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982:. The beautifully engineered and intricate structure of many of these frustules is such that they are often referred to as "jewels of the sea". Each frustule is made from two interlocking parts covered with tiny holes through which the diatom exchanges nutrients and wastes. The frustules of dead diatoms drift to the ocean floor where, over millions of years, they can build up as much as
1703:
1117:
1009:. Since diatoms are one of the main users of these forms of silicon, they contribute greatly to the concentration of silicon throughout the ocean. Silicon forms a nutrient-like profile in the ocean due to the diatom productivity in shallow depths, which means there is less concentration of silicon in the upper ocean and more concentration of silicon in the deep ocean.
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2182:, from several silica strips cemented together. The functional significance of the periplast is unknown, but in sessile organisms, it is thought to aid attachment to the substrate. In planktonic organisms, there is speculation that the periplast increases drag, thereby counteracting the force generated by the flagellum and increasing feeding efficiency.
2084:
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1850:
There are also costs for protists that carry protective shells. The diagram on the right above shows some of the energetic costs coccolithophore incur from carrying coccoliths. In the diagram, the energetic costs are reported in percentage of total photosynthetic budget. (A) represents transport
1450:
encased in elaborate globular shells (or "capsules"), usually made of silica and pierced with holes. Their name comes from the Latin for "radius". They catch prey by extending parts of their body through the holes. As with the silica frustules of diatoms, radiolarian shells can sink to the ocean
1035:
organisms and greatly contribute to biogenic silica production. In the open ocean, however, diatoms have a reduced role in global annual silica production. Diatoms in North
Atlantic and North Pacific subtropical gyres contribute only about 6% of global annual marine silica production, while the
1796:
There are benefits for protists that carry protective shells. The diagram on the left below shows some benefits coccolithophore get from carrying coccoliths. In the diagram, (A) represents accelerated photosynthesis including carbon concentrating mechanisms (CCM) and enhanced light uptake via
841:
Most protists are too small to be seen with the naked eye. They are highly diverse organisms currently organised into 18 phyla, but are not easy to classify. Studies have shown high protist diversity exists in oceans, deep sea-vents and river sediments, suggesting large numbers of eukaryotic
1241:
1887:
crystals. (C) Mechanical and structural processes account for the secretion of the completed coccoliths that are transported from their original position adjacent to the nucleus to the cell periphery, where they are transferred to the surface of the cell.
786:
In addition to protection and support, protist shells also serve scientists as a means of identification. By examining the characteristics of the shells, different species of protists can be identified and their ecology and evolution can be studied.
1801:(UV) and photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) and energy dissipation under high-light conditions. (C) represents armour protection includes protection against viral/bacterial infections and grazing by selective and nonselective grazers.
1036:
Southern Ocean produces about one-third of the global marine biogenic silica. The
Southern Ocean is referred to as having a "biogeochemical divide", since only minuscule amounts of silicon is transported out of this region.
970:
form a (disputed) phylum containing about 100,000 recognised species of mainly unicellular algae. Diatoms generate about 20 per cent of the oxygen produced on the planet each year, take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of
1194:
2673:
Foraminifera: notes for a short course organized by M.A. Buzas and B.K. Sen Gupta: prepared for the short course on foraminifera sponsored by the
Paleontological Society, held at New Orleans, Louisiana, October 17,
1028:. Availability of silicon appears crucial for diatom productivity, and as long as silicic acid is available for diatoms to utilize, the diatoms contribute other important nutrient concentrations in the deep ocean.
1473:
1485:
3765:
Monteiro, F.M., Bach, L.T., Brownlee, C., Bown, P., Rickaby, R.E., Poulton, A.J., Tyrrell, T., Beaufort, L., Dutkiewicz, S., Gibbs, S. and
Gutowska, M.A. (2016) "Why marine phytoplankton calcify".
2178:. These cell coverings vary greatly in structure and composition and are used by taxonomists for classification purposes. Many choanoflagellates build complex basket-shaped "houses", called
3522:
De
Tommasi, E., Congestri, R., Dardano, P., De Luca, A.C., ManagΓ², S., Rea, I. and De Stefano, M. (2018) "UV-shielding and wavelength conversion by centric diatom nanopatterned frustules".
1225:
1301:
around the globe. The evolutionary causes for the generation of nano and microstructured silica by photosynthetic algae are not yet clear. However, in 2018 it was shown that absorption of
1863:+ through the cytoplasm to the coccolith vesicle (CV) is the dominant cost associated with calcification. (B) represents metabolic processes include the synthesis of coccolith-associated
1972:. They are widely researched with well established fossil records which allow scientists to infer a lot about past environments and climates. Some foraminifera lack tests altogether.
3582:
Kuwata, A., Yamada, K., Ichinomiya, M., Yoshikawa, S., Tragin, M., Vaulot, D. and Lopes dos Santos, A. (2018) "Bolidophyceae, a sister picoplanktonic group of diatoms β a review".
1948:
for short) are single-celled predatory protists, also protected with shells that have holes in them. Their name comes from the Latin for "hole bearers". Their shells, often called
2435:
Gafar, N. A., Eyre, B. D. and Schulz, K. G. (2019) "A comparison of species specific sensitivities to changing light and carbonate chemistry in calcifying marine phytoplankton".
1952:, may be single-chambered or multi-chambered; multi-chambered forams add more chambers as they grow. The most famous of these are made of calcite, but tests may also be made of
2071:
700:
2132:
1276:. "The microscopic structures of diatoms help them manipulate light, leading to hopes they could be used in new technologies for light detection, computing or robotics.
3650:
Kachovich, S., Sheng, J. and
Aitchison, J. C., 2019. Adding a new dimension to investigations of early radiolarian evolution. Scientific reports, 9(1), pp. 1β10.
1711:
1080:
1182:
431:
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2101:
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Treguer, P.; Nelson, D. M.; Van
Bennekom, A. J.; Demaster, D. J.; Leynaert, A.; Queguiner, B. (1995). "The Silica Balance in the World Ocean: A Reestimate".
1731:
3977:
Dodd, Matthew S.; Papineau, Dominic; Grenne, Tor; slack, John F.; Rittner, Martin; Pirajno, Franco; O'Neil, Jonathan; Little, Crispin T. S. (2 March 2017).
1515:
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In contrast to the cells of bacteria and archaea, the cells of protists and other eukaryotes are highly organised. Plants, animals and fungi are usually
767:
that are hard and protective, and serve as a barrier to prevent water loss. The shells have small pores that allow for gas exchange and nutrient uptake.
