1504:. Proximate nouns were those deemed most central or important to the discourse, while obviative nouns were those less important to the discourse. When two third person participants appeared in a sentence, one was marked as proximate and the other as obviative, in order to distinguish which one was the subject and which was the object (since verbs inflected for whether they had a proximate or obviative subject and a proximate or obviative object). In a given stretch of discourse, there will not be two proximate or two obviative participants.
178:. Following his initial reconstructions, investigations of other languages revealed that his "Primitive Central Algonquian" was essentially equivalent to Proto-Algonquian. Bloomfield wrote a refinement and expansion of his reconstruction in 1946, and his two papers remain the starting point for all research and reconstructions of Proto-Algonquian. In the years since there has been an enormous amount of comparative work undertaken on the Algonquian family.
1422:
1321:
529:, largely because the earliest attestations of the majority of languages show some sort of rhotic as its reflex, which in many languages subsequently changed to a lateral within the historical period. The precise pronunciation of the phoneme written ⟨θ⟩ is unknown. It has merged with the reflex of
636:
Reconstruction of the consonant clusters has been relatively difficult, and the paths the clusters take in their evolutions to the daughter languages have been complex. The current view is that the permissible consonant clusters were (first member on the left, second member across the top):
1004:
In several cases the actual phonetic identity of the first member of the clusters was unknown, and
Bloomfield's choice of symbols to represent them was purely arbitrary. Thus, ⟨x⟩ does not represent *, ⟨ç⟩ does not represent *, and ⟨ʔ⟩ does not necessarily represent *. Goddard argues that
273:), for a total of eight vowels. The same inventory of eight vowels was found in Proto-Algic, but Proto-Algonquian did not inherit its inventory directly from Proto-Algic. Rather, several sound changes left pre-Proto-Algonquian without short *
137:
Most
Algonquian languages are similar enough that their relatedness has been recognized for centuries and was commented on by the early English and French colonists and explorers. For example, in 1787 (over a decade before
101:
are descended. It is generally estimated to have been spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago, but there is less agreement on where it was spoken. The
Algonquian family, which is a branch of the larger
1348:"s/he stops talking to him/her." In a few idiosyncratic cases, however, this rule did not operate, and instead the consonants were changed in various ways. For instance, the combination
553:. One piece of evidence for the interdental fricative is that this is the reflex it has in Arapaho. However, other researchers have argued for its reconstruction as a lateral fricative,
596:(see below), or are cases of diminutive consonant symbolism. However, Goddard recommends continuing to write it in reconstructions, since it seems to have been present in the clusters
1530:. Objective verbs were used when the object of the verb was not present as an overt noun elsewhere in the sentence, while absolute verbs were used when the object of the verb
1511:, and proximate and obviative third persons. Demonstrative pronouns have been more difficult to reconstruct, as many of the daughter languages have innovated a great deal.
125:
groupings. In the historical linguistics of North
America, Proto-Algonquian is one of the best studied, most thoroughly reconstructed proto-languages. It is descended from
1305:"my louse"). There were a handful of irregular exceptions to this pattern, however. For example, the prefixes lost their vowels before several kinship terms, as in
2368:
3282:
3216:
3128:
3089:
3050:
3011:
2972:
2933:
2894:
2824:
2763:
2724:
2682:
2586:
2501:
2462:
2278:
2239:
2200:
2161:
1212:
There were several restrictions on phonotactics and the shape of the PA word that can be reconstructed. All words began with a single consonant (other than
146:
deduced that the
Algonquian languages of the eastern and central United States were "radically the same" ('radically' meaning having a common 'root', since
162:. In 1925 Bloomfield reconstructed what he called "Primitive Central Algonquian", using what were at the time the four best-attested Algonquian languages:
1534:
marked with an overt noun in the sentence. Objective verbs could also be used when an object was present, and in such cases indicated that the object was
1439:
3385:
1013:. While a glottal stop phoneme is not otherwise reconstructed, given that Bloomfield's ⟨ʔ⟩ in clusters seems to represent the neutralization of
3270:
2878:
2812:
2636:
2574:
2547:
2430:
2407:
2388:
1021:
and its realization in
Menominee and Cheyenne is a glottal stop, it probably was indeed phonetically . The cluster written ⟨Hm⟩ shows up as
625:
1332:
in morpheme combinations can be reconstructed. The most basic was the insertion of a "connective i" between two consonants. For example,
316:
is of no great antiquity in Proto-Algonquian", but recommends continuing to use it in reconstructions. Likewise, Berman states that "PA
1522:
verbs with an animate subject (AI), and intransitive verbs with an inanimate subject (II). Transitive verbs had two paradigms, termed
1240:. There was also a restriction which prevented two-syllable nouns from ending in a sequence of short vowel + consonant + short vowel.
1461:
3814:
216:. Research a generation later suggests that in fact it was spoken farther west than this, perhaps "somewhere immediately west of
1704:
Peter J. Denny (1991). "The
Algonquian Migration from Plateau to Midwest: Linguistics and Archaeology". In William Cowan (ed.).
1486:. The plural marker differed in form depending on whether the noun was animate or inanimate: animate nouns took a plural suffix
332:
Proto-Algonquian had a smaller number of consonants than Proto-Algic. The reconstructed consonants are as follows (given in the
3695:
3358:
1443:
281:. It is not clear that they had redeveloped by the time of Proto-Algonquian. All instances in which Bloomfield reconstructed
143:
1478:
contrast: nouns representing animate beings (and some traditional items viewed as having spiritual powers) were classed as
4024:
3378:
333:
3873:
3682:
3532:
1562:
1557:
114:
106:
3895:
3782:
3777:
3567:
1552:
550:
139:
118:
1086:, "s/he breathes") and may not have been part of Proto-Algonquian. David Pentland, for example, argued that Ojibwe
1432:
557:, in part because of the aforementioned merger in most languages with the phoneme traditionally reconstructed as
196:
in 1967 based on examining of the ranges of numerous species of plants and animals for which reliable
Algonquian
4034:
4029:
3809:
3371:
3834:
3804:
3794:
3574:
3439:
2889:
2538:
Goddard, Ives (1978). "Central
Algonquian Languages". In Trigger, Bruce G.; William C. Sturtevant (eds.).
