideological Asymmetries and the Essence of Political Psychology" 4242: 3428:(2nd ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1791: 1766:(1916–1997) contributed three major traits. Currently, however, 503: 3668: 3632: 3085: 3073: 3061: 2871: 2836: 2812: 2800: 2783: 2754: 2739: 2727: 2715: 2696: 2684: 2669: 2621: 2609: 2597: 2585: 2379: 1357: 3664: 1429:(1875–1893), to ideas on the founding and development of the 3161:"On the history of political diversity in social psychology" 1372:

attitudes and motivation; voting and the role of the media;

2485: 2483: 2111:" techniques, "quality circles" and autonomous workgroups. 1821:

is a syndrome theory that was developed by the researchers

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The American People; Elements of Their Political Psychology

30:

This article is about the discipline. For the journal, see

1587:

Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory

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they perceive the world and their everyday interactions.

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and the socialist revolution, stirred by the rise of the

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Political Psychology at The George Washington University

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Political Psychology: Situations, Individuals, and Cases

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The Journal for Political Psychology and Sexual Economy

1488:(1828–1923), inspired by Mosca's concepts, contributed 2771: 1538:(1921) linked psychoanalysis with politics. Freud and 2856:. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. p. 9. 2340: – Study of the development of social production 1439:

English People; A study of their Political Psychology

3310:"Motivated Numeracy and Enlightened Self-Government" 2346: – Economic theory applied to political science 4556: 4263: 4173: 4085: 3905: 3730: 3647: 3530:(2nd ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 3–22. 3564:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 3518:(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. 1433:. The head of Ecole Libre de Sciences Politiques, 3648:The International Society of Political Psychology 1546:affected his decision making during World War I. 3638:The Center for the Study of Political Psychology 2645: 2633: 2966:Reifen-Tagar, Michal; Cimpian, Andrei (2022) . 2367: 1991:Fundamental interpersonal relations orientation 1693:as they do in regard to international issues." 1482:The Ruling Class: Elements of Political Science 3633:International Bulletin of Political Psychology 2923:Block, Jack; Block, Jeanne H. (October 2006). 1963:The structure of a group is altered by member 3680: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2327:International Society of Political Psychology 1572:In Germany, novice political alterations and 1226: 622: 8: 2549: 2537: 2525: 2513: 2501: 2489: 2474: 2399: 2395: 2391: 1535:Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego 3562:Crowds, Psychology, and Politics, 1871–1899 3242:(2nd ed.). New York: Psychology Press. 3233:. London: Psychology Press. pp. 39–68. 3159:Binning, Kevin R.; Sears, David O. (2015). 2824: 1903:(LTA) and advocated the development of the 1252:academic field, dedicated to understanding 3687: 3673: 3665: 1233: 1219: 640: 629: 615: 38: 3335: 3325: 3304:; Peters, Ellen; Dawson, Erica Cantrell; 2983: 2081:(2003) however imply that high levels of 1882:(1972) who highlighted the importance of 2859: 2573: 1608:(1883–1940) contributed the racist book 3516:Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology 3404:Theory and Methods in Political Science 3097: 2360: 2167:on (Reifen‐Tagar & Cimpian, 2020). 1458:Political Psychology and Social Defense 651: 46: 2462: 2411: 2394:. For more elaborate backgrounds, see 2132:Political identity and voting behavior 3286:(2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. 2657: 2009:The influence of conformity in groups 1661:Propaganda Technique in the World War 7: 3590:. Apeldoorn, Netherlands: Spinhuis. 3240:Introduction to Political Psychology 2772:Lopez, McDermott & Petersen 2011 2561: 1802:Frameworks for assessing personality 3231:Political Psychology: Key Readings 2933:Journal of Research in Personality 1934:The political psychology of groups 1782:In terms of political psychology, 1426:The Origins of Contemporary France 25: 1480:(1858–1914) to publish his work, 1101:Biology and political orientation 3896: 2309:Category:Political psychologists 2293: 2279: 2033:The influence of power in groups 1202: 596: 54: 2884:Jost, John T. (15 March 2017). 1910:An alternative approach is the 1490:The Rise and Fall of the Elites 1364:; group dynamics and conflict; 4680:Subfields of political science 2646:Sears, Huddy & Jervis 2003 2634:Sears, Huddy & Jervis 2003 2322:Experimental political science 2023:informational social influence 1557:The Mass Psychology of Fascism 1096:Theories of political behavior 722:Political history of the world 1: 3992:Industrial and organizational 3168:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3021:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1864:fundamental attribution error 1844:The Authoritarian Personality 1807:The authoritarian personality 1790:, affiliation, intimacy, and 1597:The Authoritarian Personality 1111:Critique of political economy 341:Industrial and organizational 4233:Human factors and ergonomics 2318: – Branch of psychology 1930:sociopolitical environments 1665:Psychopathology and Politics 1620:At the turn of the century, 1406:was first introduced by the 1384:History and early influences 692:Outline of political science 494:Human factors and ergonomics 3536:10.1007/978-1-4612-3830-0_1 2208:Although somewhat unusual, 2077:. Controversial studies by 1918:(1951) and restructured by 1860:Right-wing Authoritarianism 1742:, and their control of the 1725:A psychoanalytical approach 1445:(1902). The contributor of 1344:role; domestic and foreign 4696: 3528:The Psychology of Politics 2334: – Topic in sociology 2019:normative social influence 1880:The Presidential Character 1810: 1796:Thematic Apperception Test 1502:(1916) offers a sociology 697:Index of politics articles 29: 4619: 3922:Applied behavior analysis 3894: 3702: 3457:10.1017/s1537592704040575 3314:Behavioural Public Policy 3180:10.1017/S0140525X14001137 3128:10.1162/isec.2008.32.4.78 3033:10.1017/S0140525X13001581 2946:10.1016/j.jrp.2005.09.005 2429:Rudmin, Floyd W. (2005). 