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concrete has been cast and set, the tendons are tensioned ("stressed") by pulling the tendon ends through the anchorages while pressing against the concrete. The large forces required to tension the tendons result in a significant permanent compression being applied to the concrete once the tendon is "locked-off" at the anchorage. The method of locking the tendon-ends to the anchorage is dependent upon the tendon composition, with the most common systems being "button-head" anchoring (for wire tendons),
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stresses generated by in-service loading. This crack-resistance also allows individual slab sections to be constructed in larger pours than for conventionally reinforced concrete, resulting in wider joint spacings, reduced jointing costs and less long-term joint maintenance issues. Initial works have also been successfully conducted on the use of precast prestressed concrete for road pavements, where the speed and quality of the construction has been noted as being beneficial for this technique.
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816:, 2018. The Ponte Morandi was a cable-stayed bridge characterised by a prestressed concrete structure for the piers, pylons and deck, very few stays, as few as two per span, and a hybrid system for the stays constructed from steel cables with prestressed concrete shells poured on. The concrete was only prestressed to 10 MPa, resulting in it being prone to cracks and water intrusion, which caused corrosion of the embedded steel.
229:
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251:) achievable between the freshly set concrete and the surface of the tendons is critical to the pre-tensioning process, as it determines when the tendon anchorages can be safely released. Higher bond strength in early-age concrete will speed production and allow more economical fabrication. To promote this, pre-tensioned tendons are usually composed of isolated single wires or strands, which provides a greater
1148:
at their far (internal) end, and have a significant "de-bonded" free-length at their external end which allows the tendon to stretch during tensioning. Tendons may be full-length bonded to the surrounding concrete or rock once tensioned, or (more commonly) have strands permanently encapsulated in corrosion-inhibiting grease over the free-length to permit long-term load monitoring and re-stressability.
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tensioned, these tendons exert both axial (compressive) and radial (inward) forces onto the structure, which can directly oppose the subsequent storage loadings. If the magnitude of the prestress is designed to always exceed the tensile stresses produced by the loadings, a permanent residual compression will exist in the wall concrete, assisting in maintaining a watertight crack-free structure.
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1377:
576:. Once cured, this grout can transfer the full tendon tension force to the concrete within a very short distance (approximately 1 metre). As a result, any inadvertent severing of the tendon or failure of an end anchorage has only a very localised impact on tendon performance, and almost never results in tendon ejection from the anchorage.
1400:(PTI) and the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI). Similar bodies include the Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI), the UK's Post-Tensioning Association, the Post Tensioning Institute of Australia and the South African Post Tensioning Association. Europe has similar country-based associations and institutions.
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strands are bundled to form a single unbonded tendon, an enveloping duct of plastic or galvanised steel is used and its interior free-spaces grouted after stressing. In this way, additional corrosion protection is provided via the grease, plastic sheathing, grout, external sheathing, and surrounding concrete layers.
843:
Building structures are typically required to satisfy a broad range of structural, aesthetic and economic requirements. Significant among these include: a minimum number of (intrusive) supporting walls or columns; low structural thickness (depth), allowing space for services, or for additional floors
564:
Both bonded and unbonded post-tensioning technologies are widely used around the world, and the choice of system is often dictated by regional preferences, contractor experience, or the availability of alternative systems. Either one is capable of delivering code-compliant, durable structures meeting
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Most commonly, dam prestressing takes the form of post-tensioned anchors drilled into the dam's concrete structure and/or the underlying rock strata. Such anchors typically comprise tendons of high-tensile bundled steel strands or individual threaded bars. Tendons are grouted to the concrete or rock
778:
Following discovery of tendon corrosion in several bridges in
England, the Highways Agency issued a moratorium on the construction of new internally grouted post-tensioned bridges and embarked on a 5-year programme of inspections on its existing post-tensioned bridge stock. The moratorium was lifted
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Circular storage structures such as silos and tanks can use prestressing forces to directly resist the outward pressures generated by stored liquids or bulk-solids. Horizontally curved tendons are installed within the concrete wall to form a series of hoops, spaced vertically up the structure. When
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For individual strand tendons, no additional tendon ducting is used and no post-stressing grouting operation is required, unlike for bonded post-tensioning. Permanent corrosion protection of the strands is provided by the combined layers of grease, plastic sheathing, and surrounding concrete. Where
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of elements (e.g., strands or wires) placed inside a single tendon duct, with the exception of bars which are mostly used unbundled. This bundling makes for more efficient tendon installation and grouting processes, since each complete tendon requires only one set of end-anchorages and one grouting
243:
technique, where the resulting concrete element is manufactured off-site from the final structure location and transported to site once cured. It requires strong, stable end-anchorage points between which the tendons are stretched. These anchorages form the ends of a "casting bed" which may be many
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The durability of prestressed concrete is principally determined by the level of corrosion protection provided to any high-strength steel elements within the prestressing tendons. Also critical is the protection afforded to the end-anchorage assemblies of unbonded tendons or cable-stay systems, as
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Long-term durability is an essential requirement for prestressed concrete given its widespread use. Research on the durability performance of in-service prestressed structures has been undertaken since the 1960s, and anti-corrosion technologies for tendon protection have been continually improved
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Prestressed concrete has been established as a reliable construction material for high-pressure containment structures such as nuclear reactor vessels and containment buildings, and petrochemical tank blast-containment walls. Using pre-stressing to place such structures into an initial state of
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Heavily loaded concrete ground-slabs and pavements can be sensitive to cracking and subsequent traffic-driven deterioration. As a result, prestressed concrete is regularly used in such structures as its pre-compression provides the concrete with the ability to resist the crack-inducing tensile
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Concrete is the most popular structural material for bridges, and prestressed concrete is frequently adopted. When investigated in the 1940s for use on heavy-duty bridges, the advantages of this type of bridge over more traditional designs was that it is quicker to install, more economical and
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Prestressed concrete is a highly versatile construction material as a result of it being an almost ideal combination of its two main constituents: high-strength steel, pre-stretched to allow its full strength to be easily realised; and modern concrete, pre-compressed to minimise cracking under
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Unbonded tendons comprise individual strands coated in an anti-corrosion grease or wax, and fitted with a durable plastic-based full-length sleeve or sheath. The sleeving is required to be undamaged over the tendon length, and it must extend fully into the anchorage fittings at each end of the
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The tendons are not placed in direct contact with the concrete, but are encapsulated within a protective sleeve or duct which is either cast into the concrete structure or placed adjacent to it. At each end of a tendon is an anchorage assembly firmly fixed to the surrounding concrete. Once the
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are located between the ends of the tendon to hold the tendon to the desired non-linear alignment during tensioning. Such deviators usually act against substantial forces, and hence require a robust casting-bed foundation system. Straight tendons are typically used in "linear"
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Concrete dams have used prestressing to counter uplift and increase their overall stability since the mid-1930s. Prestressing is also frequently retro-fitted as part of dam remediation works, such as for structural strengthening, or when raising crest or spillway heights.
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process. The bare steel strand is fed into a greasing chamber and then passed to an extrusion unit where molten plastic forms a continuous outer coating. Finished strands can be cut-to-length and fitted with "dead-end" anchor assemblies as required for the project.