1056:
729:
721:
713:
705:
697:
689:
678:
554:
362:
110:
1392:. When two vowels became contiguous, if one was a long vowel and one was short, the short vowel dropped:
3581:
3554:
1574:
1224:; there were no sequences of consecutive vowels; and the word always ended in a short vowel. The vowels
193:
3970:
3487:
3482:
3433:
3402:
3331:
2655:
Goddard, Ives (1994b). "The West-to-East Cline in
Algonquian Dialectology". In Cowan, William (ed.).
1547:
1388:, but evidence from other Algonquian languages has shown that the cluster should be reconstructed as
175:
98:
46:
154:. The earliest work on reconstructing the Algonquian proto-language was undertaken by the linguists
3852:
3844:
3819:
3755:
3700:
3659:
3560:
3477:
3425:
3411:
3346:
1507:
There were personal pronouns which distinguished three persons, two numbers (singular and plural),
1368:"s/he runs thither." One regular exception to the "connective i" rule was when the conjunct suffix
538:
408:
151:
3945:
3889:
3879:
3772:
3652:
3605:
3508:
3352:
3307:
3299:
3241:
3233:
3182:
3153:
3145:
3114:
3106:
3075:
3067:
3036:
3028:
2997:
2989:
2958:
2950:
2919:
2911:
2849:
2841:
2788:
2780:
2749:
2741:
2707:
2699:
2611:
2603:
2526:
2518:
2487:
2479:
2362:
2329:
2312:
2307:
2295:
2264:
2256:
2225:
2217:
2186:
2178:
1095:
542:
462:
352:
171:
159:
2631:. Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs 45. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 99–114.
1232:
never occurred in initial syllables. A sequence of consonant+semivowel could not be followed by
2566:
2559:
2447:. Anthropological Series 78. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 214. pp. 66–106.
1518:
verbs with an animate object (abbreviated TA), transitive verbs with an inanimate object (TI),
3952:
3884:
3824:
3799:
3788:
3741:
3706:
3689:
3266:
3199:
3198:. Anthropological Series 78. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 214. pp. 13–47.
2874:
2808:
2668:
2660:
2632:
2570:
2543:
2448:
2426:
2403:
2384:
2350:
1519:
438:
379:
372:
357:
3009:
Proulx, Paul (1982). "The Origin of the Absolute Verbs of the Algonquian Independent Order".
3901:
3676:
3632:
3588:
3518:
3419:
3291:
3258:
3225:
3174:
3137:
3098:
3059:
3020:
2981:
2942:
2903:
2866:
2833:
2772:
2733:
2719:
2691:
2595:
2557:
Goddard, Ives (1979). "Comparative Algonquian". In Campbell, Lyle; Mithun, Marianne (eds.).
2510:
2471:
2321:
2287:
2248:
2209:
2170:
347:
221:
155:
3989:
3764:
3751:
3616:
3610:
3394:
2800:
1569:
1515:
1154:
1034:
367:
309:
298:
167:
102:
1719:
Proulx, Paul (2004). "Proto-Algic VI: Conditioned Yurok reflexes of Proto-Algic vowels".
1324:
Approximate distribution of the Algonquian languages when first encountered by Europeans
4005:
3997:
3928:
3922:
3829:
3623:
3211:
2460:
Goddard, Ives (1974a). "An Outline of the Historical Phonology of Arapaho and Atsina".
1291:
94:
4018:
3734:
3548:
3459:
3450:
3311:
3262:
3245:
3157:
3118:
3079:
3040:
3001:
2962:
2923:
2870:
2853:
2792:
2753:
2711:
2615:
2530:
2491:
2418:
2376:
2299:
2268:
2229:
2190:
534:
217:
213:
3729:
3721:
2624:
2440:
2342:
1535:
1158:
254:
205:
201:
163:
3194:
Siebert Jr., Frank T. (1967). "The Original Home of the Proto-Algonquian People".
1384:"when it is day." Note that Bloomfield here actually reconstructed this word as
1421:
1287:
546:
490:
320:
is probably also of recent origin", derived from earlier (pre-Proto-Algonquian)
289:
based on evidence from some of the Eastern languages (for example, Bloomfield's
126:
77:
17:
2237:
Berman, Howard (1992). "A Restriction on the Shape of Proto-Algonquian Nouns".
1320:
3513:
3492:
3335:
2252:
2142:
1494:. Another important distinction involved the contrast between nouns marked as
1256:
467:
122:
3341:
3165:
Siebert Jr., Frank T. (1941). "Certain Proto-Algonquian Consonant Clusters".
2664:
2542:. Vol. 15. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 583–587.
1161:
can be reconstructed. Among the most significant of these processes was that
3467:
2672:
2623:
Goddard, Ives (1990). "Algonquian Linguistic Change and Reconstruction". In
1508:
1500:
1150:
312:
process of vowel shortening. Goddard concludes that "an independent phoneme
2499:
Goddard, Ives (1974b). "Remarks on the Algonquian Independent Indicative".
2141:
The verb system is surveyed by Hockett (1966) with particular reference to
576:
was an independent phoneme in Proto-Algonquian. Almost all instances where
3203:
2452:
2349:. Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, 6. New York. pp. 85–129.
525:, but Goddard has more recently argued that it should be reconstructed as
3326:
1070:
are each reconstructed on the basis of only a single correspondence set (
521:
The phoneme given in the table as ⟨r⟩ was reconstructed by Bloomfield as
188:
1262:
was inserted between the prefix and the stem. Thus, the prefixes became
192:(homeland of the protolanguage). The initial theory, first put forth by
3303:
3237:
3149:
3110:
3071:
3032:
2993:
2954:
2915:
2845:
2784:
2745:
2703:
2607:
2522:
2483:
2381:
American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America
2354:
2260:
2221:
2182:
1475:
1446: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
209:
197:
3280:
Weggelaar, C. (1974). "The Algonquian Verb: Another Reconsideration".