2251:authoritarian personality 2050:Decision-making in groups 1819:authoritarian personality 1813:Authoritarian personality 1472:Meanwhile, in Italy, the 271:Applied behavior analysis 3445:Perspectives on Politics 3252:Public Opinion Quarterly 2139:political sophistication 1712:Personality and politics 1639:Human Nature in Politics 1419:(1860). The philosopher 4198:Behavioral neuroscience 3762:Behavioral neuroscience 3434:Schildkraut, Deborah J. 3422:Monroe, Kristen Renwick 3280:Houghton, David Patrick 2368:Mols & 't Hart 2018 2222:psychological mechanism 2210:evolutionary psychology 2125:Evolutionary psychology 1901:Leader Trait Assessment 1778:A motive-based approach 1560:(1933). He also edited 1526:(1856–1939). 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(2002). 3418: 3412: 3399: 3350: 3298: 3292: 3276: 3258:(2): 184–186. 3248:Free, Lloyd A. 3244: 3235: 3215: 3156: 3110: 3108: 3105: 3103: 3102: 3090: 3088:, p. 273. 3078: 3076:, p. 272. 3066: 3064:, p. 271. 3054: 3027:(4): 351–362. 3011: 2999: 2978:(S1): 77–105. 2958: 2940:(5): 734–749. 2915: 2896:(2): 167–208. 2876: 2864: 2841: 2829: 2817: 2805: 2788: 2776: 2759: 2744: 2732: 2720: 2701: 2689: 2674: 2662: 2650: 2648:, p. 132. 2638: 2636:, p. 122. 2626: 2614: 2602: 2590: 2578: 2566: 2564:, p. 184. 2554: 2542: 2530: 2518: 2506: 2494: 2479: 2467: 2455: 2416: 2404: 2384: 2372: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2348: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2312: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2290: 2274: 2271: 2233: 2230: 2172: 2169: 2155: 2152: 2133: 2130: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2113: 2061:-wins rule", " 2051: 2048: 2043:referent power 2034: 2031: 2010: 2007: 1998: 1995: 1981: 1980:Group function 1978: 1973:group cohesion 1960: 1957: 1947: 1944: 1939:Group behavior 1935: 1932: 1871: 1868: 1811:Main article: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1800: 1779: 1776: 1760:Gordon Allport 1755: 1752: 1726: 1723: 1713: 1710: 1686:Hadley Cantril 1652: 1649: 1617: 1616:United Kingdom 1614: 1580:. Philosopher 1569: 1566: 1544:Woodrow Wilson 1519: 1516: 1508:Robert Michels 1469: 1466: 1450:Gustave Le Bon 1431:Third Republic 1416:Man in History 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1241: 1240: 1238: 1237: 1230: 1223: 1215: 1212: 1211: 1198: 1197: 1194: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1144: 1143: 1133: 1127: 1123: 1122: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1114: 1113: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1080: 1074: 1071:Related topics 1070: 1069: 1068: 1065: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1039: 1038: 1032: 1028: 1027: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1006:Foreign policy 1003: 998: 985: 979: 978: 977: 974: 973: 970: 969: 968: 967: 953: 948: 943: 930: 924: 923: 922: 919: 918: 915: 914: 909: 904: 902:Policy studies 899: 894: 889: 884: 879: 867: 865: 853: 850: 846: 845: 844: 841: 840: 837: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 745: 739: 738: 737: 734: 733: 730: 729: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 688: 685:Primary topics 684: 683: 682: 679: 678: 676: 675: 670: 665: 659: 656: 655: 649: 648: 637: 636: 634: 633: 626: 619: 611: 608: 607: 606: 605: 590: 589: 584: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 538: 532: 531: 530: 525: 524: 521: 520: 517: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 440: 437: 436: 433: 432: 427: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 262: 261: 260: 255: 254: 251: 250: 245: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 152:Cross-cultural 149: 144: 143: 142: 132: 123: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 92: 91: 90: 85: 84: 81: 80: 79: 78: 73: 68: 60: 59: 51: 50: 44: 43: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4692: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4670: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4621: 4618: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4586:Psychologists 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4576:Organizations 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4555: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4524:John Anderson 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4454:Ulric Neisser 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4439:Endel Tulving 4437: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4424:Robert Zajonc 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4379:Jerome Bruner 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4344:B. F. Skinner 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4309:Clark L. Hull 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4289:Sigmund Freud 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4279:William James 4277: 4275: 4274:Wilhelm Wundt 4272: 4270: 4267: 4266:Psychologists 4262: 4254: 4253:Psychometrics 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4236: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4213:Consciousness 