1095:
3557:
Booth, B.C. and
Marchant, H.J. (1987) "Parmales, a new order of marine chrysophytes, with descriptions of three new genera and seven new species".
1461:
1297:
Diatom frustules have been accumulating for over 100 million years, leaving rich deposits of nano and microstructured silicon oxide in the form of
3137:
Baines, Stephen B.; Twining, Benjamin S.; Brzezinski, Mark A.; Krause, Jeffrey W.; Vogt, Stefan; Assael, Dylan; McDaniel, Hannah (December 2012).
693:
826:
The term protist came into use historically to refer to a group of biologically similar organisms; however, modern research has shown it to be a
744:. Although protists are typically very small, they are ubiquitous. Their numbers are such that their shells play a huge part in the formation of
2257:. This sample consists of a mixture of centric (radially symmetric) and pennate (bilaterally symmetric) diatoms. Click 3 times to fully enlarge.
2201:
3487:
Aguirre, L. E., Ouyang, L., Elfwing, A., Hedblom, M., Wulff, A. and InganΓ€s, O. (2018) "Diatom frustules protect DNA from ultraviolet light".
1692:, referring to their small size and the coccolith stones they carry. Under the right conditions they bloom, like other phytoplankton, and can
803:. Eukaryotes include organisms such as plants, animals, fungi and "protists". Protists are usually single-celled and microscopic. They can be
3812:
2729:
2630:
2402:
4.54 billion years ago. Nonetheless, life may have started even earlier, at nearly 4.5 billion years ago, as claimed by some researchers.
2156:
2113:
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scattering of scarce photons for deep-dwelling species. (B) represents protection from photodamage including sunshade protection from
1760:
1001:
to be predominantly used in constructing these protective cell wall structures. Silicon enters the ocean in a dissolved form such as
686:
3638:
3746:
2682:
947:, need silica for their growth. Silica has been shown to improve plant cell wall strength and structural integrity in some plants.
1550:
3374:
Arsenieff, L.; Simon, N.; Rigaut-Jalabert, F.; Le Gall, F.; Chaffron, S.; Corre, E.; Com, E.; Bigeard, E.; Baudoux, A.C. (2018).
1680:
are minute unicellular photosynthetic protists with two flagella for locomotion. Most of them are protected by a shell called a
4222:
652:
2198:
1012:
Diatom productivity in the upper ocean contribute to the amount of silicon exported to the lower ocean. When diatom cells are
4145:
Betts, Holly C.; Putick, Mark N.; Clark, James W.; Williams, Tom A.; Donoghue, Philip C.J.; Pisani, Davide (20 August 2018).
3323:
Marinov, I.; Gnanadesikan, A.; Toggweiler, J. R.; Sarmiento, J. L. (June 2006). "The
Southern Ocean biogeochemical divide".
2809:"Silicon-Induced Cell Wall Fortification of Rice Leaves: A Possible Cellular Mechanism of Enhanced Host Resistance to Blast"
1016:
in the upper ocean, their nutrients like, iron, zinc, and silicon, are brought to the lower ocean through a process called
2262:
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Protists shells are often tough, mineralised forms that resist degradation, and can survive the death of the protist as a
563:
558:
391:
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and is not currently in formal scientific use. Nonetheless, the term continues to be used informally to refer to those
3737:
Rost, B. and
Riebesell, U. (2004) "Coccolithophores and the biological pump: responses to environmental changes". In:
2297:. Fossils which can be studied by the naked eye or low-powered magnification, such as a hand lens, are referred to as
1814:
1717:
975:
each year from the waters in which they live, and contribute nearly half of the organic material found in the oceans.
386:
1527:
4242:
4199:
Xu, K., Hutchins, D. and Gao, K. (2018) "Coccolith arrangement follows Eulerian mathematics in the coccolithophore
2706:
2293:
that are generally between 0.001mm and 1 mm in size, the study of which requires the use of light or electron
1021:
673:
620:
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2471:
1851:
processes include the transport into the cell from the surrounding seawater of primary calcification substrates Ca
1600:
4033:
3900:
2391:
614:
273:
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microbial communities have yet to be discovered. As eukaryotes, protists possess within their cell at least one
4247:
2677:. Thomas W. Broadhead, Paleontological Society. : University of Tennessee, Dept. of Geological Sciences. 1982.
2395:
1284:
1025:
1116:
1957:
396:
3828:
Pawlowski, Jan; Bolivar, Ignacio; Fahrni, Jose F.; Vargas, Colomban De; Bowser, Samuel S. (November 1999).
1883:
crystals. The completed coccolith (gray plate) is a complex structure of intricately arranged CAPs and CaCO
1571:
with four nested spheres. The innermost sphere is highlighted red. Each segment is shown at the same scale.
3955:
1338:
Exploded drawing of the shell, D = dorsal plate, G = girdle plate, S = shield plate and V = ventral plate.
882:
585:
410:
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1688:. The coccoliths are made from calcium carbonate. The term coccolithophore derives from the Greek for a
1556:
148:
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1504:
1859:β (black arrows) and the removal of the end product H+ from the cell (gray arrow). The transport of Ca
45:
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859:
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2394:, suggesting "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" (in a geological time-scale sense), after
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group that does not contain all descendants of a common ancestor. As such it does not constitute a
102:
3621:
3098:"Sources and fates of silicon in the ocean: the role of diatoms in the climate and glacial cycles"
2234:
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floor when radiolarians die and become preserved as part of the ocean sediment. These remains, as
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359:
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112:
4147:"Integrated genomic and fossil evidence illuminates life's early evolution and eukaryote origin"
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in the algal cells, and this may be an evolutionary cause for the formation of the glass cages.
1248:
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4178:
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3742:
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3288:
TrΓ©guer, Paul J.; De La Rocha, Christina L. (3 January 2013). "The World Ocean Silica Cycle".
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The shells or skeletons of many protists survive over geological time scales as microfossils.
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943:(opal phytoliths) are rigid microscopic bodies occurring in the cell; some plants, including
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Biodegradable glitter and pollution-eating microalgae: the new materials inspired by nature
2582:"The extent of protist diversity: insights from molecular ecology of freshwater eukaryotes"
1317:
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3918:
An Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa, Second Edition. Lawrence: Society of Protozoologists
2975:"Regulation of Oceanic Silicon and Carbon Preservation by Temperature Control on Bacteria"
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Blog of the Tectonics and Structural Geology Division of the European Geosciences Union.