3253:
Thomason, Lucy (2006). "Proto-Algonkian Phonology and Morpho-Syntax".
3186:
2761:
Miller, Wick R. (1959). "An Outline of Shawnee Historical Phonology".
2650:. Comparative Linguistics Workshop, University of Pittsburgh, April 9.
2561:
The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment
2333:
3993:
3472:
1329:
1043:
200:
existed, holds that Proto-Algonquian was spoken between Lake Huron's
2970:
Proulx, Paul (1980). "The Subordinative Order of Proto-Algonquian".
1113:
Finally, all consonants and consonant clusters could be followed by
3295:
3257:. Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 190–198.
3229:
3178:
3141:
3126:
Proulx, Paul (1989). "A Sketch of Blackfoot Historical Phonology".
3102:
3063:
3024:
2985:
2946:
2907:
2837:
2776:
2737:
2695:
2599:
2514:
2475:
2325:
2291:
2213:
2174:
3363:
2865:. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 161–166.
2159:
Berman, Howard (1982). "Two Phonological Innovations in Ritwan".
3367:
3214:(1965). "The Algonquian Verb: Notes Toward a Reconsideration".
1404:"s/he stops him/her by hand." If both were long, an epenthetic
150:
is Latin for 'root'), and contrasted them with the neighboring
2931:
Proulx, Paul (1977). "Connective Vowels in Proto-Algonquian".
2861:
Pentland, David H. (2006). "Algonquian and Ritwan Languages".
2680:
Hockett, Charles F. (1966). "What Algonquian is Really Like".
1780:
1778:
1415:
1094:, is a borrowing from Cree. However, evidence from Munsee and
1055:). The first member of the cluster may have been either *h or
2198:
Berman, Howard (1990). "New Algonquian–Ritwan Cognate Sets".
1639:
1637:
3359:
Correspondences of Ojibwe, Cree, and Proto-Algonquian sounds
3342:
Native Languages of the Americas: Algonquian Language Family
3048:
Proulx, Paul (1984a). "Proto-Algic I: Phonological Sketch".
2584:
Goddard, Ives (1982). "The Historical Phonology of Munsee".
1372:
was added to a verb stem ending in a consonant, for example
1090:, claimed as the only form requiring the reconstruction of
2276:
Berman, Howard (2006). "Studies in Blackfoot Prehistory".
1807:
1805:
1765:
1763:
1761:
3196:
Contributions to Anthropology: Linguistics I (Algonquian)
2445:
Contributions to Anthropology: Linguistics I (Algonquian)
1969:
1967:
1736:
1734:
2888:
Picard, Marc (1984). "On the Naturalness of Algonquian
1930:
1928:
1708:. Papers of the Algonquian Conference. p. 103-124.
545:
originally suggested that it could have been either an
1255:(third person) were added to a vowel-initial stem, an
1005:
Bloomfield's arbitrary symbol ⟨x⟩ be reconstructed as
2310:(1925). "On the Sound System of Central Algonquian".
3087:
Proulx, Paul (1984b). "Algonquian Objective Verbs".
186:
There remains some disagreement over the Algonquian
3962:
3937:
3914:
3865:
3843:
3763:
3750:
3720:
3669:
3642:
3598:
3540:
3531:
3501:
3458:
3449:
3410:
3401:
2822:Pentland, David H. (1977). "Proto-Algonquian *št".
2722:(1935). "Phonetic Shifts in Algonquian Languages".
2657:
Actes du Vingt-Cinquième Congrès des Algonquinistes
68:
60:
52:
42:
32:
2558:
27:Reconstructed ancestor of the Algonquian languages
2659:. Ottawa: Carleton University. pp. 187–211.
2443:(1967). "The Algonquian Independent Indicative".
1706:Papers of the Twenty-Second Algonquian Conference
620:in some reconstructions of the onomatopoeic noun
308:can be reconstructed, usually as the result of a
2629:Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology
304:). There are still a handful of instances where
2145:; see also Teeter (1965) and Weggelaar (1974).
142:on Indo-European), the theologian and linguist
2565:. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp.
2402:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
3379:
3283:International Journal of American Linguistics
3217:International Journal of American Linguistics
3173:(4). Linguistic Society of America: 298–303.
3129:International Journal of American Linguistics
3090:International Journal of American Linguistics
3051:International Journal of American Linguistics
3012:International Journal of American Linguistics
2973:International Journal of American Linguistics
2934:International Journal of American Linguistics
2895:International Journal of American Linguistics
2825:International Journal of American Linguistics
2764:International Journal of American Linguistics
2725:International Journal of American Linguistics
2683:International Journal of American Linguistics
2587:International Journal of American Linguistics
2540:Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast
2502:International Journal of American Linguistics
2463:International Journal of American Linguistics
2341:Bloomfield, Leonard (1946). "Algonquian". In
2279:International Journal of American Linguistics
2240:International Journal of American Linguistics
2201:International Journal of American Linguistics
2162:International Journal of American Linguistics
2045:
1490:, while inanimate nouns took a plural suffix
324:sequences and morphophonological shortening.
