420:
amorphous version of the same electrolyte. It is believed there are multiple modes of ion transport. In crystalline polymer electrolyte, the organization of the chains promotes the formation of interchain "tunnels" in which the ion of interest is able to hop between coordination sites, while the counterion moves along the polymer chain. These tunnels allows control over anion and cation flow in crystalline polymer electrolytes because they highly ordered crystalline domains are selective to an ion exclude its counter ion allowing for their separation. This can increase conductivity in crystalline polymer electrolytes. In amorphous polymers that show enhanced conductivity, it is propose that the amorphous character enables greater movement of chains and this increases mobility of ions as their coordination is transient. The adjacent image illustrates a possible mechanisms for ion transport through short range chain ordering and motions in amorphous regions of polymer electrolytes.
490:, processability, robustness, and safety. Conventional inorganic and liquid electrolytes are rigid or fail to perform in situations requiring high strain or bending forces, which can fracture the electrolyte or the vessel containing the electrolyte. Polymers, typically mixed with a plasticizer do not have this problem, which increases their desirability. Additionally, the high processability of compatible polymers results in simpler design and construction of the chemical cell. Polymer electrolytes also resist electrode volume changes associated with the charge and discharge of a cell. As a part of this, polymer electrolytes have been demonstrated to better resist the development of destructive
440:, also known as dielectric spectroscopy, enables characterization of the conductivity and permittivity of both heterogeneous and homogenous polymer electrolytes. The technique is useful for characterizing the electrical properties of bulk material and is capable of differentiating between the electrical properties of the bulk electrolyte and the electrical properties at the interface of the electrolyte with the electrode(s). Several important characteristics can be measured including impedance, admittance, modulus, and permittivity (dielectric constant and loss). Complex impedance spectroscopy has also been used to gain insight into how
403:
91:
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with an inorganic filler affords a composite material with properties exceeding the sum of those of the individual components. In particular, ion conduction in polymer electrolytes is low (compared to liquid and solid-state electrolytes), but blending with inorganic materials has been shown to enhance the ion mobility and conductivity of the polymer electrolyte. The additional benefit is that the desirable properties of the polymer are maintained, particularly its mechanical strength.
448:
282:
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into the polymer matrix which increases the ability of the polymer electrolyte to transport ions. One limitation of plasticizer incorporation is the alteration of the polymer's mechanical properties. Reduction in the crystallinity of the polymer weakens its mechanical strength at room temperature. Plasticizers also modulate properties of polymer electrolytes other than conductivity such as affecting charge/discharge times and enhanced capacity.
563:. All-plastic capacitors can also be prepared by sandwiching either a solid-state polymer electrolyte between two plastic electrodes, or through connection electrodes through a polymeric ionic liquid electrolyte. Blends of polymer electrolytes such as poly(vinyl alcohol) and poly(chitosan) show high capacitance and stability and are an advantageous alternative to capacitors prepared with more resource sensitive materials.
508:
399:
weak, labile coordination between the ion and the parts of the polymer chain. In certain applications thin films of polymer electrolytes are needed, which necessitates careful control of morphology and properties due to deviations in the glass transition temperature and other mechanical properties associated with increasingly thin films of amorphous polymer electrolytes.
551:, and the face durability issues related to their mechanical properties. The presence of a polymer electrolyte, particularly one that is solid-state enables reduction in device thickness and shorter mass transport distances which contribute to an overall enhanced cell efficiency over devices with other electrolytes.
