118:
43:
1770:
When the root contains a sonorant, the zero grade is ambiguous as to whether the sonorant should be placed before the ablaut vowel or after it. Speakers occasionally analysed such roots the "wrong" way, and this has led to some roots being created from existing ones by swapping the position of the
1599:
Verbal roots were inherently either imperfective or perfective. To form a verb from the root's own aspect, verb endings were attached directly to the root, either with or without a thematic vowel. The other aspect, if it were needed, would then be a "characterised" stem, as detailed in
1620:
Root extensions are additions of one or two sounds, often plosives, to the end of a root. These extensions do not seem to change the meaning of a root, and often lead to variant root forms across different descendants. The source and function of these extensions is not known.
372:
1604:. The characterised imperfective stems are often different in different descendants, but with no association between certain forms and the various branches of Indo-European, which suggests that a number of aspects fell together before PIE split up.
782:
The onset and coda must contain at least one consonant; a root may not begin or end with the ablaut vowel. Consequently, the simplest roots have an onset and coda consisting of one consonant each. Such simple roots are common; examples are:
1412:-type roots, it has been proposed that this distribution results from a limited process of voice assimilation in pre-PIE, where a voiceless stop was assimilated to a voiced aspirate, if another one followed or preceded within a root.
1240:
The obstruent slot of an onset or coda may consist of multiple obstruents itself. Here, too, only one member of each subgroup of obstruents may appear in the cluster; a cluster may not contain multiple laryngeals or plosives.
691:
In its base form, a PIE root consists of a single vowel, preceded and followed by consonants. Except for a very few cases, the root is fully characterized by its consonants, while the vowel may change in accordance with
2424:
583:'lamb', however, do not derive from known verbal roots. In any case, the meaning of a noun is given by its stem, whether this is composed of a root plus a suffix or not. This leaves the ending, which conveys
3031:
1365:'to give, to take', etc.) can be reconstructed, but they were rare as well. An exception, however, were the voiced aspirated and voiceless plosives, which relatively commonly co-occurred (e.g.
198:
each. A number of rules have been determined to specify which consonants can occur together, and in which order. The modern understanding of these rules is that the consonants with the highest
250:
1523:, PIE roots overwhelmingly participate in verbal inflection through well-established morphological and phonological mechanisms. Their meanings are not always directly reconstructible, due to
592:
578:
2756:
2710:
1441:
855:
1367:
849:
2831:
1355:
1592:
966:
817:
1580:
861:
799:
598:
89:
1899:
988:
1273:
1538:
Nevertheless, some roots did exist that did not have a primary verbal derivation. Apart from the aforementioned root nouns, the most important of these were the so-called
897:
1919:
1803:
1779:
1267:
1261:
1228:
891:
613:
are verbal nouns and, just like other nouns, are formed with suffixes. It is not clear whether any of the infinitive suffixes reconstructed from the daughter languages (
1905:
994:
811:
785:
740:, and the different forms are called ablaut grades. The five ablaut grades are the e-grade, o-grade, lengthened e- and o-grades, and the zero-grade that lacks a vowel.
434:
1864:
1586:
1400:
843:
867:
805:
386:
873:
221:
Sometimes new roots were created in PIE or its early descendants by various processes such as root extensions (adding a sound to the end of an existing root) or
1836:
885:
879:
3015:
2599:
1361:
837:
831:
567:
2749:
1337:
against the co-occurrence of two similar consonants in a word root. In particular, no examples are known of roots containing two plain voiced plosives (
1151:
A consonant closer to the main vowel must have a higher sonority than the consonant further away. Thus, consonants in the onset must follow the order
1491:'to duck' do not appear to follow these rules. This might be due to incomplete understanding of PIE phonotactics or to wrong reconstructions.
3201:
3176:
3047:
2742:
2688:
2477:
183:
verbs, nouns, and adjectives were formed by adding further morphemes to a root and potentially changing the root's vowel in a process called
3023:
2635:
1933:
841:'to clothe'. Roots can also have a more complex onset and coda, consisting of a consonant cluster (multiple consonants). These include:
3039:
2678:
1244:
The rules for the ordering within a cluster of obstruents are somewhat different, and do not fit into the general sonority hierarchy:
2667:
2645:
2609:
2585:
2559:
2518:
2496:
2446:
1379:'to fly'). In particular, roots with two voiced aspirates were more than twice as common than could be expected to occur by chance.
1010:. The vowel constitutes a sonority peak, and the sonority must progressively rise in the onset and progressively fall in the coda.
1006:
When the onset or coda of a root contains a consonant cluster, the consonants in this cluster must be ordered according to their
31:
2705:
904:
Early PIE scholars reconstructed a number of roots beginning or ending with a vowel. The latter type always had a long vowel (
751:
is used to stand in for the various ablaut grades that the vowel may appear in. Some reconstructions also include roots with
2724:
3160:
2976:
2773:
367:{\displaystyle \underbrace {\underbrace {\mathrm {root+suffix} } _{\mathrm {stem} }+\mathrm {ending} } _{\mathrm {word} }}
129:
3070:
2981:
2971:
2965:
2765:
562:
556:
160:
125:
1963:* indicates that a form is not directly attested, but has been reconstructed on the basis of other linguistic material.
3206:
3165:
2919:
2786:
2781:
1612:
Roots were occasionally created anew within PIE or its early descendants. A variety of methods have been observed.