8:
1243:In most cases, when the pronominal prefixes
2423:Language Classification: History and Method
1509:inclusive and exclusive first person plural
1205:"s/he comes from there", since it precedes
1197:"s/he takes it from there") is realized as
1009:, and Bloomfield's ⟨ç⟩ be reconstructed as
105:, is usually divided into three subgroups:
3760:
3537:
3455:
3407:
3386:
3372:
3364:
3255:Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics
2863:Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics
2367:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2117:
2093:
2069:
2057:
2033:
1997:
1985:
1847:
1796:
1655:
1102:as a valid separate cluster in PA (Munsee
1029:in most of the daughter languages, but as
3347:Proto-Algonkian Roots and Word Formatives
2807:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2425:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1462:Learn how and when to remove this message
2081:
2009:
1934:
1907:
1895:
1859:
1811:
1784:
1769:
1691:
1643:
1628:
1604:
1319:
735:
639:
338:
237:Proto-Algonquian had four basic vowels,
2400:Historical Linguistics: An Introduction
2347:Linguistic Structures of Native America
2129:
2105:
1973:
1946:
1919:
1883:
1871:
1835:
1740:
1679:
1667:
1616:
1592:
1585:
1356:"thither, thus" was added to the final
1340:"act by speech on an animate object" =
604:; since it can be reconstructed before
533:in all Algonquian languages except for
212:, Canada, and at least as far south as
2360:
2021:
1958:
1823:
1752:
1286:"my louse". This feature goes back to
29:
2805:The Languages of Native North America
1216:) or vowel, or with a consonant plus
7:
1721:Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics
1444:adding citations to reliable sources
3327:Proto-Algonquian online dictionary
592:, where it does not contrast with
25:
3355:- handout by Daniela Henze (2010)
1420:
140:Sir William Jones' famous speech
1431:needs additional citations for
1137:were regularly replaced before
3263:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01896-4
2871:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/02265-3
1514:PA had four classes of verbs:
1474:Proto-Algonquian nouns had an
1408:was inserted between the two.
293:"one" is now reconstructed as
257:counterpart (commonly written
1:
1482:, while all other nouns were
334:Americanist phonetic notation
2345:; Osgood, Cornelius (eds.).
1563:Eastern Algonquian languages
1558:Central Algonquian languages
1538:, as opposed to indefinite.
981:
976:
952:
947:
923:
918:
894:
889:
884:
860:
855:
852:
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
796:
789:
782:
775:
768:
761:
754:
747:
727:
719:
711:
703:
695:
687:
580:is reconstructed are before
508:
499:
494:
476:
471:
444:
429:
427:
422:
417:
398:
393:
388:
383:
371:
366:
356:
351:
346:
285:can now be reconstructed as
4000:language •
3589:Quiripi–Naugatuck–Unquachog
3568:Massachusett Pidgin English
2383:. Oxford University Press.
1553:Plains Algonquian languages
1274:respectively. For example,
1189:. For example, the initial
336:common in the literature):
4051:
1098:seem to also point toward
3987:
2648:A New Look for Algonquian
2253:10.1086/ijal.58.3.3519790
2046:Campbell & Poser 2008
624:"blue jay" (however, see
461:
407:
378:
344:
37:
3874:Algonquian–Basque pidgin
3815:North of Superior Ojibwa
1159:phonological constraints
1141:, for which see below).
1121:(although the sequences
572:, it is unclear whether
3722:Mesquakie–Sauk–Kickapoo
3451:Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi
2646:Goddard, Ives (1994a).
2398:Campbell, Lyle (2004).
1352:produced when the root
1041:"house" becomes Ojibwe
97:from which the various
3696:Maliseet–Passamaquoddy
2108:, p. 168, note 2.
2000:, pp. 86, 89, 92.
1325:
1145:Phonological processes
1078:, "his/her head"; and
641:PA Consonant Clusters
340:PA Consonant Phonemes
253:, each of which had a
89:(commonly abbreviated
43:Reconstruction of
2417:Campbell, Lyle &
1575:Algonquian sound laws
1323:
1251:(second person), and
194:Frank T. Siebert, Jr.
103:Algic language family
56:western North America
4025:Algonquian languages
3541:Southern New England
3332:Algonquian languages
1548:Algonquian languages
1498:and those marked as
1440:improve this article
1360:"run" simplified to
1193:"from there" (as in
1177:respectively before
612:"splash"; and since
297:based on forms like
144:Jonathan Edwards Jr.
121:, both of which are
99:Algonquian languages
47:Algonquian languages
3820:Northwestern Ojibwa
3783:Border Lakes Ojibwa
3778:Berens River Ojibwa
3683:Carolina Algonquian
3561:Massachusett Pidgin
2308:Bloomfield, Leonard
1898:, pp. 326–327.
1862:, pp. 205–206.
1787:, pp. 204–205.
1646:, pp. 190–191.
1129:did not occur; and
642:
616:does appear before
539:Arapahoan languages
341:
152:Iroquoian languages
133:History of research
3533:Eastern Algonquian
2060:, pp. 91, 96.
1328:Several rules for
1326:
1317:"my grandmother."
640:
543:Leonard Bloomfield
339:
310:morphophonological
160:Leonard Bloomfield
115:Central Algonquian
107:Eastern Algonquian
4012:
4011:
4006:extinct languages
3910:
3909:
3861:
3860:
3789:Broken Oghibbeway
3716:
3715:
3527:
3526:
3272:978-0-08-044854-1
2880:978-0-08-044854-1
2814:978-0-521-23228-9
2720:Michelson, Truman
2638:978-0-89925-546-0
2576:978-0-292-74624-4
2549:978-0-16-004575-2
2432:978-0-521-88005-3
2419:Poser, William J.
2409:978-0-262-53267-9
2390:978-0-19-509427-5
2072:, pp. 90–91.
1922:, pp. 71–72.
1874:, pp. 77–78.
1838:, pp. 73–74.
1658:, pp. 85–86.
1631:, pp. 29–30.
1476:animate/inanimate
1472:
1471:
1464:
1110:, "head, hair").
1037:(for example, PA
1002:
1001:
551:lateral fricative
519:
518:
119:Plains Algonquian
84:
83:
16:(Redirected from
4042:
3978:Proto-Algonquian
3810:Nipissing Ojibwa
3761:
3538:
3456:
3408:
3388:
3381:
3374:
3365:
3353:Proto-Algonquian
3315:
3276:
3249:
3207:
3190:
3161:
3122:
3083:
3044:
3005:
2966:
2927:
2891:
2884:
2857:
2818:
2801:Mithun, Marianne
2796:
2757:
2732:(3/4): 131–171.