398:
Temperature dependence of electrolyte impacts performance over a range of temperatures. Glass temperature is shown to be the key point of performance. At or above the glass transition temperature, it is believed chain motions generate a free volume that the ions are able to transport through with aid
244:
Gel polymer electrolytes also shown specific applications for lithium-ion batteries to replace current organic liquid electrolytes. This type of electrolyte has also been shown to be able to be prepared from renewable and degradable polymers while remaining capable of mitigating current issues at the
515:
Much of the interest in polymer electrolytes stems form their flexibility and enhanced safety over inorganic and liquid electrolytes alternatively used in batteries. Solid-state and composite electrolytes enable development of solid-state lithium-ion batteries. Dendrite formation is also noted to be
297:
that compete with ion-polymer interactions. A similar phenomenon to that previously discussed with polymer gel electrolytes is observed with plasticized polymer electrolytes. The addition of plasticizer lowers the glass transition temperature of the polymer and effectively enhances salt dissociation
226:
Gel polymer electrolytes capture solvent constituents and aid in ion transport across the polymer matrix. The gel supports the polymer scaffold. It is noted that amorphous domains of these polymers absorb larger amounts of solvent (and swell accordingly) than do crystalline domains. As a result, ion
235:
Gel polymer electrolytes using poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) are the most studied due to its compatibility with lithium electrodes. However, the plasticizing of PEO decreases the mechanical strength of these electrolytes. Gel polymer electrolytes that combine PEO with mechanically strong polymers such
341:
are popular filler materials that will improve the mechanical properties of the composite electrolyte, increase the lithium-ion transference number, and improve ionic conductivity. The improved conductivity comes from the decreased crystallinity of the material. On their own, these ceramic fillers
309:
polymer electrolyte is a polymer matrix that incorporates inorganic fillers that are chemically inert, but with a high dielectric constant to enhance ion conductivity by inhibiting the formation of ion pairs in the polymer matrix. It has been demonstrated that the blending of polymer electrolytes
176:
Many of these polymers have other applications. The structures of several of these polymers are shown in the adjacent image. Showcases several of these polymers. Other types of polymers capable of ion conduction include polymeric ions, which incorporate either an oxidized (for anion transport) or
102:
temperature. These electrolytes differ from one another in their processing methods and applications where they are to be used. Their properties and morphology can be tuned to that desired of the application they are intended for. A shared structural feature of these polymers is the presence of a
498:
of polymer electrolytes exceed those of lithium metal, which aid in preventing dendrite growth. Blended polymer electrolytes prepared out of glassy and rubbery polymer have been demonstrates to all but halt dendrite formation, but they are limited by issues with conductivity. Finally, polymer
419:
and the ability of polymer chains to remain mobile. It is commonly believed that the greater the ability of a polymer matrix to move, the better the ion conductivity will be; however, this is not well understood as crystalline polymer electrolytes have been shown to be more conductive than an
428:
There are several factors to be optimized in the design of polymer electrolytes such as ion conductivity, mechanical strength, and being chemically inert. These properties are typically characterized using a variety of techniques that exist and are already employed in the characterization of
227:
conduction, which is primarily a diffusion-controlled process, is typically greater across regions of amorphous character than through crystalline domains. The adjacent image illustrates this process. An important aspect of gel electrolytes is the choice of solvent primarily based on their
361:
Ion transport mechanisms will primarily focus on that for the transport of cations as the use of cation-conductive polymers is a greater area of academic focus due to the widespread use of lithium-ion batteries and other efforts aimed at developing multivalent metal ion batteries such as
460:
Determination of the glass transition temperature, and methods for characterizing the mechanical properties of polymer electrolytes are also useful. Related to the glass transition are some of the proposed mechanisms for ion conduction. Other methods of thermal characterization include
516:
limited by polymer electrolytes due to their ability to aid in halting growth of lithium crystals precipitating from the electrolyte. The performance of different polymers contributes some polymer electrolytes being better candidates than others for integration into a particular cell.
390:. Ions partition between different phases of the electrolyte, and diffuse based on ionic conductivity, the salt diffusion coefficient of the electrolyte, and the cationic transference number. Ionic transport is also controlled by the electrical potential gradient across the cell.
499:
electrolytes are relatively safe compared to liquid and solid-state batteries. Typically, these electrolytes are highly reactive in air and are flammable. Generally, it has been demonstrated that several polymer electrolytes resist degradation in air and resist combustion.
240:
for a gel polymer electrolyte is around 0.5 MPa, while typical yield strength and shear strength measurements are around 1 MPa. A typical elastic modulus for a gel polymer electrolyte is 10 MPa, which is two orders of magnitude below that of a typical liquid electrolyte.
212:
due to their increased stiffness impeding polymer chain mobility and ion movement. The contrasting relationship between tensile strength and ionic conductivity inspires research into plasticized and composite polymer electrolytes.
231:
which is noted to impact ion conductivity. Percolation of charge does occur in highly ordered polymer electrolyte, but the number and proximity of amorphous domains is correlated with increased percolation of charge.
1360:
Zhu, Ming; Wu, Jiaxin; Wang, Yue; Song, Mingming; Long, Lei; Siyal, Sajid
Hussain; Yang, Xiaoping; Sui, Gang (2019-10-01). "Recent advances in gel polymer electrolyte for high-performance lithium batteries".