2439:
A dictionary of selected synonyms in the principal Indo-European languages: A contribution to the history of ideas
1897:
from the word, different from the root from which the word was originally formed. For example, the ablauting noun
524:
being the present tense marker, and the second the subjunctive marker. Reduplication can mark the present and the
3142:
2986:
459:
3065:
2998:
2806:
1601:
1520:
222:
139:
68:
2569:
1499:, for example, might not have existed in PIE at all, if the Indo-European words usually traced back to it are
480:, punctual) are universally recognised, while some of the other aspects remain controversial. Two of the four
1334:
135:
2801:
85:
2886:
3170:
3091:
2819:
1542:, which had adjectival meaning. Such roots generally formed proterokinetic adjectives with the suffix
1382:
An additional constraint prohibited roots containing both a voiced aspirated and a voiceless plosive (
472:, two grammatical categories that are not clearly distinguished. Imperfective (present, durative) and
3124:
3097:
2991:
2909:
2841:
2420:
1528:
768:
737:
242:
1317:
while other forms lack it. There does not appear to be any particular pattern; sometimes forms with
3129:
3119:
2846:
399:
168:
1464:'to grow, to become'. Such roots can be seen as generalized zero grades of unattested forms like
1007:
771:. The vowel is flanked on both sides by one or more consonants; the preceding consonants are the
680:
536:
532:
492:, are also formed with suffixes, which sometimes results in forms with two consecutive suffixes:
469:
414:
411:
238:
199:
156:
2851:
1519:
are almost synonymous in PIE grammar. This is because, apart from a limited number of so-called
1259:
A laryngeal may appear before or after any obstruent other than another laryngeal. Examples are
3114:
2836:
2684:
2663:
2641:
2605:
2581:
2573:
2555:
2514:
2492:
2473:
2456:
Cooper, Adam (2011). "Stop Co-Occurrence in the Proto-Indo-European Root: A New
Perspective".
2442:
2434:
2301:
1532:
525:
473:
465:
2875:
2871:
2861:
2856:
2811:
2796:
2791:
2547:
1714:
1667:
1123:
1018:
1013:
PIE roots distinguish three main classes of consonants, arranged from high to low sonority:
953:
584:
481:
2728:
2655:
2465:
544:
540:
1194:
Only one member of each sonority class may appear in the onset or coda. Thus, roots like
561:
Nouns usually derive from roots or verb stems by suffixation or by other means. (See the
17:
179:
meaning like "to eat" or "to run". Roots never occurred alone in the language. Complete
3137:
3075:
2944:
2929:
2891:
2881:
2866:
2595:
1894:
1751:
1551:
1524:
1917:
was then reinterpreted as the e-grade of a new root, which formed a new neuter s-stem
3195:
2914:
2543:
2416:
1648:
1420:
565:
for some examples.) This can hold even for roots that are often translated as nouns:
443:
215:
94:
58:
590:
Adjectives are also derived by suffixation of (usually verbal) roots. An example is
30:"List of Indo-European roots" redirects here. For a list of Wiktionary entries, see
2619:
2506:
1535:. Many nouns and adjectives are derived from verbal roots via suffixes and ablaut.
1500:
652:
147:
78:
2624:
A Linguistic
History of English part 1: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic
464:
Verbal suffixes, including the zero suffix, convey grammatical information about
2934:
2721:
1937:('Lexicon of the Indo-European Verbs', in German), a lexicon of PIE verbal roots
1539:
1511:
The meaning of a reconstructed root is conventionally that of a verb; the terms
485:
439:
421:
2949:
2734:
1828:
998:, resulting in a short vowel). These reconstructions obey the mentioned rules.
2631:
1445:"to perish" apparently violate the phonotactical rules, but are quite common.
956:
can explain this behaviour by reconstructing a laryngeal following the vowel (
693:
640:
610:
2529:
1774:
An example of such a pair of roots, both meaning 'to increase, to enlarge':
195:
180:
2715:
1893:
Sometimes, commonly used words became the template for a new root that was
210:) are nearest to the vowel, and the ones with the lowest sonority such as
1960:
1306:
1109:
928:'to give'), while this restriction did not hold for vowel-initial roots (
489:
211:
172:
2660:
The
American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European roots: Second Edition
1175:
as the full root shape. Roots with a different order of sonority, like
1070:
895:'to moisten'. The maximum number of consonants seems to be five, as in
143:
572:
477:
447:
234:
184:
2458:
Proceedings of the 39th
Meeting of the North East Linguistic Society
214:
are furthest away. There are some exceptions to these rules such as
2426:
Grundriß der vergleichenden
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen
637:, among others) was actually used to express an infinitive in PIE.
191:
2677:
Wodtko, Dagmar S.; Irslinger, Britta; Schneider, Carolin (2008).
420:
The suffix is sometimes missing, which has been interpreted as a
2711:
Database query to the online version of
Pokorny's PIE dictionary
602:'to beget, to produce'. The endings are the same as with nouns.
176:
164:
2738:
2470:
Etymological
Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages
1390:), unless the latter occurs in a word-initial cluster after an
571:, for example, can mean 'to tread' or 'foot', depending on the
1353:). A few examples of roots with two fricatives or two nasals (
36:
1439:
etc.). Their role in PIE phonotactics is unknown. Roots like
1325:
and without it even occur side by side in the same language.