2715:
2676:
2651:
2642:
2619:
2580:
2564:
2553:
2534:
2495:
2456:
2436:
2413:
2394:
2372:
2366:
2358:
2337:
2303:
2272:
2233:
2194:
2146:
2139:
2133:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2109:
2103:
2097:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2073:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1989:
1983:
1977:
1971:
1962:
1956:
1950:
1944:
1938:
1932:
1923:
1917:
1911:
1905:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1851:
1845:
1839:
1833:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1773:
1767:
1756:
1750:
1744:
1738:
1729:
1728:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1701:
1695:
1689:
1683:
1677:
1671:
1670:, p. 70-71.
1665:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1632:
1626:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1596:
1590:
1467:
1460:
1456:
1453:
1447:
1424:
1416:
1247:(first person),
1058:
731:
723:
715:
707:
699:
691:
680:
643:
556:
342:
222:Columbia Plateau
156:Truman Michelson
87:Proto-Algonquian
33:Proto-Algonquian
30:
21:
18:Proto-Algonquian
4050:
4049:
4045:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4039:
4035:Proto-languages
4030:Algic languages
4015:
4014:
4013:
4008:
3983:
3963:Proto-languages
3958:
3933:
3906:
3857:
3839:
3746:
3712:
3665:
3638:
3617:Pidgin Delaware
3594:
3523:
3497:
3445:
3397:
3395:Algic languages
3392:
3323:
3318:
3279:
3273:
3252:
3212:Teeter, Karl V.
3210:
3193:
3164:
3125:
3086:
3047:
3008:
2969:
2930:
2887:
2881:
2860:
2821:
2815:
2799:
2760:
2718:
2679:
2654:
2645:
2639:
2622:
2583:
2577:
2556:
2550:
2537:
2498:
2459:
2439:
2433:
2416:
2410:
2397:
2391:
2375:
2359:
2340:
2306:
2275:
2236:
2197:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2140:
2136:
2128:
2124:
2118:Bloomfield 1946
2116:
2112:
2104:
2100:
2094:Bloomfield 1946
2092:
2088:
2080:
2076:
2070:Bloomfield 1946
2068:
2064:
2058:Bloomfield 1946
2056:
2052:
2044:
2040:
2034:Bloomfield 1946
2032:
2028:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2004:
1998:Bloomfield 1946
1996:
1992:
1986:Bloomfield 1946
1984:
1980:
1972:
1965:
1957:
1953:
1945:
1941:
1933:
1926:
1918:
1914:
1910:, pp. 322.
1906:
1902:
1894:
1890:
1882:
1878:
1870:
1866:
1858:
1854:
1848:Bloomfield 1946
1846:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1810:
1803:
1797:Bloomfield 1946
1795:
1791:
1783:
1776:
1768:
1759:
1751:
1747:
1739:
1732:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1703:
1702:
1698:
1690:
1686:
1678:
1674:
1666:
1662:
1656:Bloomfield 1946
1654:
1650:
1642:
1635:
1627:
1623:
1615:
1611:
1603:
1599:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1570:Algic languages
1544:
1468:
1457:
1451:
1448:
1437:
1425:
1414:
1330:internal sandhi
1157:processes, and
1147:
634:
549:fricative or a
361:
330:
235:
230:
184:
135:
80:
73:
71:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4048:
4046:
4038:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4017:
4016:
4010:
4009:
3988:
3985:
3984:
3982:
3981:
3974:
3966:
3964:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3956:
3949:
3941:
3939:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3931:
3926:
3918:
3916:
3912:
3911:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3904:
3899:
3896:Miami–Illinois
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3869:
3867:
3863:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3855:
3849:
3847:
3841:
3840:
3838:
3837:
3835:Western Ojibwa
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3805:Eastern Ojibwa
3802:
3797:
3795:Central Ojibwa
3792:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3769:
3767:
3758:
3748:
3747:
3745:
3744:
3739:
3738:
3737:
3730:Mesquakie–Sauk
3726:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3710:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3686:
3679:
3673:
3671:
3667:
3666:
3664:
3663:
3656:
3648:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3636:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3620:
3613:
3602:
3600:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3585:
3578:
3575:Mohegan–Pequot
3571:
3564:
3557:
3552:
3544:
3542:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3505:
3503:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3464:
3462:
3453:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3436:
3431:
3430:
3429:
3416:
3414:
3405:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3391:
3390:
3383:
3376:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3350:
3349:by John Hewson
3344:
3339:
3329:
3322:
3321:External links
3319:
3317:
3316:
3296:10.1086/465316
3290:(3): 249–253.
3277:
3271:
3250:
3230:10.1086/464840
3224:(3): 221–225.
3208:
3191:
3179:10.2307/409280
3162:
3142:10.1086/466104
3123:
3103:10.1086/465850
3097:(4): 403–423.
3084:
3064:10.1086/465826
3058:(2): 165–207.
3045:
3025:10.1086/465749
3019:(4): 394–411.
3006:
2986:10.1086/465664
2980:(4): 289–300.
2967:
2947:10.1086/465473
2941:(2): 156–157.
2928:
2908:10.1086/465851
2902:(4): 424–437.
2885:
2879:
2858:
2838:10.1086/465484
2832:(3): 225–226.
2819:
2813:
2797:
2777:10.1086/464490
2758:
2738:10.1086/463813
2716:
2696:10.1086/464880
2677:
2652:
2643:
2637:
2620:
2600:10.1086/465711
2581:
2575:
2554:
2548:
2535:
2515:10.1086/465328
2509:(4): 317–327.
2496:
2476:10.1086/465292
2470:(2): 102–116.
2457:
2437:
2431:
2414:
2408:
2395:
2389:
2377:Campbell, Lyle
2373:
2338:
2326:10.2307/409540
2320:(4): 130–156.
2304:
2292:10.1086/507167
2286:(2): 264–284.
2273:
2247:(3): 321–323.
2234:
2214:10.1086/466168
2208:(3): 431–434.
2195:
2175:10.1086/465750
2169:(4): 412–420.
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2147:
2134:
2122:
2110:
2098:
2086:
2084:, p. 192.
2074:
2062:
2050:
2048:, p. 178.
2038:
2026:
2014:
2002:
1990:
1978:
1963:
1961:, p. 282.