444:
and electrode parameters affect permittivity. Recent research has focused on probing the conducting relaxation of polymer electrolytes based on their conductance and electrode parameters.
269:
of the salt. The potential between the phases and charge transport through the electrolyte is impacted. Solid-state polymer electrolytes have also been employed in processing of
273:
wafers by providing a liquid- and radiation-free method of oxidizing the surface of the gallium nitride wafer to enable easier polishing of the wafer than previous methods.
196:
The mechanical strength of a polymer electrolyte is an important parameter for its dendrite suppression capabilities. It is theorized that a polymer electrolyte with a
406:
Chain short range ordering of polymer chains aid in transport of cations through loose coordination with nucleophilic moieties within the polymer structure.
1727:
236:
as poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) can benefit from improved mechanical strength while maintaining the good electrochemical properties of PEO. A typical
527:
are a growing area of application for polymer electrolytes. These membranes generally require high ionic conductivity, low permeability, thermal and
370:, and ion mobility. Ion mobility is defined as the ability of an ion to move between polar groups along the length of the main chain of a polymer.
531:
stability, and morphological and mechanical stability. An example of membranes made from conductive polymer selective barriers in multifunctional
87:
regions promote greater percolation of charge in gel and plasticized polymer electrolytes. Crystal defects promote weaker chain-ion interactions.
1486:"Liquid electrolyte-free electrochemical oxidation of GaN surface using a solid polymer electrolyte toward electrochemical mechanical polishing"
253:
Solid-state polymer electrolyte (also known as solid polymer electrolyte or solvent-free polymer electrolyte) arises from coordination of an
94:
Several polymers capable of being used as polymer electrolytes. Each polymer incorporates a highly polar moiety capable of electron donation.
539:
membranes capable of selective proton conduction from the anode to the cathode. Such fuel cells are able to generate electrical energy from
285:
Transport of ions through polymer electrolytes requires presences of amorphous regions or crystal defects. Adapted from Aziz and coworkers.
208:
can similarly decrease the uneven lithium deposition that leads to dendrite formation. Higher shear moduli polymer electrolytes have lower
177:
reduced element of the polymer main chain through a process called chemical doping. Chemical doping makes these polymers behave as either
75:
electrolyte. There exist four major types of polymer electrolyte: (1) gel polymer electrolyte, (2) solid-state polymer electrolyte, (3)
524:
462:
289:
Plasticized polymer electrolyte is a polymer matrix with incorporated plasticizers that enhance their ion conductivity by weakening
209:
28:
1527:"Effect of incorporation of different plasticizers on structural and ion transport properties of PVA-LiClO4 based electrolytes"
402:
1946:
51:. The field has expanded since and is now primarily focused on the development of polymer electrolytes with applications in
1266:
Zhu, Ming; Wu, Jiaxin; Wang, Yue; Song, Mingming; Long, Lei; Siyal, Sajid
Hussain; Yang, Xiaoping; Sui, Gang (2019-10-01).
72:
929:
Muench, Simon; Wild, Andreas; Friebe, Christian; Häupler, Bernhard; Janoschka, Tobias; Schubert, Ulrich S. (2016-08-01).
353:
is a potential filler material due to its high mechanical strength arising from modulation of the electrolyte membrane.
349:(MOF) particles can also be used as a filler material with high surface area and high chemical and thermal stability. 2D
1936:
346:
98:
Another key parameter of transport is the temperature dependence of polymer morphology on transport mechanisms by the
265:, decoordination, and recoordination along the polymer. Performance of the electrochemical cell is influenced by the
466:
469:, and methods used to characterize the specific electronic devices that these materials may be incorporated into.
237:
138:
1786:"High-efficiency solid-state polymer electrolyte dye-sensitized solar cells with a bi-functional porous layer"
1435:
Martinez-Cisneros, Cynthia S.; Pandit, Bidhan; Levenfeld, Belén; Varez, Alejandro; Sanchez, Jean-Yves (2023).
90:
1033:
Liaw, Der-Jang; Wang, Kung-Li; Huang, Ying-Chi; Lee, Kueir-Rarn; Lai, Juin-Yih; Ha, Chang-Sik (2012-07-01).
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36:
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52:
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Generally, polymer electrolytes comprise a polymer which incorporates a highly polar motif capable of
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1872:"Application of PVA–chitosan blend polymer electrolyte membrane in electrical double layer capacitor"
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Hagfeldt, Anders; Boschloo, Gerrit; Sun, Licheng; Kloo, Lars; Pettersson, Henrik (2010-11-10).