124:
This article contains characters used to write reconstructed
736:, in different grammatical contexts. This process is called
27:
Most basic form of words in the Proto-Indo-European language
3032:
Lexikon der indogermanischen
Partikeln und Pronominalstämme
2202:
2152:
1903:'lifetime' was formed as a u-stem derivative of the root
450:
with a number of grammatical and derivational functions.
2387:
2325:
1827:
Another example concerns the root 'sky', which formed a
2731:
from the
University of Texas Linguistic Research Center
2716:
Index to the online version of
Pokorny's PIE dictionary
1448:
Some roots cannot be reconstructed with an ablauting
253:
2920:
2821:
1911:
1740:
1730:
1703:
1637:
1626:
1572:
1564:
1556:
1544:
1493:
1485:
1477:
1466:
1458:
1450:
1433:
1425:
1406:
1404:'to stiffen'). Taken together with the abundance of
1392:
1384:
1373:
1347:
1339:
1319:
1311:
1295:
1287:
1279:
1250:
1212:
1204:
1196:
1185:
1177:
1169:
1161:
1153:
1135:
1127:
1113:
1099:
1091:
1083:
1075:
1061:
1050:
1042:
1031:
1023:
980:
972:
958:
946:
938:
930:
922:
914:
906:
823:
791:
761:
753:
745:
730:
722:
714:
706:
698:
673:
665:
657:
645:
631:
623:
615:
518:
510:
494:
404:
392:
378:
204:
3153:
3107:
3084:
3058:
3007:
2958:
2902:
2772:
1309:occurs, where some descendants include a prepended
366:
2441:(Reprint ed.). University of Chicago Press.
2371:
2369:
438:' am'. Beyond this basic structure, there is the
84:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate
1923:, a formation which is only created from roots.
2175:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2161:
1248:Only voiceless plosives occur when preceded by
643:are verbal adjectives formed with the suffixes
442:which functions as a present tense marker, and
128:words (for an explanation of the notation, see
978:, resulting in a long vowel) or preceding it (
194:that is preceded and followed by at least one
2750:
2040:
2038:
2036:
1527:that led to discrepancies in the meanings of
8:
2297:
1632:'to push, hit, thrust', we can reconstruct:
2706:American Heritage Indo-European Roots Index
2246:
2244:
1472:, and thus follow the phonotactical rules.
3016:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
2757:
2743:
2735:
2601:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
2203:Meier-Brügger, Fritz & Mayrhofer (2003
2153:Meier-Brügger, Fritz & Mayrhofer (2003
1994:
1992:
563:morphology of the Proto-Indo-European noun
410:, which governs the present tense, third-
348:
347:
321:
302:
301:
261:
259:
255:
252:
2285:
531:Verbal endings convey information about
2399:
2388:Wodtko, Irslinger & Schneider (2008
2375:
2348:
2326:Wodtko, Irslinger & Schneider (2008
2261:
2191:
2179:
2140:
2128:
2116:
2104:
2092:
2080:
2068:
2056:
2027:
2015:
2003:
1983:
1976:
1952:
575:grade and ending. Some noun stems like
140:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
32:wikt:Category:Proto-Indo-European roots
2604:. French & European Publications.
2250:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2211:
1305:In several roots, a phenomenon called
1222:Laryngeals can also occur in the coda
384:'he bears' can be split into the root
3177:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
3048:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary
2552:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
2337:
1998:Examples of PIE roots are taken from
767:as a distinct vowel is disputed; see
655:imperfective and aorist participle),
7:
1059:Obstruents, denoted collectively as
424:. Words with zero suffix are termed
3024:Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben
2637:Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben
2360:
2313:
2273:
2235:
2223:
2044:
1999:
1934:Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben
1335:general cross-linguistic constraint
759:as the vowel, but the existence of
696:or word derivation. Thus, the root
596:'begotten, produced' from the root
3040:Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon
2680:Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon
2511:Hittite and the Indo-European Verb
2489:Indo-European Language and Culture
358:
355:
352:
349:
337:
334:
331:
328:
325:
322:
312:
309:
306:
303:
292:
289:
286:
283:
280:
277:
271:
268:
265:
262:
74:for transliterated languages, and
54:of its non-English content, using
25:
1067:. These include three subgroups:
2487:Fortson, Benjamin W. IV (2004).
516:'he would bear', with the first
116:
41:
1918:
1904:
1898:
1863:
1835:
1802:
1778:
1591:
1585:
1579:
1440:
1399:
1366:
1360:
1354:
1272:
1266:
1260:
1227:
993:
987:
965:
896:
890:
884:
878:
872:
866:
860:
854:
848:
842:
836:
830:
816:
810:
804:
798:
784:
597:
591:
577:
566:
433:
385:
2640:. Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag.
1815:'to increase, to grow', Latin
90:multilingual support templates
1:
3161:Proto-Indo-European mythology
2683:. Universitätsverlag Winter.
1909:. The oblique stem alternant
775:, the following ones are the
769:Indo-European ablaut: a-grade
190:A root consists of a central
130:Proto-Indo-European phonology
3202:Proto-Indo-European language
3071:Proto-Indo-European homeland
2766:Proto-Indo-European language
557:Proto-Indo-European nominals
547:has its own set of endings.