1951:
1949:, p. 107.
1939:
1924:
1912:
1900:
1888:
1876:
1864:
1852:
1840:
1828:
1816:
1814:, p. 163.
1801:
1789:
1774:
1772:, p. 191.
1757:
1755:, p. 414.
1745:
1730:
1711:
1696:
1694:, p. 207.
1684:
1672:
1660:
1648:
1633:
1621:
1609:
1607:, p. 185.
1597:
1595:, p. 587.
1584:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1543:
1540:
1470:
1469:
1428:
1426:
1419:
1413:
1410:
1155:morphophonemic
1146:
1143:
1000:
999:
997:
995:
993:
991:
989:
987:
985:
980:
975:
971:
970:
968:
966:
964:
962:
960:
958:
956:
951:
946:
942:
941:
939:
937:
935:
933:
931:
929:
927:
922:
917:
913:
912:
910:
908:
906:
904:
902:
900:
893:
888:
883:
879:
878:
876:
874:
872:
870:
868:
866:
864:
859:
854:
850:
849:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
803:
802:
795:
788:
781:
774:
767:
760:
753:
746:
742:
741:
734:
726:
718:
710:
702:
694:
686:
684:
682:
674:
673:
670:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
652:
649:
646:
633:
630:
517:
516:
514:
512:
507:
498:
493:
487:
486:
484:
482:
480:
475:
470:
465:
459:
458:
456:
454:
452:
443:
441:
434:
433:
428:
426:
421:
416:
414:
411:
405:
404:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
376:
375:
370:
365:
355:
350:
345:
329:
326:
234:
231:
229:
226:
183:
180:
134:
131:
113:subgroup, and
95:proto-language
82:
81:
76:
74:
69:
66:
65:
62:
58:
57:
54:
50:
49:
44:
40:
39:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4047:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3986:
3980:
3979:
3975:
3973:
3972:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3955:
3954:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3943:
3942:
3940:
3936:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3924:
3920:
3919:
3917:
3913:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3897:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3875:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3864:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3848:
3846:
3842:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3790:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3743:
3740:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3731:
3728:
3727:
3725:
3723:
3719:
3709:
3708:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3691:
3687:
3685:
3684:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3657:
3655:
3654:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3645:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3625:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3601:
3597:
3591:
3590:
3586:
3584:
3583:
3579:
3577:
3576:
3572:
3570:
3569:
3565:
3563:
3562:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3550:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3448:
3442:
3441:
3440:Nawathinehena
3437:
3435:
3432:
3428:
3427:
3423:
3422:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3415:
3413:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3389:
3384:
3382:
3377:
3375:
3370:
3369:
3366:
3360:
3357:
3354:
3351:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3320:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3284:
3278:
3274:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3218:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3130:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3052:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2974:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2935:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2896:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2826:
2820:
2816:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2765:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2684:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2653:
2649:
2644:
2640:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2625:Baldi, Philip
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2588:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2562:
2555:
2551:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2503:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2464:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2441:Goddard, Ives
2438:
2434:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2392:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2364:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2343:Hoijer, Harry
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2280:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2202:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2151:
2144:
2138:
2135:
2132:, p. 60.
2131:
2126:
2123:
2120:, p. 93.
2119:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2099:
2096:, p. 91.
2095:
2090:
2087:
2083:
2082:Thomason 2006
2078:
2075:
2071:
2066:
2063:
2059:
2054:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2039:
2036:, p. 95.
2035:
2030:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2010:Goddard 1974a
2006:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1991:
1988:, p. 92.
1987:
1982:
1979:
1976:, p. 72.
1975:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1935:Pentland 1977
1931:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1916:
1913:
1909:
1908:Goddard 1974b
1904:
1901:
1897:
1896:Goddard 1974b
1892:
1889:
1886:, p. 87.
1885:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1868:
1865:
1861:
1860:Goddard 1994b
1856:
1853:
1850:, p. 88.
1849:
1844:
1841:
1837:
1832:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1817:
1813:
1812:Pentland 2006
1808:
1806:
1802:
1799:, p. 87.
1798:
1793:
1790:
1786:
1785:Goddard 1994b
1781:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1770:Thomason 2006
1766:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1746:
1743:, p. 75.
1742:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1715:
1712:
1707:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1692:Goddard 1994b
1688:
1685:
1682:, p. 99.
1681:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1649:
1645:
1644:Thomason 2006
1640:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1629:Campbell 1997
1625:
1622:
1619:, p. 70.
1618:
1613:
1610:
1606:
1605:Campbell 2004
1601:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1586:
1580:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1510:
1505:
1503:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1466:
1463:
1455:
1452:November 2011
1445:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1429:This section
1427:
1423:
1418:
1417:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1345:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1322:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1104:wìilĂąshtĂikan
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1062:The clusters
1060:
1054:
1051:, and Munsee
1050:
1046:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
986:
984:
979:
973:
972:
969:
967:
965:
963:
961:
959:
957:
955:
950:
944:
943:
940:
938:
936:
934:
932:
930:
928:
926:
921:
915:
914:
911:
909:
907:
905:
903:
901:
898:
892:
887:
881:
880:
877:
875:
873:
871:
869:
867:
865:
863:
858:
851:
848:
846:
841:
836:
831:
826:
821:
816:
811:
805:
804:
800:
793:
786:
779:
772:
765:
758:
751:
744:
743:
739:
733:
725:
717:
709:
701:
693:
685:
683:
676:
675:
671:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
645:
644:
638:
631:
629:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
562:
560:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
515:
513:
511:
506:
502:
497:
492:
489:
488:
485:
483:
481:
479:
474:
469:
466:
464:
460:
457:
455:
453:
451:
447:
442:
440:
436:
435:
432:
425:
420:
415:
412:
410:
406:
403:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
377:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
343:
337:
335:
327:
325:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
232:
227:
225:
223:
219:
218:Lake Superior
215:
214:Niagara Falls
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
190:
181:
179:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
132:
130:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
109:, which is a
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
79:
75:
70:Reconstructed
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
48:
45:
41:
36:
31:
19:
4001:
3977:
3976:
3969:
3951:
3944:
3921:
3894:
3872:
3787:
3705:
3688:
3681:
3658:
3651:
3643:
3631:
3622:
3615:
3587:
3582:Narragansett
3580:
3573:
3566:
3559:
3555:Massachusett
3547:
3438:
3424:
3287:
3281:
3254:
3221:
3215:
3195:
3170:
3166:
3136:(1): 43–82.