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366:. Ion conductivity largely depends on the effective concentration of mobile ions (free ions),
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twice that of metallic lithium should be able to physically suppress dendrite formation. High
133:
68:
1784:
Cho, Woohyung; Kim, Young Rae; Song, Donghoon; Choi, Hyung Woo; Kang, Yong Soo (2014-10-07).
47:
of a cell. The use of polymers as an electrolyte was first demonstrated using dye-sensitized
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Gebert, Florian; Knott, Jonathan; Gorkin, Robert; Chou, Shu-Lei; Dou, Shi-Xue (2021-04-01).
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1240:
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Gebert, Florian; Knott, Jonathan; Gorkin, Robert; Chou, Shu-Lei; Dou, Shi-Xue (2021-04-01).
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1135:"Polymeric ionic liquids: Broadening the properties and applications of polyelectrolytes"
646:
1887:
1681:
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Gadjourova, Zlatka; Andreev, Yuri G.; Tunstall, David P.; Bruce, Peter G. (2001-08-02).
1586:"Particles in composite polymer electrolyte for solid-state lithium batteries: A review"
1452:
1374:
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1283:
1236:
1189:
1174:"The Impact of Elastic Deformation on Deposition Kinetics at Lithium/Polymer Interfaces"
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Schematic diagram showcasing the used of a polymer electrolyte membrane in a solar cell.
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1421:
1406:"Beyond PEO—Alternative host materials for Li + -conducting solid polymer electrolytes"
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Aziz, Shujahadeen B.; Woo, Thompson J.; Kadir, M.F.Z.; Ahmed, Hameed M. (2018-03-01).
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1728:"Polymer Electrolytes: Characterization Techniques and Energy Applications | Wiley"
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1268:"Recent advances in gel polymer electrolyte for high-performance lithium batteries"
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Diagram showing use of a solid-state polymer electrolyte in a simple battery cell.
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1035:"Advanced polyimide materials: Syntheses, physical properties and applications"
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fuels. However, current conductive polymer membranes are limited by requiring
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104:
48:
1903:
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1833:"Electrochemical capacitors with polymer electrolytes based on ionic liquids"
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of a polymer electrolyte matrix impacts ion mobility and the transport rate.
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Mindemark, Jonas; Lacey, Matthew J.; Bowden, Tim; Brandell, Daniel (2018).
1016:
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polymer electrolyte, and (4) composite polymer electrolyte. The degree of
1437:"Flexible solvent-free polymer electrolytes for solid-state Na batteries"
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Long, Lizhen; Wang, Shuanjin; Xiao, Min; Meng, Yuezhong (2016-06-28).
719:"A conceptual review on polymer electrolytes and ion transport models"
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116:
112:
1762:
1617:
Khan, Mohammad Saleem; Gul, Rahmat; Wahid, Mian Sayed (2013-10-01).
985:"Recent Development of Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Fuel Cells"
880:
830:
1754:
Lithium dendrite growth through solid polymer electrolyte membranes
1484:
Murata, Junji; Nishiguchi, Yoshito; Iwasaki, Takeshi (2018-12-01).
1081:"Poly(ethylene oxide)-based electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries"
535:. Fuel cell applications of polymer electrolytes typically employ
40:
486:
and liquid electrolytes and offer several advantages including
1619:"Studies on thin films of PVC-PMMA blend polymer electrolytes"
881:"Electrolytes and Interphases in Li-Ion Batteries and Beyond"
39:—polymer electrolytes aid in movement of charge between the
1666:"Ionic conductivity in crystalline polymer electrolytes"
621:
Hallinan, Daniel T.; Balsara, Nitash P. (2013-07-01).
559:
Polymer electrolytes have also seen widespread use in
787:"Polymer electrolytes for lithium polymer batteries"
723:Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices
415:Ion transport is impacted by concentration of the
1315:"Polymer electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries"
1221:"Polymer electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries"
1584:Meng, Nan; Xiaogang, Zhu; Fang, Lian (2022).
983:Zhang, Hongwei; Shen, Pei Kang (2012-02-16).
257:salt to the polymer matrix. Application of a
71:. Performance parameters impact selection of
8:
1079:Xue, Zhigang; He, Dan; Xie, Xiaolin (2015).