3446:
3336:
3248:
3201:
3154:
2990:
2872:
2745:
Exley, C. (1998). "Silicon in life:A bioinorganic solution to bioorganic essentiality".
2545:
Corliss JO (1992). "Should there be a separate code of nomenclature for the protists?".
1921:
1424:
4173:
4146:
3845:
3570:
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3375:
3186:"Zooplankton fecal pellets, marine snow, phytodetritus and the ocean's biological pump"
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1997:
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Durkin, Colleen A.; Koester, Julie A.; Bender, Sara J.; Armbrust, E. Virginia (2016).
2974:
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2649:
2522:
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1702:
1588:
889:. Most protists are single-celled and microscopic, but there are exceptions, and some
86:
4231:
3935:
Leadbeater BS, Kelly M (2001). "Evolution of animals choanoflagellates and sponges".
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1985:
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as a structural material for their skeletons. In more advanced plants, the silica
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organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. They are typically microscopic
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136:
3830:"Molecular Evidence That Reticulomyxa Filosa Is A Freshwater Naked Foraminifer"
3788:
3678:
Varea, C.; Aragon, J. L.; Barrio, R. A. (1999). "Turing patterns on a sphere".
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779:. These shells can help with buoyancy, allowing the organisms to float in the
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17:
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The role of protist shells depends on the type of protist. Protists such as
730:
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405:
209:
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4015:
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2615:
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1272:
Diatoms, major components of marine plankton, have silica skeletons called
3979:"Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates"
2566:
2531:
823:, meaning they produce their own food through a mixture of those methods.
4123:
4065:
3257:
2313:
2250:
1969:
1344:
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1006:
979:
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312:
231:
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1684:. Coccospheres are covered with ornate circular plates or scales called
4091:
3783:
3660:
3600:
3540:
3505:
3431:"Bio-manufacturing technology based on diatom micro- and nanostructure"
2453:
2333:
2290:
2254:
2014:
1965:
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863:
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501:
426:
347:
236:
122:
3053:
2631:"The molecular ecology of microbial eukaryotes unveils a hidden world"
2332:
is represented in the microfossil record, the most abundant forms are
3162:
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1961:
1232:
1166:
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967:
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764:
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342:
251:
3429:
Zhang, D.; Wang, Y.; Cai, J.; Pan, J.; Jiang, X.; Jiang, Y. (2012).
4223:
Protistan Skeletons: A Geologic History of Evolution and Constraint
1188:
Silicified frustule of a pennate diatom with two overlapping halves
4119:"A timescale for the origin and evolution of all of life on Earth"
2973:
Bidle, Kay D.; Manganelli, Maura; Azam, Farooq (6 December 2002).
2233:
2155:
2055:
1503:
1479:
Also like diatoms, radiolarian shells are usually made of silicate
1247:
1239:
1013:
904:
831:
246:
3787:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
3664:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
3604:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
3544:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
3509:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
2457:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
807:, meaning they obtain nutrients by consuming other organisms, or
4034:"Scientists Say Canadian Bacteria Fossils May Be Earth's Oldest"
2320:, but also occur in brackish water, fresh water and terrestrial
978:
Diatoms are enclosed in protective silica (glass) shells called
944:
364:
303:
4088:"Canadian bacteria-like fossils called oldest evidence of life"
799:(including modern bacteria and archaea) and later evolved into
3139:"Significant silicon accumulation by marine picocyanobacteria"
2807:
Kim, Sang Gyu; Kim, Ki Woo; Park, Eun Woo; Choi, Doil (2002).
2064:, together with nanofossils enclosed inside the shell hexagons
1455:, provide valuable information about past oceanic conditions.
1306:
2774:
Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology
1991:
Empty Foraminiferan test, showing multiple chambers and pores
1616:
on a sphere closely replicate some radiolarian shell patterns
775:
also have hard protective shells, but the shells are made of
1790:
build calcite skeletons important to the marine carbon cycle
3916:
Leadbeater BS, Thomsen H (2000). "Order Choanoflagellida".
3739:
Coccolithophores: From Molecular Processes to Global Impact
1820:
Benefits in coccolithophore calcification β see text above
1521:
Cutaway schematic diagram of a spherical radiolarian shell
3233:"Role of diatoms in regulating the ocean's silicon cycle"
2003:...and in life, showing pseudopodia streaming from pores
58:
and the relatively small but ubiquitous coccolithophore
3639:"Minds over Methods: Linking microfossils to tectonics"
2586:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1235:
which account for 50% of the ocean's primary production
1173:) with radial (centric) or bilateral (pennate) symmetry
838:
that cannot be classified as plants, fungi or animals.
3789:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3666:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3606:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3546:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3511:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
2459:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1326:
and a drawing of its silicate shell, scale bar = 1 ΞΌm.
1101:
Their protective shells (frustles) are made of silicon
3096:
Dugdale, R. C.; Wilkerson, F. P. (30 December 2001).
2009:
Foraminiferans are important unicellular zooplankton
919:
Although silicon is readily available in the form of
3911:
3909:
3801:Hemleben, C.; Anderson, O.R.; Spindler, M. (1989).
2187:
2025:
1624:
1508:
An animation of the diversity of radiolarian shells
1359:
893:are neither single-celled nor microscopic, such as
3616:
3614:
3038:"The evolution of silicon transporters in diatoms"
2390:that may be as old as 4.28 billion years old, the
1089:are one of the most common types of phytoplankton
27:Protective shell of a type of eukaryotic organism
1843:Energetic costs in coccolithophore calcification
1020:. Marine snow involves the downward transfer of
983:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3755:
2199:Testate amoebas: blobby, modest shell dwellers
2142:were constructed from limestone that contained
1452:
3483:
3481:
2095:streaming granular ectoplasm for catching food
1467:Like diatoms, radiolarians come in many shapes
1371:Diatoms: Tiny factories you can see from space
811:, meaning they produce their own food through
2580:Slapeta J, Moreira D, LΓ³pez-GarcΓa P (2005).
1031:In coastal zones, diatoms serve as the major
694:
51:Size comparison between the relatively large
8:
3887:European Geosciences Union, 9 November 2020.
2848:The Air You're Breathing? A Diatom Made That
4062:"Earliest evidence of life on Earth 'found"
3376:"First Viruses Infecting the Marine Diatom
2249:made up of microfossils in the form of the
2077:section showing chambers of a spiral foram
1244:Different diatom frustule shapes and sizes
763:have intricate, glass-like shells made of
737:that live in water or moist environments.