3133:
3127:
3094:
3088:
3055:
3049:
3016:
3010:
2977:
2971:
2938:
2932:
2899:
2893:
2862:
2829:
2823:
2804:
2771:(1): 16–21.
2768:
2762:
2729:
2723:
2690:(1): 59–73.
2687:
2681:
2656:
2647:
2628:
2594:(1): 16–28.
2591:
2585:
2560:
2539:
2506:
2500:
2467:
2461:
2444:
2422:
2399:
2380:
2346:
2317:
2311:
2283:
2277:
2244:
2238:
2205:
2199:
2166:
2160:
2137:
2130:Hockett 1966
2125:
2113:
2106:Proulx 1984a
2101:
2089:
2077:
2065:
2053:
2041:
2029:
2017:
2005:
1993:
1981:
1974:Goddard 1979
1954:
1947:Goddard 1979
1942:
1920:Goddard 1979
1915:
1903:
1891:
1884:Goddard 1967
1879:
1872:Goddard 1979
1867:
1855:
1843:
1836:Goddard 1979
1831:
1819:
1792:
1748:
1741:Goddard 1979
1724:
1720:
1714:
1705:
1699:
1687:
1680:Goddard 1990
1675:
1668:Goddard 1979
1663:
1651:
1624:
1617:Goddard 1979
1612:
1600:
1593:Goddard 1978
1588:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1520:intransitive
1513:
1506:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1473:
1458:
1449:
1438:Please help
1433:verification
1430:
1405:
1401:
1400:"by hand" =
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1327:
1315:*no·hkomehsa
1314:
1311:*-o·hkomehsa
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1201:in the word
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1148:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1112:
1107:
1106:, Blackfoot
1103:
1099:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1076:*weštikwa·ni
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1061:
1052:
1048:
1042:
1039:*wi·kiwa·Hmi
1038:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1003:
982:
977:
953:
948:
924:
919:
896:
890:
885:
861:
856:
844:
839:
834:
829:
824:
819:
814:
809:
798:
791:
784:
777:
770:
763:
756:
749:
737:
728:
720:
712:
704:
696:
688:
635:
621:
617:
613:
609:
608:in the term
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
563:
558:
530:
526:
522:
520:
509:
504:
500:
495:
477:
472:
449:
445:
430:
423:
418:
399:
394:
389:
384:
363:Postalveolar
331:
321:
317:
313:
305:
301:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
250:
246:
242:
238:
236:
220:" or on the
206:Lake Ontario
202:Georgian Bay
187:
185:
147:
136:
90:
86:
85:
64:1000–500 BCE
3971:Proto-Algic
3644:Nanticockan
3488:Swampy Cree
3483:Plains Cree
3434:Gros Ventre
2022:Berman 1992
1959:Berman 2006
1824:Picard 1984
1753:Berman 1982
1402:*naka·ne·wa
1386:*ki·šekaθki
1382:*ki·šekaxki
1376:"be day" +
1366:*expahta·wa
1288:Proto-Algic
1195:*wentenamwa
1153:processes,
628:for more).
547:interdental
491:Approximant
176:Plains Cree
127:Proto-Algic
78:Proto-Algic
4019:Categories
3853:Potawatomi
3845:Potawatomi
3756:Potawatomi
3660:Piscataway
3514:Innu-aimun
3493:Woods Cree
3478:Moose Cree
3426:Besawunena
3403:Algonquian
3336:Ethnologue
2355:B002M3AJEA
2152:References
2143:Potawatomi
1727:: 124–138.
1516:transitive
1374:*ki·šekat-
1336:"cease" +
1284:*netehkwa-
1257:epenthetic
1151:allophonic
1108:moʼtokááni
1088:oshtigwaan
1084:*re·hre·wa
626:Wiktionary
328:Consonants
4004:indicate
3946:Nansemond
3938:Uncertain
3890:Menominee
3880:Blackfoot
3773:Algonquin
3653:Nanticoke
3599:Delawaran
3509:Atikamekw
3468:East Cree
3412:Arapahoan
3312:143332153
3246:144272402
3158:144999752
3119:144807432
3080:144185501
3041:145240092
3002:144992880
2963:143570568
2924:144149873
2854:144483683
2793:144574159
2754:143895922
2712:143886427
2665:0831-5671
2616:144878231
2531:144615881
2492:144253507
2363:cite book
2300:144720430
2269:148299795
2230:144558611
2191:144518292
1524:objective
1501:obviative
1496:proximate
1484:inanimate
1396:"stop" +
1290:(compare
1203:*wenči·wa
1096:Blackfoot
1044:wiigiwaam
622:ti·nti·wa
610:*čapo·nk-
437:Possible
409:Fricative
295:*nekwetwi
228:Phonology
172:Menominee
93:) is the
3953:Pamunkey
3885:Cheyenne
3825:Oji-Cree
3800:Chippewa
3742:Kickapoo
3707:Powhatan
3690:Etchemin
3606:Delaware
3167:Language
2803:(1999).
2673:11194820
2421:(2008).
2379:(1997).
2313:Language
1542:See also
1536:definite
1528:absolute
1358:*-pahto·
1280:*-ehkwa-
1149:Several
1053:wĂikwahm
1049:wîkiyâpi
632:Clusters
564:As with
537:and the
463:Sonorant
413:Central
353:Alveolar
291:*nekotwi
198:cognates
189:Urheimat
182:Urheimat
72:ancestor
4002:Italics
3902:Shawnee
3701:Mi'kmaq
3677:Abenaki
3633:Mahican
3519:Naskapi
3420:Arapaho
3304:1264864
3238:1263896
3150:1265411
3111:1265400
3072:1265603
3033:1264842
2994:1264710
2955:1264935
2916:1265401
2846:1264417
2785:1263919
2746:1263140
2704:1263449
2627:(ed.).