1870:Kadir, M. F. Z.; Arof, A. K. (2011-08-01).
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1525:Hirankumar, G.; Mehta, N. (2018-12-08).
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63:Molecular design of polymer electrolytes
16:Polymer matrix capable of ion conduction
572:
482:Polymer electrolytes are distinct from
378:There exists two transport methods: by
1178:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
1172:Monroe, Charles; Newman, John (2005).
1751:Harry, Katherine Joann (2016-05-01).
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478:Distinctions from other electrolytes
627:Annual Review of Materials Research
1422:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2017.12.004
1151:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.05.007
1051:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2012.02.005
411:Concentration and polymer mobility
14:
931:"Polymer-Based Organic Batteries"
463:differential scanning calorimetry
1896:10.1179/143307511X13031890749299
1790:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
1133:Mecerreyes, David (2011-12-01).
1085:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
791:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
261:results in ion exchange through
1490:Electrochemistry Communications
277:Plasticized polymer electrolyte
249:Solid-state polymer electrolyte
245:cathode-electrolyte interface.
1876:Materials Research Innovations
1831:Lewandowski, A. (2003-08-01).
1623:Journal of Polymer Engineering
1461:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.232644
494:in lithium-ion batteries. The
438:Complex impedance spectroscopy
433:Complex impedance spectroscopy
1:
1849:10.1016/S0167-2738(03)00275-3
1544:10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00992
302:Composite polymer electrolyte
1603:10.1016/j.partic.2021.04.002
1503:10.1016/j.elecom.2018.11.006
1383:10.1016/j.jechem.2018.12.013
1292:10.1016/j.jechem.2018.12.013
831:"Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells"
525:Conductive polymer membranes
119:has also been demonstrated.
1410:Progress in Polymer Science
1363:Journal of Energy Chemistry
1272:Journal of Energy Chemistry
1139:Progress in Polymer Science
1039:Progress in Polymer Science
947:10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00070
736:10.1016/j.jsamd.2018.01.002
31:. Much like other types of
1963:
1339:10.1016/j.ensm.2020.11.030
1245:10.1016/j.ensm.2020.11.030
467:thermogravimetric analysis
1635:10.1515/polyeng-2013-0028
166:Poly(vinylidene fluoride)
139:Poly(methyl methacrylate)
1441:Journal of Power Sources
1319:Energy Storage Materials
1225:Energy Storage Materials
520:Membranes and fuel cells
357:Ion transport mechanisms
344:dielectric permittivity.
879:Xu, Kang (2014-12-10).
347:Metal-organic framework
342:are brittle and of low
295:interchain interactions
222:Gel polymer electrolyte
156:Poly(vinyl pyrrolidone)
623:"Polymer Electrolytes"
537:perfluorosulfonic acid
512:
452:
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394:Temperature dependence
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95:
1947:Molecular electronics
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456:Additional techniques
450:
429:conductive polymers.
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192:Mechanical properties
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73:homo- or heterogenous
229:dielectric constants
161:Poly(vinyl chloride)
129:Poly(ethylene oxide)
1937:Conductive polymers
1888:2011MatRI..15S.217K
1882:(sup2): s217–s220.
1796:(42): 17746–17750.
1682:2001Natur.412..520G
1453:2023JPS...55932644M
1375:2019JEnCh..37..126Z
1331:2021EneSM..36...10G
1284:2019JEnCh..37..126Z
1237:2021EneSM..36...10G
1190:2005JElS..152A.396M
1091:(38): 19218–19253.
891:(23): 11503–11618.
797:(26): 10038–10069.
639:2013AnRMS..43..503H
374:Potential gradients
134:Poly(vinyl alcohol)
21:polymer electrolyte
1837:Solid State Ionics
1802:10.1039/C4TA04064C
1097:10.1039/c5ta03471j
803:10.1039/C6TA02621D
513:
453:
408:
388:electric potential
380:chemical potential
316:materials such as
287:
210:ionic conductivity
144:Poly(caprolactone)
96:
55:, fuel cells, and
1676:(6846): 520–523.
1198:10.1149/1.1850854
1145:(12): 1629–1648.
1001:10.1021/cr200035s
941:(16): 9438–9484.
897:10.1021/cr500003w
847:10.1021/cr900356p
841:(11): 6595–6663.
69:electron donation
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995:(5): 2780–2832.