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Improved fire performance. The absence of strain redistribution in bonded tendons may limit the impact that any localised overheating has on the overall structure. As a result, bonded structures may display a higher capacity to resist fire conditions than unbonded
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tensile forces. Its wide range of application is reflected in its incorporation into the major design codes covering most areas of structural and civil engineering, including buildings, bridges, dams, foundations, pavements, piles, stadiums, silos, and tanks.
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The combination of reduced structural thickness, reduced conventional reinforcement quantities, and fast construction often results in prestressed concrete showing significant cost benefits in building structures compared to alternative structural
610:). With the tendons fixed to the concrete at each side of the crack, greater resistance to crack expansion is offered than with unbonded tendons, allowing many design codes to specify reduced reinforcement requirements for bonded post-tensioning.
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Unbonded slab post-tensioning. (Above) Installed strands and edge-anchors are visible, along with prefabricated coiled strands for the next pour. (Below) End-view of slab after stripping forms, showing individual strands and stressing-anchor
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Typically, prestressed concrete building elements are fully stressed and self-supporting within five days. At this point they can have their formwork stripped and re-deployed to the next section of the building, accelerating construction
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times the length of the concrete element being fabricated. This allows multiple elements to be constructed end-to-end in the one pre-tensioning operation, allowing significant productivity benefits and economies of scale to be realized.
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was detected in some of the prestressing tendons, necessitating initial closure of the road while additional investigations were done. Subsequent repairs and strengthening using external post-tensioning was carried out and completed in
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Simpler replacement and/or adjustment. Being permanently isolated from the concrete, unbonded tendons are able to be readily de-stressed, re-stressed and/or replaced should they become damaged or need their force levels to be modified
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Unlike those of post-tensioned concrete (see below), the tendons of pre-tensioned concrete elements generally form straight lines between end-anchorages. Where "profiled" or "harped" tendons are required, one or more intermediate
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and re-stressable dam anchors, will typically employ double-layer corrosion protection. Such tendons are composed of individual strands, grease-coated and sleeved, collected into a strand-bundle and placed inside encapsulating
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Bundled strands, individually greased-and-sheathed, forming a single tendon within an encapsulating duct that is placed either within or adjacent to the concrete (e.g., restressable anchors, external post-tensioning)
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Nuclear reactor and containment vessels will commonly employ separate sets of post-tensioned tendons curved horizontally or vertically to completely envelop the reactor core. Blast containment walls, such as for
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the anchorages of both of these are required to retain the prestressing forces. Failure of any of these components can result in the release of prestressing forces, or the physical rupture of stressing tendons.
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in many situations. In a prestressed concrete member, the internal stresses are introduced in a planned manner so that the stresses resulting from the imposed loads are counteracted to the desired degree.
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Superior overload performance. Although having a lower ultimate strength than bonded tendons, unbonded tendons' ability to redistribute strains over their full length can give them superior pre-collapse
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644:. Unbonded single-strand tendons have greater handling flexibility than bonded ducting during installation, allowing them a greater ability to be deviated around service penetrations or obstructions.
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102:. The essence of prestressed concrete is that once the initial compression has been applied, the resulting material has the characteristics of high-strength concrete when subject to any subsequent
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Worldwide, many professional organizations exist to promote best practices in the design and construction of prestressed concrete structures. In the United States, such organizations include the
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Bonded tendons consist of bundled strands placed inside ducts located within the surrounding concrete. To ensure full protection to the bundled strands, the ducts must be pressure-filled with a
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651:. Unbonded tendons may allow some reduction in concrete element thickness, as their smaller size and increased corrosion protection may allow them to be placed closer to the concrete surface.
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Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the concrete before any tensioning occurs allows them to be readily "profiled" to any desired shape including incorporating vertical and/or horizontal
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465:, placing the tendon ducting to the required curvature profiles, and reeving (or threading) the strands or wires through the ducting. Following concreting and tensioning, the ducts are
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bi-axial or tri-axial compression increases their resistance to concrete cracking and leakage, while providing a proof-loaded, redundant and monitorable pressure-containment system.
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For a given span, lower in-service deflections allows thinner structural sections to be used, in turn resulting in lower floor-to-floor heights, or more room for building services.
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The prestressing of concrete allows "load-balancing" forces to be introduced into the structure to counter in-service loadings. This provides many benefits to building structures:
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Reduced reliance on end-anchorage integrity. Following tensioning and grouting, bonded tendons are connected to the surrounding concrete along their full length by high-strength
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in high-rise construction; fast construction cycles, especially for multi-storey buildings; and a low cost-per-unit-area, to maximise the building owner's return on investment.
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outer ducting. The remaining void space within the duct is pressure-grouted, providing a multi-layer polythene-grout-plastic-grease protection barrier system for each strand.
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The flyovers were closed in
September 2018 after inspections revealed poor quality concrete, tendon corrosion and signs of structural distress. They were demolished in 2019.
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of it (external prestressing). While pre-tensioned concrete uses tendons directly bonded to the concrete, post-tensioned concrete can use either bonded or unbonded tendons.
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Post-tensioned concreted is "structural concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in the concrete resulting from loads."
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1174:(LNG) tanks, will normally utilize layers of horizontally-curved hoop tendons for containment in combination with vertically looped tendons for axial wall pre-stressing.
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of high-strength "tendons" located within or adjacent to the concrete and is done to improve the performance of the concrete in service. Tendons may consist of single
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was added to the tendon grout to speed construction, leading to corrosion of the prestressing strands and the sudden collapse of one span, injuring many spectators.
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Load balancing results in lower in-service deflections, which allows spans to be increased (and the number of supports reduced) without adding to structural depth.
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637:. The elimination of the post-stressing grouting process required in bonded structures improves the site-labour productivity of unbonded post-tensioning.
626:. Unbonded tendons can be readily prefabricated off-site complete with end-anchorages, facilitating faster installation during construction. Additional
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steel materials, and are classified into two main types: those where the tendon element is subsequently bonded to the surrounding concrete by internal
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movement relative to the concrete. This is most commonly achieved by encasing each individual tendon element within a plastic sheathing filled with a
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Rules and requirements for the detailing of reinforcement and prestressing tendons are specified by individual national codes and standards such as:
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forces being imparted onto the hardened concrete, and these can be beneficially used to counter any loadings subsequently applied to the structure.
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steel, and can be either round or rectangular/oval in cross-section. The tendon sizes used are highly dependent upon the application, ranging from
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430:; to permanently "lock-in" the tendon pre-tension, thereby removing the long-term reliance upon the end-anchorage systems; and to improve certain
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of their encapsulating ducting (after tendon tensioning). This grouting is undertaken for three main purposes: to protect the tendons against
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In all post-tensioned installations, protection of the end-anchorages against corrosion is essential, and critically so for unbonded systems.
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In short-span bridges of around 10 to 40 metres (30 to 130 ft), prestressing is commonly employed in the form of precast pre-tensioned
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or standards, but rather exist to promote the understanding and development of prestressed concrete design, codes and best practices.
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1799:"Tendons having one or more deviations from a straight line, either vertically or horizontally, between the ends of the structure"
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Prestressed concrete is used in a wide range of building and civil structures where its improved performance can allow for longer
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Historical
Patents and the Evolution of Twentieth Century Architectural Construction with Reinforced and Pre-stressed Concrete
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One span of a 12-span viaduct collapsed on 7 July 2014, causing 4 injuries, due to corrosion of the post-tensioning tendons.