161:Proto-Indo-European language
3166:Proto-Indo-European society
2531:Indogermanisches Wörterbuch
2513:. Oxford University Press.
1423:are sequences of a dental (
1147:The following rules apply:
1097:), denoted collectively as
683:participle), among others.
606:Infinitives and participles
3223:
2921:
2822:
1912:
1819:'to increase', Lithuanian
1741:
1731:
1704:
1638:
1627:
1573:
1565:
1557:
1545:
1494:
1486:
1478:
1467:
1459:
1451:
1434:
1426:
1407:
1393:
1385:
1374:
1348:
1340:
1320:
1312:
1296:
1288:
1280:
1251:
1213:
1205:
1197:
1186:
1178:
1170:
1162:
1154:
1136:
1133:, denoted collectively as
1128:
1114:
1100:
1092:
1084:
1076:
1062:
1051:
1048:, denoted collectively as
1043:
1032:
1029:, denoted collectively as
1024:
981:
973:
959:
947:
939:
931:
923:
915:
907:
824:
792:
762:
754:
746:
731:
723:
715:
707:
699:
674:
666:
658:
646:
632:
624:
616:
554:
519:
511:
495:
457:
405:
393:
379:
205:
29:
3143:North European hypothesis
2578:Indo-European Linguistics
2298:Mallory & Adams (1997
1791:'to grow', Ancient Greek
1570:. They included at least
1562:and compounding stems in
663:(perfect participle) and
460:Proto-Indo-European verbs
233:Typically, a root plus a
175:. PIE roots usually have
163:(PIE) are basic parts of
146:combining characters and
18:Proto-Indo-European roots
3066:Indo-European migrations
2536:Indo-European Dictionary
2528:Köbler, Gerhard (1980).
2491:. Blackwell Publishing.
1699:) 'knock' and 'to knock'
1602:Proto-Indo-European verb
1431:) plus a velar plosive (
728:, or even unsyllabic as
3085:Artificial compositions
1876:'divine', Old Prussian
712:, with a long vowel as
2968:(nouns and adjectives)
2832:Glossary of sound laws
2570:Meier-Brügger, Michael
2544:Mallory, James Patrick
1920:*h₂yéw-os ~ *h₂yéw-es-
390:'to bear', the suffix
368:
3171:Indo-European studies
2722:Indo-European Lexicon
2580:. Walter de Gruyter.
1608:Creation of new roots
743:In linguistic works,
435:*h₁és-mi / *h₁és-∅-mi
369:
159:of the reconstructed
3125:Anatolian hypothesis
3098:The king and the god
2662:. Houghton Mifflin.
1329:Further restrictions
1167:in the coda, giving
1093:*bʰ *dʰ *ǵʰ *gʰ *gʷʰ
551:Nouns and adjectives
251:
88:. Knowledge (XXG)'s
52:specify the language
50:This article should
3134:Outdated theories:
3130:Armenian hypothesis
3120:Schleicher theories
2876:Edgerton's converse
2572:; Fritz, Matthias;
1844:> Ancient Greek
1766:Sonorant metathesis
1456:, an example being
704:can also appear as
400:imperfective aspect
171:meaning, so-called
126:Proto-Indo-European
3207:Root (linguistics)
3092:Schleicher's fable
2727:2016-06-27 at the
2574:Mayrhofer, Manfred
2538:] (in German).
2435:Buck, Carl Darling
2421:Delbrück, Berthold
1900:*h₂óy-u ~ *h₂y-éw-
1533:daughter languages
1333:PIE abided by the
1236:Obstruent clusters
1226:a sonorant, as in
1191:, are not allowed.
1159:, and the reverse
1002:Sonority hierarchy
533:grammatical person
398:which governs the
364:
363:
345:
317:
299:
3187:
3186:
3115:Kurgan hypothesis
2720:Jonathan Slocum,
2690:978-3-8253-5359-9
2548:Adams, Douglas Q.
2479:978-90-04-16797-1
1829:vṛddhi derivative
1728:goes back to PIE
1345:) or two glides (
1285:'to pour, rain',
1040:Labial sonorants
474:perfective aspect
402:, and the ending
260:
258:
256:
254:
136:rendering support
112:
111:
92:may also be used.
16:(Redirected from
3214:
2924:
2923:
2825:
2824:
2797:Laryngeal theory
2792:Glottalic theory
2787:Centum and satem
2759:
2752:
2745:
2736:
2694:
2673:
2656:Watkins, Calvert
2651:
2627:
2615:
2591:
2565:
2539:
2524:
2502:
2483:
2466:De Vaan, Michiel
2461:
2452:
2430:
2402:
2397:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2364:
2358:
2352:
2346:
2340:
2335:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2295:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2265:
2259:
2253:
2248:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2221:
2206:
2200:
2194:
2189:
2183:
2177:
2156:
2150:
2144:
2138:
2132:
2126:
2120:
2114:
2108:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2007:
1996:
1987:
1981:
1964:
1957:
1915:
1914:
1856:'day', Sanskrit
1799:) 'to increase'.