989:Chemical Reviews
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100:glass transition
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1359:
1358:
1354:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1265:
1264:
1260:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1132:
1131:
1112:
1078:
1077:
1066:
1032:
1031:
1024:
982:
981:
970:
928:
927:
920:
878:
877:
870:
828:
827:
818:
784:
783:
752:
716:
715:
662:
620:
619:
574:
569:
557:
522:
505:
484:solid inorganic
480:
475:
458:
435:
426:
413:
396:
376:
368:electric charge
359:
339:
332:
328:
321:
304:
279:
271:gallium nitride
251:
224:
219:
206:yield strengths
194:
125:
123:Common polymers
65:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1960:
1958:
1950:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1924:
1923:
1918:
1917:
1862:
1823:
1776:
1743:
1719:
1656:
1629:(7): 633–638.
1609:
1576:
1537:(12): e00992.
1517:
1476:
1427:
1396:
1352:
1305:
1258:
1211:
1164:
1110:
1064:
1045:(7): 907–974.
1022:
968:
918:
868:
816:
750:
660:
633:(1): 503–525.
571:
570:
568:
565:
556:
553:
549:humidification
521:
518:
504:
501:
479:
476:
474:
471:
457:
454:
434:
431:
425:
422:
412:
409:
395:
392:
375:
372:
358:
355:
337:
330:
326:
319:
303:
300:
278:
275:
250:
247:
223:
220:
218:
215:
202:elastic moduli
193:
190:
186:semiconductors
174:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
146:
141:
136:
131:
124:
121:
64:
61:
29:ion conduction
25:polymer matrix
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1959:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1866:
1863:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1824:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
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1787:
1780:
1777:
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1660:
1657:
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1632:
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1577:
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1568:
1563:
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1528:
1521:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1499:
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1487:
1480:
1477:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1428:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1400:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1262:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1168:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1029:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
979:
977:
975:
973:
969:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
925:
923:
919:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
875:
873:
869:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
825:
823:
821:
817:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
781:
779:
777:
775:
773:
771:
769:
767:
765:
763:
761:
759:
757:
755:
751:
746:
742:
737:
732:
728:
724:
720:
713:
711:
709:
707:
705:
703:
701:
699:
697:
695:
693:
691:
689:
687:
685:
683:
681:
679:
677:
675:
673:
671:
669:
667:
665:
661:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
617:
615:
613:
611:
609:
607:
605:
603:
601:
599:
597:
595:
593:
591:
589:
587:
585:
583:
581:
579:
577:
573:
566:
564:
562:
554:
552:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
519:
517:
509:
502:
500:
497:
493:
489:
485:
477:
472:
470:
468:
464:
455:
449:
445:
443:
439:
432:
430:
423:
421:
418:
410:
404:
400:
393:
391:
389:
385:
381:
373:
371:
369:
365:
356:
354:
352:
351:boron nitride
348:
345:
340:
333:
322:
315:
311:
308:
301:
299:
296:
292:
283:
276:
274:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
248:
246:
242:
239:
233:
230:
221:
216:
214:
211:
207:
203:
199:
198:shear modulus
191:
189:
187:
184:
180:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
151:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
126:
122:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
101:
92:
88:
86:
82:
81:crystallinity
78:
74:
70:
62:
60:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
1942:Electrolytes
1879:
1875:
1865:
1840:
1836:
1826:
1793:
1789:
1779:
1753:
1746:
1735:. Retrieved
1731:
1722:
1673:
1669:
1659:
1626:
1622:
1612:
1593:
1590:Particuology
1589:
1579:
1534:
1530:
1520:
1493:
1489:
1479:
1444:
1440:
1430:
1413:
1409:
1399:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1322:
1318:
1308:
1275:
1271:
1261:
1228:
1224:
1214:
1181:
1177:
1167:
1142:
1138:
1088:
1084:
1042:
1038:
992:
988:
938:
934:
888:
884:
838:
834:
794:
790:
726:
722:
630:
626:
558:
523:
514:
496:shear moduli
481:
473:Applications
459:
436:
427:
414:
397:
377:
360:
312:
305:
288:
263:coordination
252:
243:
234:
225:
195:
175:
97:
66:
35:—liquid and
20:
18:
1496:: 110–113.
1470:10016/38441
1416:: 114–143.
1369:: 126–142.
1278:: 126–142.
1184:(2): A396.
729:(1): 1–17.