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Guidelines for
Sampling, Assessing, and Restoring Defective Grout in Prestressed Concrete Bridge Post-Tensioning Ducts
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Construction of a
Precast Prestressed Concrete Pavement Demonstration Project on Interstate 57 near Sikeston, Missouri
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or planks. Medium-length structures of around 40 to 200 metres (150 to 650 ft), typically use precast-segmental,
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Cavill, Brian (20 March 1997). "Very High capacity Ground
Anchors Used in Strengthening Concrete Gravity Dams".
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Fabrication of bonded tendons is generally undertaken on-site, commencing with the fitting of end-anchorages to
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75:) during production, in a manner that strengthens it against tensile forces which will exist when in service.
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Unbonded post-tensioning differs from bonded post-tensioning by allowing the tendons permanent freedom of
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operation. Ducting is fabricated from a durable and corrosion-resistant material such as plastic (e.g.,
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Balanced-cantilever bridge under construction. Each added segment is supported by post-tensioned tendons
72:
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Individual strand tendons placed directly into the concreted structure (e.g., buildings, ground slabs)
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force to the concrete, and are required to reliably perform this role for the life of the structure.
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1109:. By the 1960s, prestressed concrete largely superseded reinforced concrete bridges in the UK, with
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longer-lasting with the bridge being less lively. One of the first bridges built in this way is the
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at that same location (i.e. no strain re-distribution occurs). This results in significantly higher
185:, where all strands or wires in a tendon are stressed simultaneously. Tendons may be located either
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3196:"Strengthening of existing concrete dams using post-tensioned anchors: A state-of-the-art review"
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1131:. For the longest bridges, prestressed concrete deck structures often form an integral part of
284:; whereas profiled tendons are more commonly found in deeper precast bridge beams and girders.
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Pre-tensioned bridge girder in precasting bed, with single-strand tendons exiting through the
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79:
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In bonded post-tensioning, tendons are permanently bonded to the surrounding concrete by the
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Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned
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Post-tensioned tendon anchorage; four-piece "lock-off" wedges are visible holding each strand
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Modern prestressing systems deliver long-term durability by addressing the following areas:
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Pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned
35:
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587:. With bonded post-tensioning, any flexure of the structure is directly resisted by tendon
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30:
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1902:"Comparison of unbonded and bonded post-tensioned concrete slabs under fire conditions"
1827:
770:, leading to a progressive failure of the main bridge span and the death of one person.
759:
648:
240:
177:, which occurs after the concrete is cast. Tensioning systems may be classed as either
17:
3841:
The story of prestressed concrete from 1930 to 1945: A step towards the
European Union
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First used in the late nineteenth century, prestressed concrete has developed beyond
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879:
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Some notable building structures constructed from prestressed concrete include:
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structure constructed in 1953 with longitudinal and transverse post-tensioning.
641:
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Individually greased-and-sheathed tendons are usually fabricated off-site by an
308:
155:
131:
788:
A multi-span steel and concrete structure constructed in 1995. An unauthorised
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Pre-tensioned concrete is most commonly used for the fabrication of structural
217:, following which the end-anchoring of the tendons is released, and the tendon
4448:
4233:
4213:
4005:
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Some notable civil structures constructed using prestressed concrete include:
618:
The benefits that unbonded post-tensioning can offer over bonded systems are:
568:
The benefits that bonded post-tensioning can offer over unbonded systems are:
447:
367:
2611:
2312:
4479:
1472:
820:
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Sixteen-span prestressed structure constructed in 1961. Corrosion from road
767:
742:
660:
627:
552:
518:
470:
427:
394:
159:
126:, reduced structural thicknesses, and material savings compared with simple
87:
228:
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1419:
1302:
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the structural strength and serviceability requirements of the designer.
462:
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works typically using between 2 and 6 strands per tendon, to specialized
451:
248:
233:
214:
68:
2385:
4422:
3990:
3118:"Rock-engineering design of post-tensioned anchors for dams - A review"
1706:(2nd ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire. pp. 1–13.
1415:
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strains in the tendons than if they were unbonded, allowing their full
584:
526:
437:
Bonded post-tensioning characteristically uses tendons each comprising
419:
296:
51:
After concrete solidifies, tendons apply compressive stress to concrete
3423:(Second ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 472–494.
2927:
2843:. Vol. 123. Simmons-Boardman Publishing Company. pp. 54–58.
2533:
1865:"Nonprestresed Bonded Reinforcement in Post-Tensioned Building Design"
1828:"Unbonded and bonded post-tensioning systems in building construction"
1660:. South Melbourne, Australia: Addison Welsley Longman. pp. 8–19.
48:
Before concrete solidifies, tendons embedded in concrete are tensioned
4149:
4109:
3943:
3845:
3381:
Structures for
Nuclear Facilities – Analysis, Design and Construction
1117:
667:-type action instead of pure flexure, allowing significantly greater
300:
143:
3336:
Gilbert, R. I.; Mickleborough, N. C.; Ranzi, G. (17 February 2016).
3254:"Analysis and Design of Prestressed Circular Concrete Storage Tanks"
3211:
378:
post-tensioning); and those where the tendon element is permanently
213:
to the concrete being cast. The concrete bonds to the tendons as it
3759:
2115:
Bridge
Management 4: Inspection, Maintenance, Assessment and Repair
4068:
3970:
1656:
Warner, R. F.; Rangan, B. V.; Hall, A. S.; Faulkes, K. A. (1988).
607:
606:, bonded tendons respond similarly to conventional reinforcement (
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423:
408:
371:
357:
330:
322:
257:
227:
200:
181:, where each tendon's strand or wire is stressed individually, or
29:
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Merritt, David; Rogers, Richard; Rasmussen, Robert (March 2008).
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83:
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Forces on post-tensioned concrete with profiled (curved) tendon
2311:
Australian
Society for History of Engineering and Technology.
698:
grout, without leaving any voids, following strand-tensioning.
599:
to be realised, and producing a higher ultimate load capacity.
455:
147:
2415:
Knoll, Franz; Prosser, M. John; Otter, John (May–June 1976).
1978:"Survey on the Durability of Prestressed Concrete Structures"
366:
Tendon encapsulation systems are constructed from plastic or
2184:"Corrosdion Failures: Lowe's Motor Speedway Bridge Collapse"
745:
attacked the under-protected tendons where they crossed the
397:. When the tendons are tensioned, this profiling results in
382:
bonded from the surrounding concrete, usually by means of a
3858:
3571:"Design of the Main Spans, Second Gateway Bridge, Brisbane"
2837:"Prestressed Concrete Bridge Beams Being Tested in England"
1106:
808:
Petrulla Viaduct ("Viadotto Petrulla"), Sicily, Italy, 2014
3811:
3785:
2350:"Structural Design of the 84 Storey World Tower in Sydney"
2992:
Bridge Construction Practices Using Incremental Launching
1429:: Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete; and
910:, Madrid; Guoco Tower (Tanjong Pagar Centre), Singapore;
529:
based. Anchorages at each end of the tendon transfer the
110:. This can result in improved structural capacity and/or
71:
used in construction. It is substantially "prestressed" (
38:(top) and prestressed concrete beam (bottom) under load:
3569:
Connall, John; Wheeler, Paul; Pau, Andrew; Mihov, Miho.
2215:"TfL report warned of Hammersmith Flyover collapse risk"
749:
joints between the segments, leading to sudden collapse.
1533:(Third ed.). New York, US: John Wiley & Sons.