1748:
1747:
1734:
1733:
1711:
1710:
1645:
1644:
1630:
1629:
1576:
1575:
1568:
1567:
1560:
1559:
1548:
1547:
1531:in the attested
1497:
1496:
1489:
1488:
1481:
1480:
1475:Some roots like
1470:
1469:
1462:
1461:
1454:
1453:
1437:
1436:
1429:
1428:
1410:
1409:
1396:
1395:
1388:
1387:
1377:
1376:
1351:
1350:
1343:
1342:
1323:
1322:
1315:
1314:
1299:
1298:
1293:'to awake', and
1291:
1290:
1283:
1282:
1254:
1253:
1218:are not allowed.
1216:
1215:
1208:
1207:
1200:
1199:
1189:
1188:
1181:
1180:
1173:
1172:
1165:
1164:
1157:
1156:
1139:
1138:
1131:
1130:
1117:
1116:
1103:
1102:
1095:
1094:
1087:
1086:
1079:
1078:
1065:
1064:
1054:
1053:
1046:
1045:
1035:
1034:
1027:
1026:
984:
983:
976:
975:
962:
961:
954:Laryngeal theory
950:
949:
942:
941:
934:
933:
926:
925:
918:
917:
910:
909:
889:'to sleep', and
827:
826:
795:
794:
765:
764:
757:
756:
749:
748:
734:
733:
726:
725:
718:
717:
710:
709:
702:
701:
677:
676:
669:
668:
661:
660:
649:
648:
635:
634:
627:
626:
619:
618:
522:
521:
514:
513:
506:
505:
432:. An example is
408:
407:
396:
395:
382:
381:
373:
371:
370:
365:
362:
361:
346:
341:
340:
316:
315:
300:
295:
241:, and adding an
208:
207:
142: instead of
120:
119:
107:
104:
98:
83:
77:
73:
67:
63:
57:
45:
44:
37:
21:
3222:
3221:
3217:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3211:
3192:
3191:
3188:
3183:
3149:
3103:
3080:
3054:
3003:
2959:Parts of speech
2954:
2898:
2768:
2763:
2729:Wayback Machine
2702:
2697:
2691:
2676:
2670:
2654:
2648:
2630:
2618:
2612:
2596:Pokorny, Julius
2594:
2588:
2568:
2562:
2542:
2527:
2521:
2505:
2499:
2486:
2480:
2464:
2455:
2449:
2433:
2415:
2411:
2406:
2405:
2398:
2394:
2386:
2382:
2374:
2367:
2359:
2355:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2312:
2308:
2296:
2292:
2284:
2280:
2272:
2268:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2242:
2234:
2230:
2222:
2209:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2186:
2178:
2159:
2151:
2147:
2139:
2135:
2127:
2123:
2115:
2111:
2103:
2099:
2091:
2087:
2079:
2075:
2067:
2063:
2055:
2051:
2043:
2034:
2026:
2022:
2014:
2010:
1997:
1990:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1967:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1929:
1891:
1889:Back-formations
1768:
1618:
1616:Root extensions
1610:
1525:semantic shifts
1509:
1507:Lexical meaning
1483:'to sneeze' or
1418:
1331:
1301:'to be silent'.
1238:
1085:*b *d *ǵ *g *gʷ
1077:*p *t *ḱ *k *kʷ
1004:
689:
687:Shape of a root
608:
559:
553:
545:imperative mood
462:
456:
257:
249:
248:
231:
153:
152:
151:
134:Without proper
121:
117:
108:
102:
99:
93:
81:
75:
71:
69:transliteration
65:
61:
55:
46:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3220:
3218:
3210:
3209:
3204:
3194:
3193:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3181:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3157:
3155:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3140:
3138:Beech argument
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3111:
3109:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3101:
3094:
3088:
3086:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3078:
3076:Salmon problem
3073:
3068:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3052:
3044:
3036:
3028:
3020:
3011:
3009:
3005:
3004:
3002:
3001:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2962:
2960:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2952:
2947:
2945:Thematic vowel
2942:
2937:
2932:
2930:Narten present
2927:
2917:
2912:
2906:
2904:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2817:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2778:
2776:
2770:
2769:
2764:
2762:
2761:
2754:
2747:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2701:
2700:External links
2698:
2696:
2695:
2689:
2674:
2668:
2652:
2646:
2628:
2616:
2610:
2592:
2586:
2566:
2560:
2540:
2525:
2519:
2503:
2497:
2484:
2478:
2462:
2453:
2447:
2431:
2417:Brugmann, Karl
2412:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2400:De Vaan (2008)
2392:
2380:
2365:
2353:
2341:
2330:
2318:
2306:
2290:
2286:Jasanoff (2003
2278:
2266:
2254:
2240:
2228:
2207:
2195:
2192:Pokorny (1959)
2184:
2157:
2145:
2133:
2121:
2109:
2097:
2085:
2073:
2061:
2049:
2032:
2020:
2008:
2004:Fortson (2004)
1988:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1928:
1925:
1890:
1887:
1886:
1885:
1861:
1825:
1824:
1800:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1737:
1700:
1617:
1614:
1609:
1606:
1554:adjectives in
1508:
1505:
1421:Thorn clusters
1417:
1414:
1330:
1327:
1303:
1302:
1257:
1237:
1234:
1220:
1219:
1192:
1145:
1144:
1143:
1142:
1120:
1106:
1089:and aspirated
1057:
1038:
1025:*l, *r, *y, *n
1003:
1000:
847:'to breathe',
835:'to sit', and
688:
685:
607:
604:
555:Main article:
552:
549:
458:Main article:
455:
452:
360:
357:
354:
351:
344:
339:
336:
333:
330:
327:
324:
320:
314:
311:
308:
305:
298:
294:
291:
288:
285:
282:
279:
276:
273:
270:
267:
264:
245:forms a word.