701:
687:
69:
4172:
4005:
3454:
3405:
3395:
3256:
3113:
3069:
2824:
2605:
2521:
2304:Microfossils are a common feature of the
1964:, or (rarely) of silica. Most forams are
997:) form, which is taken up by the silicon
3726:Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
3626:Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
2936:Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
2472:"Groups of Protists | Boundless Biology"
1383:How diatoms build their beautiful shells
1207:in the North Sea and the English Channel
909:A diatom, enclosed in a silica cell wall
713:Many protists have protective shells or
2949:"King's College London - Lake Megachad"
2428:
2212:
2067:
1720:named after the BBC documentary series
1698:
1511:
1457:
1290:SEM images of pores in diatom frustules
1178:
1076:
77:
3834:The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology
2698:
2396:ocean formation 4.41 billion years ago
2379:, or microfossils, were discovered in
2184:
2022:
1648:Ernst Haeckel's radiolarian engravings
1621:
1356:
1305:by nanostructured silica protects the
1252:Structure of a centric diatom frustule
923:, very few organisms use it directly.
3184:Turner, Jefferson T. (January 2015).
3091:
3089:
2722:Studies in Natural Products Chemistry
1871:(white rectangles) that regulate the
7:
3302:10.1146/annurev-marine-121211-172346
3231:Yool, Andrew; Tyrrell, Toby (2003).
2772:Epstein, Emanuel (1999). "SILICON".
2720:Rahman, Atta-ur- (2008). "Silicon".
1401:Radiolaria Β§ Radiolarian shells
3956:"Discovering Devonian Microfossils"
2498:"Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla"
1495:radiolarians have shells made from
795:Cellular life likely originated as
3846:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1999.tb05137.x
3571:10.1111/j.1529-8817.1987.tb04132.x
2629:Moreira D, LΓ³pez-GarcΓa P (2002).
2496:Cavalier-Smith T (December 1993).
2170:is surrounded by a distinguishing
1968:, but about 40 living species are
1231:There are over 100,000 species of
1122:They come in many shapes and sizes
862:but can reproduce rapidly through
25:
2747:Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry
2123:forams of various sizes from the
2049:Foraminiferal networks and growth
1581:Turing and radiolarian morphology
3782:
3659:
3599:
3539:
3504:
2786:10.1146/annurev.arplant.50.1.641
2452:
2215:
2193:
2131:
2112:
2100:
2082:
2070:
2043:
2031:
1996:
1984:
1920:
1911:
1867:(CAPs β gray rectangles) by the
1836:
1813:
1774:
1759:
1730:
1710:
1701:
1642:
1630:
1599:
1594:Shell of a spherical radiolarian
1587:
1549:
1526:
1514:
1484:
1472:
1460:
1423:
1414:
1377:
1365:
1351:, a sister taxon to the diatoms.
1331:
1316:
1283:
1265:
1224:
1212:
1193:
1181:
1150:
1136:
1115:
1106:
1094:
1079:
1057:
1048:
668:
667:
85:
44:
3290:Annual Review of Marine Science
432:microbial calcite precipitation
4060:Ghosh, Pallab (1 March 2017).
3903:. Retrieved: 18 November 2019.
3897:Foraminifera: History of Study
3804:Modern Planktonic Foraminifera
2514:10.1128/mmbr.57.4.953-994.1993
2392:oldest record of life on Earth
1:
4086:Dunham, Will (1 March 2017).
2826:10.1094/PHYTO.2002.92.10.1095
2759:10.1016/S0162-0134(97)10010-1
2724:. Vol. 35. p. 856.
2650:10.1016/S0966-842X(01)02257-0
2263:Protists in the fossil record
2010:
1662:Marine biogenic calcification
1447:
783:and move around more easily.
392:marine biogenic calcification
3728:. Accessed: 2 November 2019.
3628:. Accessed: 2 November 2019.
3622:"Plankton - Animal plankton"
3237:Global Biogeochemical Cycles
3210:10.1016/j.pocean.2014.08.005
2938:. Accessed: 2 November 2019.
2881:10.1126/science.268.5209.375
2559:10.1016/0303-2647(92)90003-H
2417:Particulate inorganic matter
989:Diatoms uses silicon in the
3937:Water and Atmosphere Online
3584:Frontiers in Marine Science
3115:10.3989/scimar.2001.65s2141
2932:"Plankton - Plant plankton"
1203:, a diatom responsible for
752:of elements and nutrients.
621:Biomineralising polychaetes
387:amorphous calcium carbonate
73:Part of a series related to
4264:
3741:, pages 99β125, Springer.
3656:10.1038/s41598-019-42771-0
3536:10.1038/s41598-018-34651-w
3501:10.1038/s41598-018-21810-2
2449:10.1038/s41598-019-38661-0
2316:. They are most common in
2266:
2260:
2230:Microfossils and sediments
2205:Journey to the Microcosmos
2107:Group of planktonic forams
1895:
1694:turn the ocean milky white
1670:
1659:
1446:are unicellular predatory
1398:
1387:Journey to the Microcosmos
1022:particulate organic matter
960:
954:
912:
653:Burgess Shale preservation
4165:10.1038/s41559-018-0644-x
3901:University College London
3720:Wassilieff, Maggy (2006)
3620:Wassilieff, Maggy (2006)
3456:10.1007/s11434-012-5410-x
3384:Frontiers in Microbiology
2930:Wassilieff, Maggy (2006)
2476:courses.lumenlearning.com
2398:, and not long after the
2192:
2042:
2030:
1807:Benefits of having shells
1641:
1629:
1376:
1364:
797:single-celled prokaryotes
615:Cupriavidus metallidurans
4117:Staff (20 August 2018).