3733:
560:
Comparison between bonded and unbonded post-tensioning
189:
the concrete volume (internal prestressing) or wholly
3675:"1300-Ton-Capacity Prestressed Anchors Stabilize Dam"
3122:
Journal of Rock Mechnanics and Geological Engineering
2799:
Prestressed Concrete bridges: design and Construction
2018:"Corrosion of Prestressing Steels and its Mitigation"
1837:(5). Phoenix, Arizona US: Post-Tensioning Institute.
2272:"Giù il viadotto Petrulla, panico sulla Statale 626"
1579:
Federation Internationale du Beton (February 2005).
731:
Several durability-related events are listed below:
630:
may need to be allowed for this fabrication process.
602:
Improved crack-control. In the presence of concrete
4472:
4441:
4395:
4332:
4204:
4158:
4077:
4014:
3934:
3896:
2313:"An Engineering Walk around the Sydney Opera House"
106:and of ductile high-strength steel when subject to
1937:"Two way post-tensioned slabs with bonded tendons"
343:the surrounding concrete structure has been cast.
221:are transferred to the concrete as compression by
90:or threaded bars that are most commonly made from
3734:"Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute"
3241:. London UK: Institution of Civil Engineers: 262.
4433:International Federation for Structural Concrete
3468:(Fourth ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.
3026:"Cable Stayed Bridges with Prestressed Concrete"
663:. In extremes, unbonded tendons can resort to a
3420:Construction of Prestressed Concrete Structures
3303:(Third ed.). CRC Press. pp. 149–165.
2359:. Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.
1403:These organizations are not the authorities of
735:Ynys-y-Gwas bridge, West Glamorgan, Wales, 1985
536:Unbonded post-tensioning can take the form of:
2466:"Kai Tak Cruise Terminal Building - Hong Kong"
2286:"Churchill Way Flyovers Deconstruction Scheme"
2112:Ryall, M. J.; Woodward, R.; Milne, D. (2000).
1738:(6th ed.). Phoenix, AZ US: PTI. pp.
3874:
3673:Eberhardt, A.; Veltrop, J. A. (August 1965).
3339:Design of Prestressed Concrete to AS3600-2009
2386:"The Tower, One St. George Wharf, London, UK"
2213:Ed Davey and Rebecca Cafe (3 December 2012).
1582:fib Bulletin 31: Post-tensioning in Buildings
469:and the tendon stressing-ends sealed against
8:
2594:Martinez, Julio; Gomez, Miguel (July 2008).
2565:"Eureka Tower, Melbourne Victoria Australia"
2118:. London: Thomas Telford. pp. 170–173.
174:
3812:"South African Post Tensioning Association"
2242:"Extending the Life of Hammersmith Flyover"
1105:, a railway bridge constructed 1946 in the
681:since the earliest systems were developed.
170:
3881:
3867:
3859:
3373:
3371:
2011:
2009:
1725:
1723:
1697:
851:Longer spans for the same structural depth
752:Scheldt River bridge, Melle, Belgium, 1991
676:Tendon durability and corrosion protection
3543:. US DOT Federal Highway Administration.
3141:
1900:Bailey, Colin G.; Ellobody, Ehab (2009).
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1530:Design of Prestressed Concrete Structures
709:Prestressing tendons requiring permanent
458:works using up to 91 strands per tendon.
255:for bonding than bundled-strand tendons.
3786:"Post Tensioning Institute of Australia"
3505:"Building Post-Tensioned Slabs on Grade"
1950:(2). US: Post-Tensioning Institute: 44.
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
3454:
3452:
3194:Xu, Haixue; Benmokrane, Brahim (1996).
2867:"History of Prestressed Concrete in UK"
1574:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1228:
920:
3792:from the original on 25 September 2016
3766:from the original on 19 September 2016
3722:Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
3703:from the original on 16 September 2016
3587:from the original on 17 September 2016
3550:from the original on 15 September 2016
3515:from the original on 18 September 2016
3485:from the original on 11 September 2016
3278:from the original on 16 September 2016
3175:from the original on 14 September 2016
3097:from the original on 16 September 2016
3069:"Prestressed Concrete Dams: 1936–1964"
2970:from the original on 16 September 2016
2954:"Structures Engineering Design Manual"
2777:from the original on 17 September 2016
2700:from the original on 22 September 2016
2659:from the original on 22 September 2016
2544:from the original on 24 September 2016
2482:from the original on 14 September 2016
2445:from the original on 15 September 2016
2252:from the original on 15 September 2016
2054:from the original on 16 September 2016
1994:from the original on 16 September 2016
1916:from the original on 17 September 2016
1702:Warner, R. F.; Faulkes, K. A. (1988).
1632:. Farmington Hills, Michigan US: ACI.
1468:Glossary of prestressed concrete terms
3654:from the original on 26 February 2017
3200:Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering
3005:from the original on 30 November 2016
2835:R. L. M'ilmoyle (20 September 1947).
2721:"Case Study: Capital Gate, Abu Dhabi"
2575:from the original on 13 February 2012
2513:from the original on 4 September 2016
2503:"International Commerce Centre (ICC)"
1844:from the original on 23 November 2016
1826:Aalami, Bijan O. (5 September 1994).
1636:from the original on 11 December 2016
758:constructed in the 1950s. Inadequate
27:Form of concrete used in construction
7:
3996:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
3608:"Incheon Bridge, Seoul, South Korea"
3417:Gerwick, Ben C. (13 February 1997).
3384:. London: Springer. pp. 36–37.
3157:Institution of Engineers Australia.
2618:from the original on 8 February 2017
2329:from the original on 8 February 2017
2221:from the original on 3 December 2012
1881:from the original on 8 February 2017
1781:from the original on 8 February 2017
1547:from the original on 8 February 2017
351:anchoring (for strand tendons), and
78:This compression is produced by the
4413:Institution of Structural Engineers
3618:from the original on 10 August 2016
3067:Roemermann, A. C. (February 1965).
3024:Leonhardt, Fritz (September 1987).
2596:"Torre Espacio. Building Structure"
1957:from the original on 28 August 2016
1935:Bondy, Kenneth B. (December 2012).
413:Multi-strand post-tensioning anchor
3437:from the original on 17 April 2021
3398:from the original on 17 April 2021
3356:from the original on 17 April 2021
3317:from the original on 17 April 2021
2989:LaViolette, Mike (December 2007).
2906:National Heritage List for England
2847:from the original on 17 April 2021
2816:from the original on 17 April 2021
2396:from the original on 30 April 2021
2366:from the original on 14 April 2016
2132:from the original on 17 April 2021
2093:from the original on 17 April 2021
2073:De Schutter, Geert (10 May 2012).
2016:Podolny, Walter (September 1992).
1863:Aalami, Bijan O. (February 2001).
1730:Post-Tensioning Institute (2006).
1435:AS 3600-2009: Concrete Structures.
25:
4526:Concrete buildings and structures
3459:Raju, Krishna (1 December 2006).
3300:Circular Storage Tasnks and Silos
3252:Priestley, M. J. N. (July 1985).
3218:from the original on 29 June 2021
2932:Concrete Bridge Development Group
2737:from the original on 30 July 2016
2680:"Gateway to South Eastern Europe"
2292:from the original on 9 April 2021
2163:from the original on 11 June 2016
1976:Szilard, Rudolph (October 1969).
1626:"CT-13: ACI Concrete Terminology"
1527:Lin, T.Y.; Burns, Ned H. (1981).