488:flexibility
171:Poly(imide)
115:, although
77:plasticized
49:solar cells
37:solid-state
33:electrolyte
27:capable of
1926:Categories
1757:(Thesis).
1737:2021-05-31
567:References
561:capacitors
555:Capacitors
529:hydrolytic
417:counterion
105:heteroatom
1904:1432-8917
1857:0167-2738
1818:220458131
1810:2050-7496
1732:Wiley.com
1698:1476-4687
1651:138468192
1643:2191-0340
1596:: 14–36.
1553:2405-8440
1512:1388-2481
1391:2095-4956
1347:2405-8297
1325:: 10–30.
1300:2095-4956
1253:2405-8297
1231:: 10–30.
1206:0013-4651
1159:0079-6700
1105:2050-7488
1059:0079-6700
1009:0009-2665
955:0009-2665
905:0009-2665
855:0009-2665
811:2050-7496
745:2468-2179
655:1531-7331
503:Batteries
492:dendrites
386:) and by
384:diffusion
364:magnesium
307:Composite
259:potential
255:inorganic
107:, namely
85:Amorphous
57:membranes
53:batteries
1932:Polymers
1912:93409584
1706:11484048
1571:30623123
1017:22339373
963:27479607
913:25351820
863:20831177
545:methanol
541:hydrogen
533:micelles
267:activity
150:chitosan
109:nitrogen
1884:Bibcode
1771:1481923
1714:4399365
1678:Bibcode
1562:6313818
1531:Heliyon
1449:Bibcode
1371:Bibcode
1327:Bibcode
1280:Bibcode
1233:Bibcode
1186:Bibcode
635:Bibcode
442:dopants
314:Ceramic
45:cathode
1910:
1902:
1855:
1816:
1808:
1769:
1712:
1704:
1696:
1670:Nature
1649:
1641:
1569:
1559:
1551:
1510:
1389:
1345:
1298:
1251:
1204:
1157:
1103:
1057:
1015:
1007:
961:
953:
911:
903:
861:
853:
809:
743:
653:
334:, and
291:intra-
183:p-type
179:n-type
117:sulfur
113:oxygen
1908:S2CID
1814:S2CID
1710:S2CID
1647:S2CID
217:Types
148:Poly(
41:anode
23:is a
1900:ISSN
1853:ISSN
1806:ISSN
1767:OSTI
1702:PMID
1694:ISSN
1639:ISSN
1567:PMID
1549:ISSN
1508:ISSN
1387:ISSN
1343:ISSN
1296:ISSN
1249:ISSN
1202:ISSN
1155:ISSN
1101:ISSN
1055:ISSN
1013:PMID
1005:ISSN
959:PMID
951:ISSN
909:PMID
901:ISSN
859:PMID
851:ISSN
807:ISSN
741:ISSN
651:ISSN
293:and
43:and
1892:doi
1845:doi
1841:161
1798:doi
1759:doi
1686:doi
1674:412
1631:doi
1598:doi
1557:PMC
1539:doi
1498:doi
1465:hdl
1457:doi
1445:559
1418:doi
1379:doi
1335:doi
1288:doi
1241:doi
1194:doi
1182:152
1147:doi
1093:doi
1047:doi
997:doi
993:112
943:doi
939:116
893:doi
889:114
843:doi
839:110
799:doi
731:doi
643:doi
543:or
336:TiO
318:SiO
204:or
181:or
111:or
1928::
1906:.
1898:.
1890:.
1880:15
1878:.
1874:.
1851:.
1839:.
1835:.
1812:.
1804:.
1792:.
1788:.
1765:.
1730:.
1708:.
1700:.
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1625:.
1621:.
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1529:.
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1492:.
1488:.
1463:.
1455:.
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1443:.
1439:.
1414:81
1412:.
1408:.
1385:.
1377:.
1367:37
1365:.
1341:.
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1321:.
1317:.
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1270:.
1247:.
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1223:.
1200:.
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1143:36
1141:.
1137:.
1113:^
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1083:.
1067:^
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1025:^
1011:.
1003:.
991:.
987:.
971:^
957:.
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933:.
921:^
907:.
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887:.
883:.
871:^
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789:.
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641:.
631:43
629:.
625:.
575:^
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325:Al
323:,
188:.
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19:A
1914:.
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1859:.
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1820:.
1800::
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1680::
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1600::
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1500::
1473:.
1467::
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1107:.
1095::
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645::
637::
382:(
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331:3
329:O
327:2
320:2
152:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