3700:10.1103/PhysRevE.60.4588
3637:Kachovich, Sarah (2018)
3596:10.3389/fmars.2018.00370
3435:Chinese Science Bulletin
3397:10.3389/fmicb.2018.03235
3190:Progress in Oceanography
2911:"Engineering with algae"
2253:(shells) of single cell
1612:Computer simulations of
1026:dissolved organic matter
336:Teeth, scales, tusks etc
4217:10.1126/science.aaa7378
3958:. Iowa State University
2999:10.1126/science.1076076
2502:Microbiological Reviews
1561:Triplococcus acanthicus
874:) may reproduce either
801:more complex eukaryotes
729:are a diverse group of
397:calcareous nannofossils
193:Choanoflagellate lorica
56:Scyphosphaera apsteinii
3779:10.1126/sciadv.1501822
2705:: CS1 maint: others (
2638:Trends in Microbiology
2598:10.1098/rspb.2005.3195
2400:formation of the Earth
2324:deposits. While every
2258:
2166:The cell body of many
2163:
2065:
1830:Costs of having shells
1509:
1253:
1245:
1024:by vertical mixing of
910:
586:Magnetotactic bacteria
411:oolitic aragonite sand
269:scaly-foot snail shell
2237:
2159:
2060:Benthic foraminifera
2059:
1671:Further information:
1557:X-ray microtomography
1534:Cladococcus abietinus
1507:
1399:Further information:
1251:
1243:
908:
735:unicellular organisms
3559:Journal of Phycology
3378:Guinardia delicatula
3258:10.1029/2002GB002018
3042:Journal of Phycology
2375:In 2017, fossilized
2172:extracellular matrix
1960:sediment particles,
1905:Foraminiferan shapes
1656:Calcium-based shells
1636:Radiolarian geometry
1201:Guinardia delicatula
901:Silicon-based shells
870:; others (including
858:. Many protists are
717:, usually made from
4007:10.1038/nature21377
3998:2017Natur.543...60D
3807:. Springer-Verlag.
3722:"A coccolithophore"
3692:1999PhRvE..60.4588V
3447:2012ChSBu..57.3836Z
3345:10.1038/nature04883
3337:2006Natur.441..964M
3249:2003GBioC..17.1103Y
3202:2015PrOce.130..205T
3155:2012NatGe...5..886B
2991:2002Sci...298.1980B
2985:(5600): 1980β1984.
2873:1995Sci...268..375T
1940:Like radiolarians,
1766:Have plates called
1690:seed carrying stone
313:Vertebrate skeleton
103:Mineralized tissues
4194:Further references
4039:The New York Times
3524:Scientific Reports
3489:Scientific reports
2437:Scientific Reports
2277:Diatomaceous earth
2259:
2239:Diatomaceous earth
2164:
2066:
1543:Fossil radiolarian
1510:
1408:Radiolarian shapes
1299:diatomaceous earth
1254:
1246:
963:diatomaceous earth
911:
885:and are typically
477:diatomaceous earth
443:Great Calcite Belt
360:Scale microfossils
353:otolithic membrane
264:small shelly fauna
237:echinoderm stereom
113:Biocrystallization
4243:Biomineralization
4201:Emiliania huxleyi
4159:(10): 1556β1562.
3954:Drewes, Charlie.
3884:Favulina hexagona
3814:978-3-540-96815-3
3680:Physical Review E
3441:(30): 3836β3849.
3331:(7096): 964β967.
3143:Nature Geoscience
3054:10.1111/jpy.12441
2731:978-0-444-53181-0
2592:(1576): 2073β81.
2388:Nuvvuagittuq Belt
2381:hydrothermal vent
2306:geological record
2211:
2210:
2168:choanoflagellates
2140:Egyptian pyramids
2062:Favulina hexagona
2054:
2053:
1898:foraminifera test
1799:ultraviolet light
1743:Emiliania huxleyi
1653:
1652:
1606:Shell micrographs
1569:Middle Ordovician
1497:strontium sulfate
1392:
1391:
1303:ultraviolet light
999:transport protein
933:siliceous sponges
777:calcium carbonate
723:calcium carbonate
711:
710:
641:permineralization
626:Mineral nutrients
551:Mineral evolution
220:foraminifera test
79:Biomineralization
61:Emiliania huxleyi
16:(Redirected from
4255:
4187:
4186:
4176:
4142:
4136:
4135:
4133:
4131:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4094:. Archived from
4083:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4072:
4057:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4046:
4032:(1 March 2017).
4026:
4020:
4019:
4009:
3983:
3974:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3951:
3945:
3944:
3932:
3926:
3925:
3913:
3904:
3894:
3888:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3825:
3819:
3818:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3767:Science Advances
3763:
3750:
3735:
3729:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3686:(4): 4588β4592.
3675:
3669:
3663:
3648:
3642:
3635:
3629:
3618:
3609:
3603:
3580:
3574:
3555:
3549:
3543:
3520:
3514:
3508:
3485:
3476:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3426:
3420:
3419:
3409:
3399:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3320:
3314:
3313:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3260:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3181:
3175:
3174:
3163:10.1038/ngeo1641
3134:
3128:
3127:
3117:
3093:
3084:
3083:
3073:
3033:
3027:
3026:
2970:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2945:
2939:
2928:
2922:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2856:
2850:
2845:
2839:
2838:
2828:
2819:(10): 1095β103.
2804:
2798:
2797:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2717:
2711:
2710:
2704:
2696:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2635:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2609:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2525:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2468:
2462:
2456:
2433:
2360:, together with
2318:marine sediments
2273:Pelagic sediment
2247:sedimentary rock
2223:Choanoflagellate
2219:
2202:
2197:
2196:
2185:
2135:
2116:
2104:
2086:
2074:
2047:
2046:
2035:
2034:
2023:
2000:
1988:
1924:
1915:
1840:
1817:
1788:Coccolithophores
1778:
1763:
1753:Coccolithophores
1734:
1718:Coccolithophores
1714:
1705:
1678:Coccolithophores
1667:Coccolithophores
1646:
1645:
1634:
1633:
1622:
1603:
1591:
1553:
1530:
1518:
1488:
1476:
1464:
1427:
1418:
1381:
1380:
1369:
1368:
1357:
1335:
1320:
1287:
1269:
1228:
1216:
1197:
1185:
1154:
1140:
1119:
1110:
1098:
1083:
1061:
1052:
984:half a mile deep
769:Coccolithophores
703:
696:
689:
676:
671:
670:
591:Magnetoreception
571:Ballast minerals
166:Cephalopod shell
161:Brachiopod shell
108:Remineralisation
89:
70:
48:
21:
4263:
4262:
4258:
4257:
4256:
4254:
4253:
4252:
4248:Skeletal system
4228:
4227:
4196:
4191:
4190:
4144:
4143:
4139:
4129:
4127:
4116:
4115:
4111:
4101:
4099:
4098:on 2 March 2017
4085:
4084:
4080:
4070:
4068:
4059:
4058:
4054:
4044:
4042:
4028:
4027:
4023:
3992:(7643): 60β64.
3981:
3976:
3975:
3971:
3961:
3959:
3953:
3952:
3948:
3934:
3933:
3929:
3915:
3914:
3907:
3895:
3891:
3881:
3877:
3827:
3826:
3822:
3815:
3800:
3799:
3795:
3773:(7): e1501822.