1422:2: Design of Concrete Structures;
713:and/or force adjustment, such as
701:Tendon coating (unbonded tendons)
434:of the final concrete structure.
280:elements, such as shallow beams,
42:Non-prestressed beam without load
4493:
4492:
3818:from the original on 25 May 2016
2761:"Evolution of Bridge Technology"
1375:
1359:
1343:
1327:
1311:
1295:
1279:
1263:
1247:
1231:
1071:
1052:
1033:
1014:
995:
976:
958:
942:
923:
692:Tendon grouting (bonded tendons)
496:
485:
386:sheath over the tendon strands (
3740:from the original on 5 May 2021
1392:Design agencies and regulations
130:. Typical applications include
3911:Roman architectural revolution
3849:Federal Highway Administration
3342:(Second ed.). CRC Press.
3116:Brown, E. T. (February 2015).
2998:. AASHTO. p. Appendix A.
2952:Main Roads Western Australia.
1129:incrementally-launched designs
164:nuclear containment structures
45:Non-prestressed beam with load
34:Comparison of non-prestressed
1:
3760:"Post-Tensioning Association"
3166:www.engineersaustralia.org.au
2928:"History of Concrete Bridges"
2606:(249). Madrid, Spain: 19–43.
2436:10.15554/pcij.05011976.84.111
2079:. CRC Press. pp. 31–33.
2076:Damage to Concrete Structures
1624:American Concrete Institute.
896:International Commerce Centre
374:of the duct after stressing (
355:anchoring (for bar tendons).
114:compared with conventionally
54:Prestressed beam without load
3694:10.15554/pcij.08011965.18.36
3509:www.concreteconstruction.net
3269:10.15554/pcij.07011985.64.85
3088:10.15554/pcij.02011965.76.88
3042:10.15554/pcij.09011987.52.80
2534:"Ocean Heights 2, Dubai UAE"
2532:CM Engineering Consultants.
2037:10.15554/pcij.09011992.34.55
1765:"CFCC Pre-tensioning Manual"
912:Zagreb International Airport
856:Reduced structural thickness
4428:Portland Cement Association
4403:American Concrete Institute
3647:. SRG Limited. p. 10.
3297:Ghali, Amin (12 May 2014).
3143:10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.08.001
2768:IABSE Symposium Proceedings
2569:www.designbuild-network.com
2417:"Prestressing the CN Tower"
2348:Martin, Owen; Lal, Nalean.
1872:ADAPT Technical Publication
1630:American Concrete Institute
766:resulted in tie-down cable
239:Pre-tensioning is a common
4552:
3906:Ancient Roman architecture
3378:Bangash, M. Y. H. (2011).
786:, North Carolina, US, 2000
707:Double-layer encapsulation
671:before structural failure.
57:Prestressed beam with load
4488:
4418:Indian Concrete Institute
3511:. Concrete Construction.
2796:Hewson, Nigel R. (2012).
2153:"Post-Tensioning Systems"
1398:Post-Tensioning Institute
1113:being the dominant form.
754:A three-span prestressed
3159:"Catagunya Dam Tasmania"
2963:. MRWA. pp. 17–23.
2901:"Adam Viaduct (1061327)"
2719:Schofield, Jeff (2012).
2639:"Reaching for the Skies"
2571:. Design Build Network.
1452:Dyckerhoff & Widmann
1226:, Videbergshamn Sweden.
1224:Ringhals nuclear reactor
1178:Hardstands and pavements
819:Churchill Way flyovers,
784:Charlotte Motor Speedway
477:Unbonded post-tensioning
2961:www.mainroads.wa.gov.au
1906:The Structural Engineer
1763:Tokyo Rope Mfg Co Ltd.
1222:, Toronto, Canada; and
1214:, Itz Valley, Germany;
892:Kai Tak Cruise Terminal
319:Post-tensioned concrete
262:Pre-tensioned, precast
247:The amount of bond (or
18:Post-tensioned concrete
4536:Structural engineering
4196:Alkali–silica reaction
3954:Energetically modified
3239:Conference Proceedings
2873:. 2004. Archived from
2563:Design Build Network.
2190:. NACE. Archived from
1734:Post-Tensioning Manual
1483:Properties of concrete
1383:Ringhals nuclear plant
1190:, Brisbane Australia;
949:Guoco Tower, Singapore
867:Reduced material costs
640:Improved installation
414:
405:Bonded post-tensioning
363:
336:
328:
267:
236:
206:
205:Pre-tensioning process
197:Pre-tensioned concrete
61:
3645:www.srglimited.com.au
3638:"SRG Remote Projects"
3612:www.dywidag-systems.a
1478:Prestressed structure
1386:Videbergshamn, Sweden
1206:, South Hook, Wales;
884:St George Wharf Tower
861:Faster stripping time
814:Genoa bridge collapse
798:London, England, 2011
412:
361:
334:
326:
295:, hollow-core slabs,
261:
231:
204:
33:
4181:Environmental impact
4039:Reversing drum mixer
3462:Prestressed Concrete
3048:on 16 September 2016
2871:Cambridge University
2678:BBR Network (2016).
2637:BBR Network (2016).
2217:. BBC News, London.
2194:on 24 September 2016
1704:Prestressed Concrete
1463:Freyssinet Test Arch
1133:cable-stayed designs
756:cantilever structure
725:Anchorage protection
696:corrosion-inhibiting
432:structural behaviors
160:industrial pavements
65:Prestressed concrete
4531:Reinforced concrete
3134:2015JRMGE...7....1B
1835:PTI Technical Notes
1658:Concrete Structures
1447:Cable stayed bridge
1433:Australian Standard
1274:Itz Valley, Germany
1212:Autobahn A73 bridge
1125:balanced-cantilever
839:Building structures
796:Hammersmith Flyover
782:Pedestrian bridge,
132:high-rise buildings
128:reinforced concrete
116:reinforced concrete
92:high-tensile steels
4521:Building materials
4284:Self-consolidating
3976:Water–cement ratio
2246:www.freyssinet.com
1605:on 8 February 2017
1414:European Standard
1218:, Moscow, Russia;
1202:, Washington, US;
1172:liquid natural gas
966:Sydney Opera House
876:Sydney Opera House
774:UK Highways Agency
415:
390:post-tensioning).
364:
337:
329:
268:
237:
207:
140:foundation systems
104:compression forces
62:
4506:
4505:
4498:Category:Concrete
4279:Roller-compacting
4100:Climbing formwork
3949:Calcium aluminate
3921:Roman engineering
3391:978-3-642-12560-7
3349:978-1-4665-7277-5
3310:978-1-4665-7104-4
2877:on 25 August 2018
2809:978-0-7277-4113-4
2125:978-0-7277-2854-8
2086:978-0-415-60388-1
1595:978-2-88394-071-0
1458:Eugène Freyssinet
1370:South Hook, Wales
1338:Ad Damazin, Sudan
1210:, Brevik Norway;
1161:Nuclear and blast
918:, Abu Dhabi UAE.