230:
229:Word formation
227:
216:thorn clusters
206:*l, *r, *y, *n
138:, you may see
122:
115:
114:
113:
110:
109:
49:
47:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3219:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3190:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3152:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3106:
3100:
3099:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3083:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3049:
3045:
3043:
3041:
3037:
3035:
3033:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3021:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3000:
2997:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2957:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2918:
2916:
2915:Caland system
2913:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2842:Bartholomae's
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2760:
2755:
2753:
2748:
2746:
2741:
2740:
2737:
2730:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2692:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2675:
2671:
2669:0-395-98610-9
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2647:3-89500-219-4
2643:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2611:0-8288-6602-3
2607:
2603:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2587:3-11-017433-2
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2561:1-884964-98-2
2557:
2554:. Routledge.
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2532:
2526:
2522:
2520:0-19-928198-X
2516:
2512:
2508:
2507:Jasanoff, Jay
2504:
2500:
2498:1-4051-0316-7
2494:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2448:0-226-07937-6
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2401:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2376:Fortson (2004
2372:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2357:
2354:
2350:
2349:Fortson (2004
2345:
2342:
2339:
2334:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2319:
2315:
2310:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2267:
2263:
2262:Fortson (2004
2258:
2255:
2252:
2251:Cooper (2011)
2247:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2188:
2185:
2181:
2180:Fortson (2004
2176:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2146:
2142:
2141:Fortson (2004
2137:
2134:
2130:
2129:Fortson (2004
2125:
2122:
2118:
2117:Fortson (2004
2113:
2110:
2106:
2105:Fortson (2004
2101:
2098:
2094:
2093:Fortson (2004
2089:
2086:
2082:
2081:Fortson (2004
2077:
2074:
2070:
2069:Fortson (2004
2065:
2062:
2058:
2057:Fortson (2004
2053:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2028:Fortson (2004
2024:
2021:
2017:
2016:Fortson (2004
2012:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1984:Fortson (2004
1980:
1977:
1970:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1908:
1907:
1902:
1901:
1896:
1888:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1862:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1831:in this way:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1785:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1772:
1765:
1760:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1738:
1735:
1727:
1723:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1690:
1688:
1682:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1663:
1657:
1655:
1650:
1649:Ancient Greek
1646:
1642:
1635:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1622:
1615:
1613:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1588:
1583:
1582:
1577:
1569:
1561:
1553:
1549:
1541:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1501:onomatopoeias
1498:
1490:
1482:
1473:
1471:
1463:
1455:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1430:
1422:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1389:
1380:
1378:
1370:
1369:
1364:
1363:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1344:
1336:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1316:
1308:
1300:
1292:
1284:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1269:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1256:in the onset.
1255:
1247:
1246:
1245:
1242:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1230:
1225:
1217:
1209:
1201:
1193:
1190:
1182:
1174:
1166:
1158:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1140:
1132:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1111:
1107:
1104:
1096:
1088:
1080:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1058:
1055:
1047:
1039:
1036:
1028:
1020:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1001:
999:
997:
996:
991:
990:
985:
977:
969:
968:
963:
955:
952:'to smell').
951:
943:
935:
927:
919:
911:
902:
900:
899:
894:
893:
888:
887:
882:
881:
877:'to freeze',
876:
875:
870:
869:
864:
863:
859:'to plough',
858:
857:
852:
851:
846:
845:
840:
839:
834:
833:
828:
820:
819:
814:
813:
808:
807:
802:
801:
796:
788:
787:
780:
778:
774:
770:
766:
758:
750:
741:
739:
735:
727:
719:
711:
703:
695:
686:
684:
682:
678:
670:
662:
654:
650:
642:
638:
636:
628:
620:
612:
605:
603:
601:
600:
595:
594:
588:
586:
582:
581:
580:
574:
570:
569:
564:
558:
550:
548:
546:
542:
538:
534:
529:
527:
523:
515:
507:
503:
499:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
461:
453:
451:
449:
445:
444:reduplication
441:
437:
436:
431:
427:
423:
418:
416:
413:
409:
401:
397:
389:
388:
383:
376:For example,
374:
342:
318:
296:
274:
246:
244:
240:
236:
228:
226:
224:
219:
217:
213:
209:
201:
197:
193:
188:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
131:
127:
106:
96:
91:
87:
80:
70:
60:
53:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3189:
3175:
3096:
3046:
3038:
3030:
3022:
3014:
3008:Main sources
2939:
2925:-conjugation
2887:Szemerényi's
2847:Fortunatov's
2820:
2812:
2679:
2659:
2636:
2623:
2600:
2577:
2551:
2535:
2530:
2510:
2488:
2469:
2457:
2438:
2425:
2395:
2383:
2356:
2344:
2338:Ringe (2006)
2333:
2321:
2309:
2293:
2281:
2269:
2257:
2231:
2198:
2187:
2148:
2136:
2124:
2112:
2100:
2088:
2076:
2064:
2052:
2023:
2011:
1979:
1955:
1932:
1910:
1892:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1866:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1826:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1811:> Gothic
1805:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1787:> Gothic
1781:
1773:
1769:
1756:
1754:
1743:
1739:
1729:
1725:
1719:
1717:
1706:
1702:
1694:
1692:
1686:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1670:
1666:) 'hammer',
1661:
1659:
1653:
1651:
1640:
1636:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1611:
1598:
1571:
1563:
1555:
1543:
1540:Caland roots
1537:
1516:
1512:
1510:
1492:
1484:
1476:
1474:
1465:
1457:
1449:
1447:
1432:
1424:
1419:
1405:
1391:
1383:
1381:
1372:
1346:
1338:
1332:
1318:
1310:
1304:
1294:
1286:
1278:
1249:
1243:
1239:
1223:
1221:
1211:
1203:
1195:
1184:
1176:
1168:
1160:
1152:
1146:
1134:
1126:
1112:
1098:
1090:
1082:
1074:
1060:
1049:
1041:
1030:
1022:
1012:
1005:
979:
971:
957:
945:
944:'to drive',
937:
929:
921:
913:
905:
903:
901:'to twine'.