3764:
3753:
3736:
3732:
3719:
3715:
3677:
3676:
3672:
3649:
3645:
3636:
3632:
3619:
3612:
3581:
3577:
3556:
3552:
3521:
3517:
3486:
3479:
3468:
3464:
3428:
3427:
3423:
3373:
3372:
3368:
3322:
3321:
3317:
3287:
3286:
3282:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3183:
3182:
3178:
3149:(12): 886β891.
3136:
3135:
3131:
3108:(S2): 141β152.
3102:Scientia Marina
3095:
3094:
3087:
3035:
3034:
3030:
2972:
2971:
2967:
2957:
2955:
2947:
2946:
2942:
2929:
2925:
2908:
2904:
2867:(5209): 375β9.
2858:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2842:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2771:
2770:
2766:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2719:
2718:
2714:
2697:
2685:
2670:
2669:
2665:
2633:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2544:
2543:
2539:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2480:
2478:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2434:
2430:
2425:
2408:
2370:vascular plants
2283:
2265:
2232:
2225:
2220:
2200:
2194:
2188:External videos
2154:
2147:
2136:
2127:
2117:
2108:
2105:
2096:
2087:
2078:
2075:
2044:
2032:
2026:External videos
2021:
2020:
2019:
2018:
2006:
2005:
2004:
2001:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1980:
1979:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1917:
1916:
1907:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1865:polysaccharides
1862:
1858:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1841:
1832:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1818:
1809:
1808:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1791:
1784:
1783:
1782:
1779:
1771:
1770:
1764:
1755:
1754:
1746:
1739:coccolithophore
1735:
1726:
1723:The Blue Planet
1715:
1706:
1675:
1669:
1664:
1658:
1643:
1631:
1625:External videos
1620:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1614:Turing patterns
1609:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1596:
1595:
1592:
1583:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1554:
1545:
1544:
1536:
1531:
1522:
1519:
1500:
1489:
1480:
1477:
1468:
1465:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1420:
1419:
1410:
1409:
1403:
1397:
1378:
1366:
1360:External videos
1355:
1354:
1353:
1352:
1347:belongs to the
1345:Triparma laevis
1341:
1340:
1339:
1336:
1328:
1327:
1324:Triparma laevis
1321:
1295:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1288:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1270:
1261:
1260:
1236:
1229:
1220:
1217:
1208:
1198:
1189:
1186:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1165:Diatoms have a
1162:
1161:
1160:
1155:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1132:
1131:
1123:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1099:
1090:
1084:
1075:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1054:
1053:
1044:
1043:
1033:phytoplanktonic
996:
991:biogenic silica
965:
959:
957:diatom frustule
953:
937:biogenic silica
917:
915:Biogenic silica
903:
891:marine protists
793:
746:ocean sediments
707:
666:
659:
658:
657:
545:
537:
536:
535:
491:
483:
482:
481:
467:biogenic silica
461:
451:
450:
449:
434:
422:
401:
381:
371:
370:
369:
337:
329:
328:
327:
307:
292:
291:
290:
257:gastropod shell
225:testate amoebae
215:diatom frustule
140:
129:
128:
127:
97:
68:
67:
66:
65:
64:
53:coccolithophore
49:
40:
39:
36:Coccolithophore
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4261:
4259:
4251:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4230:
4229:
4226:
4225:
4220:
4195:
4192:
4189:
4188:
4137:
4109:
4078:
4052:
4021:
3969:
3946:
3927:
3905:
3889:
3875:
3840:(6): 612β617.
3820:
3813:
3793:
3751:
3730:
3713:
3670:
3643:
3630:
3610:
3575:
3550:
3515:
3477:
3475:, 28 May 2020.
3462:
3421:
3366:
3315:
3296:(1): 477β501.
3280:
3223:
3176:
3129:
3085:
3048:(5): 716β731.
3028:
2965:
2940:
2923:
2902:
2851:
2840:
2813:Phytopathology
2799:
2764:
2753:(3): 139β144.
2737:
2730:
2712:
2683:
2663:
2621:
2572:
2537:
2488:
2463:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2407:
2404:
2377:microorganisms
2281:Siliceous ooze
2261:Main article:
2231:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2221:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2190:
2189:
2161:Testate amoeba
2153:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2137:
2130:
2128:
2118:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2099:
2097:
2092:Ammonia tepida
2088:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2069:
2052:
2051:
2040:
2039:
2037:foraminiferans
2028:
2027:
2008:
2007:
2002:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1978:Foraminiferans
1977:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1942:foraminiferans
1929:
1928:
1919:
1918:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1896:Main article:
1893:
1892:Foraminiferans
1890:
1884:
1880:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1842:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1819:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1803:
1786:
1785:
1781:Extinct fossil
1780:
1773:
1772:
1765:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1736:
1729:
1727:
1716:
1709:
1707:
1700:
1668:
1665:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1639:
1638:
1627:
1626:
1611:
1610:
1605:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1586:
1585:
1584:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1555:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1532:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1513:
1502:
1501:
1490:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1459:
1432:
1431:
1422:
1421:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1406:
1405:
1404:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1374:
1373:
1362:
1361:
1343:
1342:
1337:
1330:
1329:
1322:
1315:
1314:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1289:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1271:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1238:
1237:
1230:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1211:
1209:
1199:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1180:
1164:
1163:
1156:
1149:
1148:
1142:
1135:
1134:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1121:
1114:
1112:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1093:
1091:
1085:
1078:
1066:
1065:
1056:
1055:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1040:
1039:
1038:
994:
955:Main article:
952:
949:
902:
899:
878:or asexually.