739:precast-segmental
581:ultimate strength
282:hollow-core slabs
16:(Redirected from
4543:
4496:
4495:
4408:Concrete Society
4219:Fiber-reinforced
4034:Volumetric mixer
3926:Roman technology
3883:
3876:
3869:
3860:
3828:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3808:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3756:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3745:
3730:
3724:
3719:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3708:
3702:
3679:
3670:
3664:
3663:
3661:
3659:
3653:
3642:
3634:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3623:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3592:
3586:
3575:
3566:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3549:
3542:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3520:
3501:
3495:
3494:
3492:
3490:
3484:
3467:
3456:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3414:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3403:
3375:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3361:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3324:
3322:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3277:
3258:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3234:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3206:(6): 1151–1171.
3191:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3174:
3163:
3154:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3096:
3073:
3064:
3058:
3057:
3055:
3053:
3044:. Archived from
3021:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3004:
2997:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2969:
2958:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2938:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2913:
2897:Historic England
2893:
2887:
2886:
2884:
2882:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2852:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2782:
2776:
2765:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2742:
2736:
2725:
2716:
2710:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2699:
2684:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2658:
2643:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2600:Hormigon y Acero
2591:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2518:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2481:
2470:
2461:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2444:
2421:
2412:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2401:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2365:
2354:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2334:
2328:
2317:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2053:
2022:
2013:
2004:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1993:
1982:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1956:
1941:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1897:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1886:
1880:
1869:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1843:
1832:
1823:
1800:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1780:
1769:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1737:
1727:
1718:
1717:
1699:
1672:
1671:
1653:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1604:
1598:. Archived from
1587:
1576:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1524:
1488:Segmental bridge
1379:
1363:
1347:
1331:
1315:
1299:
1283:
1267:
1251:
1235:
1091:Civil structures
1075:
1056:
1037:
1018:
999:
984:Kai Tak Terminal
980:
962:
946:
927:
500:
489:
467:pressure-grouted
278:precast concrete
264:hollow-core slab
21:
4551:
4550:
4546:
4545:
4544:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4511:
4510:
4507:
4502:
4484:
4468:
4437:
4391:
4328:
4200:
4154:
4073:
4049:Flow table test
4010:
3930:
3892:
3887:
3837:
3832:
3831:
3821:
3819:
3810:
3809:
3805:
3795:
3793:
3784:
3783:
3779:
3769:
3767:
3758:
3757:
3753:
3743:
3741:
3732:
3731:
3727:
3720:
3716:
3706:
3704:
3700:
3677:
3672:
3671:
3667:
3657:
3655:
3651:
3640:
3636:
3635:
3631:
3621:
3619:
3605:
3604:
3600:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3578:www.cmnzl.co.nz
3573:
3568:
3567:
3563:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3540:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3518:
3516:
3503:
3502:
3498:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3476:
3465:
3458:
3457:
3450:
3440:
3438:
3431:
3416:
3415:
3411:
3401:
3399:
3392:
3377:
3376:
3369:
3359:
3357:
3350:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3320:
3318:
3311:
3296:
3295:
3291:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3256:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3236:
3235:
3231:
3221:
3219:
3212:10.1139/l96-925
3193:
3192:
3188:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3161:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3115:
3114:
3110:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3071:
3066:
3065:
3061:
3051:
3049:
3023:
3022:
3018:
3008:
3006:
3002:
2995:
2988:
2987:
2983:
2973:
2971:
2967:
2956:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2936:
2934:
2926:
2925:
2921:
2911:
2909:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2880:
2878:
2865:
2864:
2860:
2850:
2848:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2819:
2817:
2810:
2795:
2794:
2790:
2780:
2778:
2774:
2763:
2757:Tang, Man-Chung
2755:
2754:
2750:
2740:
2738:
2734:
2723:
2718:
2717:
2713:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2682:
2677:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2660:
2656:
2641:
2636:
2635:
2631:
2621:
2619:
2593:
2592:
2588:
2578:
2576:
2562:
2561:
2557:
2547:
2545:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2516:
2514:
2500:
2499:
2495:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2468:
2463:
2462:
2458:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2419:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2399:
2397:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2369:
2367:
2363:
2352:
2347:
2346:
2342:
2332:
2330:
2326:
2315:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2295:
2293:
2284:
2283:
2279:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2255:
2253:
2239:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2222:
2212:
2211:
2207:
2197:
2195:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2164:
2157:www.ukcares.com
2150:
2149:
2145:
2135:
2133:
2126:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2096:
2094:
2087:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2007:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1980:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1939:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1919:
1917:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1867:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1845:
1841:
1830:
1825:
1824:
1803:
1798:
1794:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1767:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1750:
1729:
1728:
1721:
1714:
1701:
1700:
1675:
1668:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1639:
1637:
1623:
1622:
1618:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1596:
1585:
1578:
1577:
1560:
1550:
1548:
1541:
1526:
1525:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1442:
1394:
1387:
1385:
1380:
1371:
1369:
1364:
1355:
1353:
1348:
1339:
1337:
1332:
1323:
1321:
1316:
1307:
1306:Toronto, Canada
1305:
1300:
1291:
1289:
1287:Ostankino Tower
1284:
1275:
1273:
1268:
1259:
1257:
1252:
1243:
1242:Brisbane, Aust.
1241:
1236:
1216:Ostankino Tower
1194:, South Korea;
1180:
1163:
1154:
1152:Silos and tanks
1141:
1098:
1093:
1086:
1082:
1076:
1067:
1063:
1057:
1048:
1044:
1038:
1029:
1025:
1022:Ocean Heights 2
1019:
1010:
1006:
1000:
991:
986:
981:
972:
968:
963:
954:
950:
947:
938:
934:
928:
914:, Croatia; and
900:Ocean Heights 2
868:
862:
857:
852:
841:
832:
824:
809:
799:
787:
777:
753:
737:A single-span,
736:
726:
708:
702:
693:
678:
562:
511:
510:
509:
508:
503:
502:
501:
492:
491:
490:
479:
407:
321:
223:static friction
199:
175:post-tensioning
60:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4549:
4547:
4539:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4513:
4512:
4504:
4503:
4501:
4500:
4489:
4486:
4485:
4483:
4482:
4476:
4474:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4445:
4443:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4399:
4397:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4367:Concrete block
4364:
4363:
4362:
4357:
4355:voided biaxial
4352:
4347:
4336:
4334:
4330:
4329:
4327:
4326:
4325:
4324:
4319:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4210:
4208:
4202:
4201:
4199:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4162:
4160:
4156:
4155:
4153:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4081:
4079:
4075:
4074:
4072:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4059:Concrete cover
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4029:Concrete mixer
4026:
4020:
4018:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3967:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3940:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3929:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3916:Roman concrete
3913:
3908:
3902:
3900:
3894:
3893:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3878:
3871:
3863:
3857:
3856:
3851:
3843:
3836:
3835:External links
3833:
3830:
3829:
3803:
3777:
3751:
3725:
3714:
3665:
3629:
3598:
3561:
3526:
3496:
3474:
3448:
3429:
3409:
3390:
3367:
3348:
3328:
3309:
3289:
3244:
3229:
3186:
3149:
3108:
3059:
3016:
2981:
2944:
2919:
2888:
2858:
2827:
2808:
2788:
2748:
2711:
2670:
2629:
2586:
2555:
2524:
2493:
2473:vslvietnam.com
2456:
2407:
2377:
2340:
2303:
2277:
2274:. 8 July 2014.
2263:
2248:. Freyssinet.