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4145:Psychophysics 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4087:Methodologies 4084: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4047:Psychotherapy 4045: 4043: 4042:Psychometrics 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3904: 3899: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3808:Developmental 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3787: 3784: 3783: 3782: 3779: 3777: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3729: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3704: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3685: 3683: 3678: 3676: 3671: 3670: 3667: 3661: 3657: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3630: 3626: 3621: 3617: 3616: 3611: 3610: 3606: 3599: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3577: 3573: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3551: 3547: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3508:Huddy, Leonie 3505: 3501: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3409: 3405: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3302:Kahan, Dan M. 3299: 3295: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3227:Sidanius, Jim 3224: 3223:Jost, John T. 3220: 3216: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3162: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3122:(4): 78–105. 3121: 3117: 3112: 3111: 3106: 3099: 3094: 3091: 3087: 3082: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3067: 3063: 3058: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3012: 3008: 3003: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2986: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2962: 2959: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2934: 2926: 2919: 2916: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2880: 2877: 2874:, p. 81. 2873: 2868: 2865: 2862:, p. 80. 2861: 2860:Houghton 2015 2855: 2851: 2850:Janis, Irving 2845: 2842: 2839:, p. 84. 2838: 2833: 2830: 2826: 2821: 2818: 2815:, p. 83. 2814: 2809: 2806: 2803:, p. 77. 2802: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2786:, p. 76. 2785: 2780: 2777: 2773: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2760: 2757:, p. 74. 2756: 2751: 2749: 2745: 2742:, p. 70. 2741: 2736: 2733: 2730:, p. 69. 2729: 2724: 2721: 2718:, p. 67. 2717: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2702: 2699:, p. 30. 2698: 2693: 2690: 2687:, p. 28. 2686: 2681: 2679: 2675: 2672:, p. 40. 2671: 2666: 2663: 2660:, p. 47. 2659: 2654: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2627: 2624:, p. 21. 2623: 2618: 2615: 2612:, p. 20. 2611: 2606: 2603: 2600:, p. 18. 2599: 2594: 2591: 2588:, p. 15. 2587: 2582: 2579: 2575: 2574:Houghton 2015 2570: 2567: 2563: 2558: 2555: 2552:, p. 21. 2551: 2546: 2543: 2540:, p. 20. 2539: 2534: 2531: 2528:, p. 19. 2527: 2522: 2519: 2516:, p. 15. 2515: 2510: 2507: 2504:, p. 11. 2503: 2498: 2495: 2491: 2486: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2471: 2468: 2465:, p. 70. 2464: 2459: 2456: 2443: 2439: 2432: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2417: 2414:, p. 71. 2413: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2388: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2364: 2361: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2344:Public choice 2342: 2339: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2313: 2310: 2307: 2306: 2302: 2291: 2288: 2282: 2277: 2272: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2258: 2254: 2252: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2231: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2218: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2203: 2198: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2183: 2177: 2170: 2168: 2164: 2161: 2153: 2151: 2147: 2144: 2140: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2119: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2105: 2101: 2098: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2079:George Marcus 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2049: 2047: 2044: 2040: 2032: 2030: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2008: 2006: 2003: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1916:Nathan Leites 1913: 1908: 1906: 1905:Profiler-Plus 1902: 1898: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1869: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1856:Bob Altemeyer 1853: 1850: 1846: 1845: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1814: 1806: 1801: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1777: 1775: 1773: 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1272: 1267: 1266:psychological 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1236: 1231: 1229: 1224: 1222: 1217: 1216: 1214: 1213: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1199: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1160: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1120: 1119: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1075: 1067: 1066: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1037: 1034: 1033: 1025: 1024: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1011:Civil society 1009: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 995: 990: 989:Public policy 987: 986: 982: 976: 975: 965: 961: 957: 956: 954: 952: 949: 947: 944: 940: 935: 932: 931: 927: 921: 920: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 883: 880: 875: 870: 866: 861: 856: 852: 851: 843: 842: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 809:Parliamentary 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 794:Hybrid regime 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 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