817:chemosynthesis
813:photosynthesis
792:
789:
750:global cycling
709:
708:
706:
705:
698:
691:
683:
680:
679:
678:
677:
661:
660:
656:
655:
650:
649:
648:
643:
633:
628:
623:
618:
611:
606:
598:
593:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
567:
566:
564:immobilization
561:
559:mineralization
553:
547:
546:
543:
542:
539:
538:
534:
533:
528:
527:
526:
516:
515:
514:
509:
499:
493:
492:
489:
488:
485:
484:
480:
479:
474:
472:siliceous ooze
469:
463:
462:
459:Silicification
457:
456:
453:
452:
448:
447:
446:
445:
440:
435:
423:
421:
420:
419:
418:
413:
402:
400:
399:
394:
389:
383:
382:
377:
376:
373:
372:
368:
367:
362:
357:
356:
355:
345:
339:
338:
335:
334:
331:
330:
326:
325:
320:
315:
309:
308:
298:
297:
294:
293:
289:
288:
283:
281:Sponge spicule
278:
277:
276:
274:estuary shells
271:
266:
261:
260:
259:
254:
249:
239:
229:
228:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
197:
196:
195:
185:
184:
183:
178:
173:
163:
158:
157:
156:
151:
142:
141:
135:
134:
131:
130:
126:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
99:
98:
95:
94:
91:
90:
82:
81:
75:
74:
50:
43:
42:
41:
34:
33:
32:
31:
26:
24:
18:Protist shells
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4260:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4235:
4233:
4224:
4221:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4197:
4193:
4184:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4153:
4148:
4141:
4138:
4126:
4125:
4120:
4113:
4110:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4082:
4079:
4067:
4063:
4056:
4053:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4031:
4025:
4022:
4017:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3980:
3973:
3970:
3957:
3950:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3931:
3928:
3923:
3919:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3893:
3890:
3886:
3885:
3879:
3876:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3824:
3821:
3816:
3810:
3806:
3805:
3797:
3794:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3747:9783662062784
3744:
3740:
3734:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3717:
3714:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3653:
3647:
3644:
3640:
3634:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3617:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3579:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3554:
3551:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3484:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3471:
3466:
3463:
3457:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3425:
3422:
3417:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3379:
3370:
3367:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3319:
3316:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3177:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3133:
3130:
3125:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3092:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3032:
3029:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2969:
2966:
2954:
2953:www.kcl.ac.uk
2950:
2944:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2927:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2909:Ireland, T.,
2906:
2903:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2844:
2841:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2803:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2768:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2738:
2733:
2727:
2723:
2716:
2713:
2708:
2702:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2684:0-910249-05-9
2680:
2676:
2675:
2667:
2664:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2625:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2573:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2553:(1β3): 1β14.
2552:
2548:
2541:
2538:
2533:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2508:(4): 953β94.
2507:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2489:
2477:
2473:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2432:
2429:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2405:
2403:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2382:
2378:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2336:skeletons or
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2302:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2264:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2224:
2218:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2191:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2145:
2141:
2134:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2110:
2103:
2098:
2094:
2093:
2085:
2080:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2050:
2041:
2038:
2029:
2024:
2016:
2013:, often with
2012:
1999:
1987:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1933:
1923:
1914:
1899:
1891:
1889:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1869:Golgi complex
1866:
1839:
1816:
1802:
1800:
1789:
1777:
1769:
1762:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1719:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1666:
1663:
1655:
1649:
1640:
1637:
1628:
1623:
1615:
1602:
1590:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1552:
1535:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1512:
1506:
1498:
1494:
1487:
1482:
1475:
1470:
1463:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1436:
1426:
1417:
1402:
1394:
1388:
1384:
1375:
1372:
1363:
1358:
1350:
1349:Bolidophyceae
1346:
1334:
1325:
1319:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1286:
1275:
1268:
1250:
1242:
1234:
1227:
1222:
1219:Fossil diatom
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1196:
1191:
1184:
1179:
1172:
1168:
1159:
1153:
1145:
1139:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1082:
1077:
1070:
1060:
1051:
1042:Diatom shapes
1037:
1034:
1029:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1000:
992:
987:
985:
981:
976:
974:
969:
964:
958:
950:
948:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
916:
907:
900:
898:
896:
892:
888:
884:
879:
877:
873:
869:
868:fragmentation
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
846:, as well as
845:
839:
837:
833:
829:
824:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
805:heterotrophic
802:
798:
790:
788:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
753:
751:
747:
743:
738:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
704:
699:
697:
692:
690:
685:
684:
682:
681:
675:
665:
664:
663:
662:
654:
651:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
637:
636:Fossilization
634:
632:
631:Microbial mat
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
616:
612:
610:
607:
605:
603:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
576:Magnetofossil
574:
572:
569:
565:
562:
560:
557:
556:
554:
552:
549:
548:
541:
540:
532:
529:
525:
522:
521:
520:
517:
513:
510:
508:
505:
504:
503:
500:
498:
495:
494:
487:
486:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
464:
460:
455:
454:
444:
441:
439:
436:
433:
430:
429:
428:
425:
424:
417:
416:aragonite sea
414:
412:
409:
408:
407:
404:
403:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
384:
380:
379:Calcification
375:
374:
366:
363:
361:
358:
354:
351:
350:
349:
346:
344:
341:
340:
333:
332:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
310:
305:
301:
300:Endoskeletons
296:
295:
287:
284:
282:
279:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
244:
243:
242:mollusc shell
240:
238:
235:
234:
233:
230:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
202:
201:
200:Protist shell
198:
194:
191:
190:
189:
186:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
171:cirrate shell
169:
168:
167:
164:
162:
159:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
144:
143:
138:
133:
132:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
100:
93:
92:
88:
84:
83:
80:
76:
72:
71:
63:
62:
57:
54:
47:
37:
30:
19:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4156:
4150:
4140:
4128:. Retrieved
4122:
4112:
4100:. Retrieved
4096:the original
4081:
4069:. Retrieved
4055:
4043:. Retrieved
4037:
4030:Zimmer, Carl
4024:
3989:
3985:
3972:
3960:. Retrieved
3949:
3940:
3936:
3930:
3921:
3917:
3892:
3883:
3878:
3837:
3833:
3823:
3803:
3796:
3770:
3766:
3738:
3733:
3725:
3716:
3683:
3679:
3673:
3646:
3633:
3625:
3587:
3583:
3578:
3562:
3558:
3553:
3527:
3523:
3518:
3492:
3488:
3472:
3465:
3438:
3434:
3424:
3387:
3383:
3377:
3369:
3328:
3324:
3318:
3293:
3289:
3283:
3240:
3236:
3226:
3193:
3189:
3179:
3146:
3142:
3132:
3105:
3101:
3045:
3041:
3031:
2982:
2978:
2968:
2956:. Retrieved
2952:
2943:
2935:
2926:
2918:
2914:
2905:
2864:
2860:
2854:
2843:
2816:
2812:
2802:
2777:
2773:
2767:
2750:
2746:
2740:
2721:
2715:
2672:
2666:
2641:
2637:
2624:
2589:
2585:
2575:
2550:
2546:
2540:
2505:
2501:
2491:
2479:. Retrieved
2475:
2466:
2440:
2436:
2431:
2412:Cytoskeleton
2384:precipitates
2374:
2358:chitinozoans
2303:
2299:macrofossils
2287:Microfossils
2284:
2204:
2165:
2152:Other shells
2090:
2061:
1958:agglutinated
1945:
1939:
1930:Drawings by
1849:
1795:
1741:
1721:
1689:
1676:
1563:. This is a
1560:
1533:
1453:microfossils
1444:Radiolarians
1442:
1433:Drawings by
1395:Radiolarians
1386:
1323:
1296:
1205:algal blooms
1200:
1067:Drawings by
1030:
1011:
1003:silicic acid
988:
977:
966:
918:
883:multi-celled
880:
872:foraminifera
856:Golgi bodies
852:mitochondria
840:
828:paraphyletic
825:
794:
785:
781:water column
773:foraminifera
754:
739:
712:
646:petrifaction
613:
601:
596:Microfossils
343:Limpet teeth
323:Ossification
318:Bone mineral
252:chiton shell
199:
137:Exoskeletons
118:Biointerface
59:
55:
29:
3565:: 245β260.