2232:
2205:
2174:
2143:
2124:
2104:
2085:
2065:
2005:
1968:
1927:
1892:
1855:
1801:
1792:
1755:
1748:
1719:
1712:
1673:
1666:
1648:
1616:
1594:
1558:
1539:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1436:
1430:
1423:
1405:building codes
1393:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1381:
1374:
1372:
1365:
1358:
1356:
1354:Washington, US
1349:
1342:
1340:
1333:
1326:
1324:
1322:Brevik, Norway
1317:
1310:
1308:
1301:
1294:
1292:
1290:Moscow, Russia
1285:
1278:
1276:
1269:
1262:
1260:
1255:Incheon Bridge
1253:
1246:
1244:
1239:Gateway Bridge
1237:
1230:
1192:Incheon Bridge
1188:Gateway Bridge
1179:
1176:
1162:
1159:
1153:
1150:
1140:
1137:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1077:
1070:
1068:
1058:
1051:
1049:
1039:
1032:
1030:
1020:
1013:
1011:
1001:
994:
992:
982:
975:
973:
964:
957:
955:
948:
941:
939:
929:
922:
872:
871:
865:
864:"cycle-times".
859:
854:
840:
837:
831:
828:
827:
826:
817:
811:
806:
802:de-icing salts
793:
780:
771:
760:concrete cover
750:
729:
728:
723:
705:
699:
677:
674:
673:
672:
656:
652:
649:concrete cover
645:
638:
633:Improved site
631:
622:Ability to be
616:
615:
611:
600:
597:yield strength
577:
561:
558:
545:
544:
541:
505:
504:
495:
494:
493:
484:
483:
482:
481:
480:
478:
475:
406:
403:
320:
317:
241:prefabrication
219:tension forces
198:
195:
171:pre-tensioning
136:concrete slabs
134:, residential
112:serviceability
108:tension forces
59:
58:
55:
52:
49:
46:
43:
39:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4548:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4518:
4516:
4509:
4499:
4491:
4490:
4487:
4481:
4478:
4477:
4475:
4471:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4440:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4396:Organizations
4394:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4361:
4360:slab on grade
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4341:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4331:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4289:Self-leveling
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4211:
4209:
4207:
4203:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4157:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4090:Cast-in-place
4088:
4086:
4083:
4082:
4080:
4076:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4017:
4013:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3986:Reinforcement
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3946:
3945:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3933:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3884:
3879:
3877:
3872:
3870:
3865:
3864:
3861:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3838:
3834:
3817:
3813:
3807:
3804:
3791:
3787:
3781:
3778:
3765:
3761:
3755:
3752:
3739:
3735:
3729:
3726:
3723:
3718:
3715:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3676:
3669:
3666:
3650:
3646:
3639:
3633:
3630:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3602:
3599:
3583:
3579:
3572:
3565:
3562:
3546:
3539:
3538:
3530:
3527:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3500:
3497:
3481:
3477:
3475:0-07-063444-0
3471:
3464:
3463:
3455:
3453:
3449:
3436:
3432:
3430:0-471-53915-5
3426:
3422:
3421:
3413:
3410:
3397:
3393:
3387:
3383:
3382:
3374:
3372:
3368:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3341:
3340:
3332:
3329:
3316:
3312:
3306:
3302:
3301:
3293:
3290:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3255:
3248:
3245:
3240:
3233:
3230:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3190:
3187:
3171:
3167:
3160:
3153:
3150:
3144:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3112:
3109:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3070:
3063:
3060:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3017:
3001:
2994:
2993:
2985:
2982:
2966:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2945:
2933:
2929:
2923:
2920:
2908:
2907:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2889:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2862:
2859:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2831:
2828:
2815:
2811:
2805:
2801:
2800:
2792:
2789:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2758:
2752:
2749:
2733:
2729:
2728:CTBUH Journal
2722:
2715:
2712:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2674:
2671:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2633:
2630:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2587:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2559:
2556:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2528:
2525:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2497:
2494:
2478:
2474:
2467:
2460:
2457:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2430:(3): 84–111.
2429:
2425:
2418:
2411:
2408:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2344:
2341:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2307:
2304:
2291:
2287:
2281:
2278:
2273:
2267:
2264:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2233:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2206:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2178:
2175:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2144:
2131:
2127:
2121:
2117:
2116:
2108:
2105:
2092:
2088:
2082:
2078:
2077:
2069:
2066:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2019:
2012:
2010:
2006:
1990:
1986:
1979:
1972:
1969:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1938:
1931:
1928:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1896:
1893:
1877:
1873:
1866:
1859:
1856:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1793:
1777:
1773:
1766:
1759:
1756:
1751:
1749:0-9778752-0-2
1745:
1741:
1736:
1735:
1726:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1713:0-582-71225-4
1709:
1705:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1667:0-582-80247-4
1663:
1659:
1652:
1649:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1620:
1617:
1601:
1597:
1591:
1584:
1583:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1546:
1542:
1540:0-471-01898-8
1536:
1532:
1531:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1494:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1391:
1384:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1234:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1167:
1160:
1158:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1084:18° lean 2010
1080:
1074:
1069:
1066:
1061:
1060:Torre Espacio
1055:
1050:
1047:
1042:
1036:
1031:
1028:
1023:
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4333:Applications
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4130:Power trowel
4115:Power screed
4105:Slip forming
4078:Construction
3822:12 September
3820:. Retrieved
3806:
3796:12 September
3794:. Retrieved
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3046:the original
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2875:the original
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2603:
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2568:
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2538:www.cmecs.co
2537:
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2507:www.arup.com
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2320:ashet.org.au
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2245:
2240:Freyssinet.
2235:
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2208:
2196:. Retrieved
2192:the original
2188:www.nace.org
2187:
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1984:
1971:
1959:. Retrieved
1947:
1943:
1930:
1918:. Retrieved
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1638:. Retrieved
1629:
1619:
1607:. Retrieved
1600:the original
1581:
1549:. Retrieved
1529:
1454:AG (Dywidag)
1425:US Standard
1409:
1402:
1395:
1335:Roseires Dam
1319:Norcem silos
1271:Autobahn A73
1208:Cement silos
1196:Roseires Dam
1185:
1181:
1168:
1164:
1155:
1146:
1142:
1121:
1115:
1103:Adam Viaduct
1099:
1083:
1079:Capital Gate
1064:
1045:
1041:Eureka Tower
1026:
1007:
988:
969:
951:
935:
916:Capital Gate
904:Eureka Tower
873:
846:
842:
833:
830:Applications
762:in the side
746:
730:
720:polyethylene
687:
683:
679:
635:productivity
617:
567:
563:
550:
546:
535:
521:-inhibiting
515:longitudinal
512:
460:
444:polyethylene
438:
436:
418:
416:
392:
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379:
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345:
340:
338:
286:
272:
269:
266:being placed
253:surface area
246:
238:
210:
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190:
186:
183:multi-strand
182:
178:
168:
150:structures,
121:
100:aramid fiber
96:carbon fiber
77:
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63:
4350:hollow-core
4309:Waste light
4304:Translucent
4264:Prestressed
4191:Segregation
4176:Degradation
4064:Cover meter
4001:Silica fume
3936:Composition
3707:6 September
3682:PCI Journal
3658:6 September
3622:2 September
3614:. DYWIDAG.
3591:2 September
3554:5 September
3519:5 September
3489:5 September
3441:5 September
3402:5 September
3360:5 September
3321:5 September
3282:5 September
3261:PCI Journal
3222:2 September
3179:2 September
3128:(1): 1–13.