865:'straight',
829:'to tread',
822:
790:
781:
776:
772:
760:
752:
744:
742:
729:
721:
713:
705:
697:
690:
681:mediopassive
672:
664:
656:
644:
639:
630:
622:
614:
609:
589:
587:and number.
576:
560:
530:
517:
509:
501:
497:
493:
463:
454:Finite verbs
429:
425:
419:
403:
391:
377:
375:
247:
232:
220:
203:
189:
154:
123:
100:
86:ISO 639 code
82:}}
76:{{
72:}}
66:{{
62:}}
56:{{
51:
2935:Nasal infix
2852:Grassmann's
2837:Brugmann's
2632:Rix, Helmut
1895:back-formed
1880:, Sanskrit
1872:> Latin
1860:'sky, day'.
1590:'deep' and
1517:verbal root
1435:*k, *g, *gʰ
1427:*t, *d, *dʰ
1371:'to burn',
1359:'to burn',
1265:'to grab',
1129:*h₁ *h₂ *h₃
1073:(voiceless
920:'to grow',
883:'to flow',
871:'to bind',
797:'to bear',
789:'to give',
641:Participles
611:Infinitives
593:*ǵn̥h₁-tó-s
486:subjunctive
440:nasal infix
422:zero suffix
167:to carry a
150:characters.
103:August 2024
3196:Categories
2999:Vocabulary
2903:Morphology
2823:*kʷetwóres
2807:Sound laws
2620:Ringe, Don
2155:, L 211.5)
2083::116, 302)
2000:Rix (2001)
1942:References
1823:'to grow'.
1771:sonorant.
1724:(Germanic
1521:root nouns
1416:Exceptions
1277:'to dry',
1271:'to fly',
1124:laryngeals
1021:sonorants
936:'to eat',
912:'to put',
815:'to eat',
809:'to run',
803:'to put',
694:inflection
579:*h₂egʷn-o-
430:root nouns
426:root verbs
223:metathesis
2977:Particles
2872:Sievers's
2862:Pinault's
2857:Osthoff's
2774:Phonology
2472:. Brill.
2378::116–117)
2361:Rix (2001
2314:Rix (2001
2274:Rix (2001
2236:Rix (2001
2224:Rix (2001
2107::120–121)
2045:Rix (2001
1971:Citations
1852:), Latin
1596:'heavy'.
1584:'white',
1574:*h₁rewdʰ-
1468:**bʰweh₂-
1442:*dʰgʷʰey-
1232:'small'.
1081:, voiced
898:*strengʰ-
850:*h₁rewdʰ-
821:'sharp',
675:*-m(e)no-
343:⏟
297:⏟
196:consonant
181:inflected
173:morphemes
3154:See also
3108:Theories
2982:Pronouns
2972:Numerals
2966:Nominals
2813:boukólos
2802:s-mobile
2725:Archived
2658:(2000).
2634:(2001).
2622:(2006).
2598:(1959).
2576:(2003).
2550:(1997).
2509:(2003).
2468:(2008).
2437:(1988).
2423:(1886).
2328::XIV–XV)
2205:, L 321)
1961:asterisk
1927:See also
1884:'deity'.
1628:*(s)tew-
1593:*gʷreh₂-
1552:thematic
1529:reflexes
1487:*pteh₂k-
1368:*dʰegʷʰ-
1307:s-mobile
1297:*th₂ews-
1274:*h₂sews-
1171:*CMReRMC
1110:sibilant
1071:Plosives
1008:sonority
967:*bʰweh₂-
892:*wleykʷ-
856:*h₂erh₃-
667:*-mh₁no-
512:*bʰérēti
490:optative
488:and the
415:singular
380:*bʰéreti
237:forms a
212:plosives
200:sonority
3059:Origins
2892:Weise's
2882:Stang's
2867:Siebs's
2409:Sources
2276::98–99)
2264::59–60)
2238::512ff)
2182::70–73)
2131::97–98)
2071::83–85)
2059::81–83)
2047::14–21)
1913:*h₂yéw-
1789:wahsjan
1761:'beats'
1742:*(s)tew
1715:English
1705:*(s)tew
1668:Russian
1639:*(s)tew
1587:*dʰewb-
1581:*h₂erǵ-
1578:'red',
1495:*pster-
1479:*pster-
1460:*bʰuh₂-
1401:*stebʰ-
1386:**tebʰ-
1375:*peth₂-
1356:*h₂eh₃-
1289:*h₁ger-
1281:*sh₂ew-
1268:*peth₂-
1262:*keh₂p-
1229:*peh₂w-
1214:**peyl-
1206:**lekt-
1198:**wmek-
1187:**resl-
1179:**mter-
960:*dʰeh₁-
874:*prews-
862:*h₃reǵ-
853:'red',
844:*dʰwes-
800:*dʰeh₁-
617:*-dʰye-
599:*ǵenh₁-
526:perfect
169:lexical
144:Unicode
95:See why
3050:(IEED)
3034:(LIPP)
2992:copula
2950:Vṛddhi
2910:Ablaut
2782:Accent
2687:
2666:
2644:
2608:
2584:
2558:
2517:
2495:
2476:
2445:
1906:*h₂ey-
1878:deiwis
1683:) and
1408:*DʰeDʰ
1398:(e.g.