3530:(1): 1β14.
3196:: 205β248.
2780:: 641β664.
2644:(1): 31β8.
2481:16 February
2443:(1): 1β12.
2346:Pyrrhophyta
2342:Chrysophyta
2322:sedimentary
2310:Precambrian
2308:, from the
2269:Microfossil
2241:is a soft,
1682:coccosphere
1565:microfossil
1493:acantharian
1018:marine snow
887:macroscopic
821:mixotrophic
809:autotrophic
748:and in the
742:microfossil
721:(glass) or
581:Magnetosome
524:phosphorite
490:Other forms
438:calcite sea
205:coccosphere
149:exoskeleton
4232:Categories
3943:(2): 9β11.
3495:(1): 1β6.
3243:(4): n/a.
2547:BioSystems
2423:References
2354:acritarchs
2295:microscopy
2267:See also:
2144:nummulites
2121:nummulitid
1873:nucleation
1768:coccoliths
1686:coccoliths
1673:coccoliths
1660:See also:
961:See also:
941:phytoliths
929:radiolaria
913:See also:
848:organelles
836:eukaryotes
761:radiolaria
176:cuttlebone
145:Arthropod
4211:: e4608.
4130:20 August
3854:1066-5234
3267:1944-9224
3218:0079-6611
3171:1752-0908
3124:1886-8134
3062:1529-8817
3007:0036-8075
2915:Biologist
2701:cite book
2368:from the
2350:Sarcodina
2340:from the
2251:frustules
2243:siliceous
2176:periplast
1954:aragonite
1855:+ and HCO
1567:from the
1274:frustules
980:frustules
921:silicates
731:eukaryote
725:(chalk).
602:engrailed
519:Phosphate
512:oil shale
406:Aragonite
210:coccolith
4238:Protista
4183:30127539
4124:Phys.org
4066:BBC News
4016:28252057
3924:: 14β38.
3870:36497475
3862:10568034
3708:11970318
3416:30687251
3390:: 3235.
3353:16791191
3310:22809182
3275:16849373
3080:27335204
3015:12471255
2921:(5): 10.
2889:17746543
2835:18944220
2794:15012222
2658:11755083
2616:16191619
2406:See also
2314:Holocene
2011:protists
1970:planktic
1877:geometry
1499:crystals
1491:However
1448:protists
1171:frustule
1007:silicate
876:sexually
850:such as
791:Protists
727:Protists
674:Category
555:In soil
507:alginite
497:Bone bed
232:Seashell
139:(shells)
4174:6152910
4102:1 March
4092:Reuters
4071:2 March
4045:2 March
3994:Bibcode
3962:4 March
3688:Bibcode
3590:: 370.
3473:Horizon
3443:Bibcode
3407:6334475
3361:4428683
3333:Bibcode
3245:Bibcode
3198:Bibcode
3151:Bibcode
3071:5129515
2987:Bibcode
2979:Science
2897:5672525
2869:Bibcode
2861:Science
2693:9276403
2607:1559898
2567:1292654
2532:8302218
2386:in the
2334:protist
2326:kingdom
2312:to the
2291:fossils
2255:diatoms
2119:Fossil
2015:calcite
1966:benthic
1932:Haeckel
1879:of CaCO
1435:Haeckel
1259:Diatoms
1233:diatoms
1169:shell (
1158:Pennate
1144:Centric
1130:Diatoms
1087:Diatoms
1069:Haeckel
973:silicon
968:Diatoms
951:Diatoms
925:Diatoms
895:seaweed
864:mitosis
860:asexual
844:nucleus
757:diatoms
544:Related
502:Kerogen
427:Calcite
348:Otolith
181:gladius
154:cuticle
123:Biofilm
96:General
4181:
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4152:Nature
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3986:Nature
3868:
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2523:372943
2520:
2366:spores
2362:pollen
2279:, and
2180:lorica
2125:Eocene
1962:chiton
1946:forams
1167:silica
931:, and
866:or by
765:silica
719:silica
672:
531:Pyrena
188:Lorica
38:shells
4205:PeerJ
3982:(PDF)
3866:S2CID
3357:S2CID
3271:S2CID
3019:S2CID
2958:5 May
2893:S2CID
2634:(PDF)
2338:cysts
2089:Live
2017:tests
1950:tests
1014:lysed
993:(BSiO
832:clade
819:, or
715:tests
609:Druse
304:bones
247:nacre
4179:PMID
4132:2018
4104:2017
4073:2017
4047:2017
4012:PMID
3964:2017
3858:PMID
3850:ISSN
3809:ISBN
3743:ISBN
3704:PMID
3412:PMID
3349:PMID
3306:PMID
3263:ISSN
3214:ISSN
3167:ISSN
3120:ISSN
3076:PMID
3058:ISSN
3011:PMID
3003:ISSN
2960:2018
2885:PMID
2831:PMID
2790:PMID
2726:ISBN
2707:link
2689:OCLC
2679:ISBN
2674:1982
2654:PMID
2612:PMID
2563:PMID
2528:PMID
2483:2021
2364:and
2356:and
2330:life
2289:are
2138:The
1934:1904
1875:and
1737:The
1437:1904
1071:1904
945:rice
935:use
854:and
771:and
759:and
604:gene
365:Tusk
286:Test
4213:doi
4203:".
4169:PMC
4161:doi
4002:doi
3990:543
3922:451
3842:doi
3775:doi
3696:doi
3652:doi
3592:doi
3567:doi
3532:doi
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3402:PMC
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3329:441
3298:doi
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