3101:2 September
3076:PCI Journal
3052:7 September
3030:PCI Journal
3009:7 September
2974:2 September
2937:22 February
2841:Railway Age
2820:2 September
2781:5 September
2741:2 September
2704:2 September
2663:2 September
2622:1 September
2579:1 September
2548:1 September
2517:2 September
2486:1 September
2449:2 September
2424:PCI Journal
2400:1 September
2370:1 September
2333:1 September
2256:7 September
2198:7 September
2167:7 September
2136:7 September
2097:7 September
2058:7 September
2025:PCI Journal
1998:7 September
1985:PCI Journal
1944:PTI Journal
1351:Wanapum Dam
1258:South Korea
1200:Wanapum Dam
1111:box girders
1081:, Abu Dhabi
1043:, Melbourne
1003:World Tower
933:, Hong Kong
890:, Toronto;
880:World Tower
715:stay-cables
669:deformation
655:in-service.
642:flexibility
349:split-wedge
309:water tanks
293:floor slabs
173:to include
4515:Categories
4449:Eurocode 2
4387:Structures
4274:Reinforced
4234:Lunarcrete
4214:AstroCrete
4171:Durability
4166:Properties
4044:Slump test
4016:Production
4006:Metakaolin
3168:. IEAust.
2390:cclint.com
2225:3 December
1495:References
1418:-2:2005 –
987:Hong Kong
886:, London;
882:, Sydney;
870:materials.
711:monitoring
579:Increased
531:tensioning
525:, usually
448:galvanised
368:galvanised
179:monostrand
80:tensioning
73:compressed
4480:Hempcrete
4442:Standards
4269:Ready-mix
4186:Recycling
3981:Aggregate
3964:Rosendale
3606:DYWIDAG.
3263:: 64–85.
3082:: 76–88.
2912:25 August
2881:25 August
2851:25 August
2693:: 37–41.
2612:0439-5689
2540:. CMECS.
2357:ctbuh.org
2322:. ASHET.
2159:. CARES.
2045:109223938
1987:: 62–73.
1961:25 August
1920:22 August
1885:25 August
1848:23 August
1785:19 August
1640:25 August
1609:26 August
1551:24 August
1473:PC strand
1367:LNG tanks
1204:LNG tanks
1198:, Sudan;
1065:230m 2008
1046:297m 2006
1027:335m 2016
1008:230m 2004
952:290m 2016
936:484m 2010
931:ICC tower
902:, Dubai;
823:, England
821:Liverpool
768:corrosion
764:abutments
743:Corrosion
661:ductility
628:lead time
553:extrusion
519:corrosion
507:recesses.
471:corrosion
428:corrosion
395:curvature
303:, driven
297:balconies
273:deviators
4473:See also
4464:EN 10080
4459:EN 206-1
4454:EN 197-1
4313:Aerated
4254:Polished
4249:Pervious
4224:Filigree
4120:Finisher
4095:Formwork
3959:Portland
3890:Concrete
3816:Archived
3790:Archived
3764:Archived
3738:Archived
3698:Archived
3649:Archived
3616:Archived
3582:Archived
3545:Archived
3513:Archived
3480:Archived
3435:Archived
3396:Archived
3354:Archived
3315:Archived
3273:Archived
3216:Archived
3170:Archived
3092:Archived
3000:Archived
2965:Archived
2845:Archived
2814:Archived
2772:Archived
2759:(2007).
2732:Archived
2695:Archived
2687:Connaect
2654:Archived
2646:Connaect
2616:Archived
2573:Archived
2542:Archived
2511:Archived
2509:. ARUP.
2477:Archived
2440:Archived
2394:Archived
2361:Archived
2324:Archived
2290:Archived
2250:Archived
2219:Archived
2161:Archived
2130:Archived
2091:Archived
2049:Archived
1989:Archived
1952:Archived
1914:Archived
1876:Archived
1874:(2–01).
1839:Archived
1776:Archived
1772:MaineDOT
1634:Archived
1545:Archived
1440:See also
1420:Eurocode
1303:CN Tower
1220:CN Tower
1062:, Madrid
1005:, Sydney
888:CN Tower
790:chemical
779:in 1996.
665:catenary
647:Reduced
604:cracking
463:formwork
452:building
424:grouting
399:reaction
388:unbonded
372:grouting
353:threaded
249:adhesion
234:formwork
69:concrete
4423:Nanocem
4382:Columns
4259:Polymer
4159:Science
4125:Grinder
4085:Precast
3991:Fly ash
3898:History
3130:Bibcode
2802:. ICE.
2475:. VSL.
2392:. CCL.
2296:8 April
2151:CARES.
1588:. FIB.
1416:EN 1992
1122:in-situ
1118:girders
1096:Bridges
1024:, Dubai
747:in-situ
704:tendon.
593:tensile
589:strains
585:flexure
527:lithium
439:bundles
420:in situ
384:greased
301:lintels
191:outside
88:strands
4345:waffle
4294:Sulfur
4150:Tremie
4145:Sealer
4110:Screed
4054:Curing
3944:Cement
3472:
3427:
3388:
3346:
3307:
2806:
2730:(11).
2652:: 51.
2610:
2501:ARUP.
2182:NACE.
2122:
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2043:
1912:(19).
1746:
1710:
1664:
1592:
1537:
1427:ACI318
776:, 1992
523:grease
376:bonded
187:within
144:bridge
4377:Roads
4299:Tabby
4206:Types
4140:Float
4069:Rebar
4024:Plant
3971:Water
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3585:(PDF)
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2443:(PDF)
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2316:(PDF)
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2041:S2CID
2021:(PDF)
1992:(PDF)
1981:(PDF)
1955:(PDF)
1940:(PDF)
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1842:(PDF)
1831:(PDF)
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1742:–54.
1603:(PDF)
1586:(PDF)
805:2015.
614:ones.
608:rebar
574:grout
446:) or
341:after
313:pipes
305:piles
289:beams
215:cures
211:prior
156:tanks
152:silos
124:spans
84:wires
4340:Slab
4322:RAAC
4239:Mass
4229:Foam
4135:Pump
3824:2016
3798:2016
3772:2016
3746:2016
3709:2016
3660:2016
3624:2016
3593:2016
3556:2016
3521:2016
3491:2016
3470:ISBN
3443:2016
3425:ISBN
3404:2016
3386:ISBN
3362:2016
3344:ISBN
3323:2016
3305:ISBN
3284:2016
3224:2016
3181:2016
3103:2016
3054:2016
3011:2016
2976:2016
2939:2024
2914:2018
2883:2018
2853:2018
2822:2016
2804:ISBN
2783:2016
2743:2016
2706:2016
2665:2016
2624:2016
2608:ISSN
2581:2016
2550:2016
2519:2016
2488:2016
2451:2016
2402:2016
2372:2016
2335:2016
2298:2021
2258:2016
2227:2012
2200:2016
2169:2016
2138:2016
2120:ISBN
2099:2016
2081:ISBN
2060:2016
2000:2016
1963:2016
1922:2016
1887:2016
1850:2016
1787:2016
1744:ISBN
1708:ISBN
1662:ISBN
1642:2016
1611:2016
1590:ISBN
1553:2016
1535:ISBN
1139:Dams
1127:and
989:2013
970:1973
894:and
878:and
162:and
154:and
146:and
36:beam
4317:AAC
3690:doi
3265:doi
3208:doi
3138:doi
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