1349:**ler-
1341:**ged-
1224:before
1044:*w, *m
1019:labial
995:*h₃ed-
989:*h₂eǵ-
982:*h₁ed-
974:*deh₃-
916:*bʰwā-
886:*swep-
880:*srew-
868:*leyǵ-
818:*h₂eḱ-
812:*h₁ed-
806:*dʰew-
793:*bʰer-
786:*deh₃-
738:ablaut
724:*bʰōr-
716:*bʰēr-
708:*bʰor-
700:*bʰer-
659:*-wos-
653:active
647:*-ent-
573:ablaut
543:. The
537:number
496:*bʰér-
484:, the
478:aorist
470:aspect
448:prefix
412:person
387:*bʰer-
243:ending
235:suffix
185:ablaut
177:verbal
3179:(EIE)
3042:(NIL)
3026:(LIV)
3018:(IEW)
2987:Verbs
2534:[
2390::277)
2288::112)
2095::103)
2018::108)
1947:Notes
1874:dīvus
1821:áugti
1817:augeō
1813:aukan
1752:Vedic
1750:>
1713:>
1647:>
1558:*-ró-
1362:*nem-
908:*dʰē-
838:*wes-
832:*sed-
825:*ped-
773:onset
732:*bʰr-
633:*-ti-
625:*-tu-
568:*ped-
541:voice
508:>
482:moods
466:tense
192:vowel
165:words
157:roots
148:Latin
2940:Root
2827:rule
2815:rule
2685:ISBN
2664:ISBN
2642:ISBN
2606:ISBN
2582:ISBN
2556:ISBN
2515:ISBN
2493:ISBN
2474:ISBN
2443:ISBN
2363::11)
2351::88)
2143::73)
2119::97)
2030::87)
2002:and
1986::76)
1959:The
1882:devá
1854:diēs
1850:Zeús
1846:Ζεύς
1797:aúxō
1793:αὔξω
1685:сту́
1624:For
1566:*-i-
1546:*-u-
1515:and
1513:root
1163:*RMC
1155:*CMR
1122:The
1108:The
1017:Non-
948:*od-
940:*aǵ-
932:*ed-
924:*dō-
777:coda
585:case
539:and
468:and
446:, a
428:and
406:*-ti
394:*-e-
239:stem
155:The
59:lang
2922:h₂e
2316::8)
2302:133
2226::5)
1858:dyú
1804:*h₂
1780:*h₂
1759:áti
1718:sto
1693:stú
1689:ать
1678:stu
1671:сту
1210:or
1183:or
720:or
671:or
504:-ti
79:IPA
3198::
2546:;
2419:;
2368:^
2243:^
2210:^
2160:^
2035:^
1991:^
1869:w-
1867:ey
1865:*d
1841:w-
1839:ye
1837:*d
1808:g-
1806:ew
1784:g-
1782:we
1755:tu
1736:.)
1732:*g
1697:at
1664:os
1660:tú
1656:ος
1652:τύ
1550:,
1503:.
1452:*e
1394:*s
1321:*s
1313:*s
1252:*s
1202:,
1137:*H
1115:*s
1101:*P
1063:*C
1052:*M
1033:*R
992:,
986:,
970:,
964:,
779:.
763:*a
755:*a
747:*e
629:,
621:,
535:,
528:.
520:*e
417:.
225:.
218:.
187:.
132:).
64:,
2878:)
2874:(
2758:e
2751:t
2744:v
2693:.
2672:.
2650:.
2626:.
2614:.
2590:.
2564:.
2523:.
2501:.
2482:.
2460:.
2451:.
2429:.
2304:)
2300::
2006:.
1848:(
1795:(
1757:d
1746:-
1744:d
1726:k
1722:e
1720:k
1709:-
1707:g
1695:k
1691:(
1687:κ
1680:k
1676:(
1673:κ
1662:k
1658:(
1654:κ
1643:-
1641:k
1141:.
1119:.
1105:.
1056:.
1037:.
679:(
651:(
502:e
500:-
498:e
476:(
359:d
356:r
353:o
350:w
338:g
335:n
332:i
329:d
326:n
323:e
319:+
313:m
310:e
307:t
304:s
293:x
290:i
287:f
284:f
281:u
278:s
275:+
272:t
269:o
266:o
263:r
202:(
105:)
101:(
97:.
34:.
20:)
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