2608:1264746
2523:1265006
2484:1264344
2261:3519790
2222:1265518
2183:1264843
1480:animate
1412:Grammar
1394:*naka·-
1169:became
899:
801:
794:
787:
780:
773:
766:
759:
752:
740:
681:
677:
439:Lateral
380:Plosive
373:Glottal
358:Palatal
210:Ontario
111:genetic
3994:Pidgin
3990:Creole
3915:Others
3866:Others
3830:Ottawa
3765:Ojibwa
3752:Ojibwa
3670:Others
3611:Munsee
3502:Others
3473:Michif
3310:
3302:
3269:
3244:
3236:
3204:102526
3202:
3187:409280
3185:
3156:
3148:
3117:
3109:
3078:
3070:
3039:
3031:
3000:
2992:
2961:
2953:
2922:
2914:
2877:
2852:
2844:
2811:
2791:
2783:
2752:
2744:
2710:
2702:
2671:
2663:
2635:
2614:
2606:
2573:
2567:70–132
2546:
2529:
2521:
2490:
2482:
2453:102526
2451:
2429:
2406:
2387:
2353:
2334:409540
2332:
2298:
2267:
2259:
2228:
2220:
2189:
2181:
1334:*po·n-
1303:dutĂkw
1270:, and
1199:*wenÄŤ-
1191:*went-
1185:, and
1047:, Fox
1035:Munsee
895:
797:
790:
783:
776:
769:
762:
755:
748:
736:
348:Labial
302:nkwĂşti
299:Munsee
233:Vowels
174:, and
168:Ojibwe
53:Region
3998:Mixed
3929:Yurok
3923:Wiyot
3624:Unami
3308:S2CID
3300:JSTOR
3242:S2CID
3234:JSTOR
3183:JSTOR
3154:S2CID
3146:JSTOR
3115:S2CID
3107:JSTOR
3076:S2CID
3068:JSTOR
3037:S2CID
3029:JSTOR
2998:S2CID
2990:JSTOR
2959:S2CID
2951:JSTOR
2920:S2CID
2912:JSTOR
2850:S2CID
2842:JSTOR
2789:S2CID
2781:JSTOR
2750:S2CID
2742:JSTOR
2708:S2CID
2700:JSTOR
2612:S2CID
2604:JSTOR
2527:S2CID
2519:JSTOR
2488:S2CID
2480:JSTOR
2330:JSTOR
2296:S2CID
2265:S2CID
2257:JSTOR
2226:S2CID
2218:JSTOR
2187:S2CID
2179:JSTOR
1581:Notes
1492:*-ari
1488:*-aki
1346:me·wa
1342:*po·n
1292:Wiyot
1272:*wet-
1268:*ket-
1264:*net-
897:(*št)
799:(*hr)
588:, or
468:Nasal
368:Velar
277:and *
208:, in
148:radix
123:areal
3735:Sauk
3549:Loup
3460:Cree
3338:page
3267:ISBN
3200:OCLC
2875:ISBN
2809:ISBN
2669:OCLC
2661:ISSN
2633:ISBN
2571:ISBN
2544:ISBN
2449:OCLC
2427:ISBN
2404:ISBN
2385:ISBN
2369:link
2351:ASIN
1526:and
1398:*-en
1378:*-ki
1370:*-ki
1354:*eθ-
1307:*ne-
1299:hĂkw
1276:*ne-
1260:*-t-
1253:*we-
1249:*ke-
1245:*ne-
1228:and
1173:and
1165:and
1133:and
1125:and
1066:and
1017:and
600:and
568:and
555:*/ɬ/
535:Cree
255:long
204:and
158:and
117:and
3292:doi
3259:doi
3226:doi
3175:doi
3138:doi
3099:doi
3060:doi
3021:doi
2982:doi
2943:doi
2904:doi
2892:".
2867:doi
2834:doi
2773:doi
2734:doi
2692:doi
2596:doi
2511:doi
2472:doi
2322:doi
2288:doi
2249:doi
2210:doi
2171:doi
1532:was
1442:by
1390:*xk
1362:*xp
1350:θ+p
1338:*-m
1295:du-
1238:*o·
1236:or
1220:or
1207:*i·
1183:*i·
1127:*hy
1123:*ÄŤw
1117:or
1100:*št
1092:*št
1082:in
1080:*hr
1074:in
1072:*št
1068:*hr
1064:*št
1033:in
1025:or
983:*çk
978:*çp
954:*xk
949:*xp
925:*θk
920:*θp
891:*šk
886:*šp
862:*ÄŤk
857:*ÄŤp
845:*nr
840:*nš
835:*ns
830:*nθ
825:*nÄŤ
820:*nt
815:*nk
810:*mp
792:*hš
785:*hs
778:*hθ
771:*hÄŤ
764:*ht
757:*hk
750:*hp
738:*Hm
618:*i·
602:*ÄŤk
598:*ÄŤp
586:*i·
503:or
448:or
322:*ye
287:*we
271:*o·
267:*a·
263:*e·
259:*i·
164:Fox
61:Era
4021::
3334:-
3306:.
3298:.
3288:40
3286:.
3265:.
3240:.
3232:.
3222:31
3220:.
3181:.
3171:17
3169:.
3152:.
3144:.
3134:55
3132:.
3113:.
3105:.
3095:50
3093:.
3074:.
3066:.
3056:50
3054:.
3035:.
3027:.
3017:48
3015:.
2996:.
2988:.
2978:46
2976:.
2957:.
2949:.
2939:43
2937:.
2918:.
2910:.
2900:50
2898:.
2873:.
2848:.
2840:.
2830:43
2828:.
2787:.
2779:.
2769:25
2767:.
2748:.
2740:.
2728:.
2706:.
2698:.
2688:31
2686:.
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