173:
in behavior and memory performance. The researchers later asked the observers if they had noticed anything unusual occur during the clips, without directly referring to the handbag. Changing the position of objects, i.e. the handbag, between scenes was the only variable that did not appear to affect eye-movement or memory. Overall, observers were more likely to draw their attention and look sooner at the handbag-stimulus at the moment right after its properties changed. When specifically asked about it, they were more likely to describe the handbag in terms of its post-cut properties, after a change had occurred. Even though their visual system appeared to pick up on the changes, observers were not consciously aware of them or able to report noticeable differences across cuts. The results illustrate that observers construct and maintain internal visual representations of complex visual environments while viewing dynamic scenes. This also helps explain why movie viewers usually are not aware of continuity errors in editing.
139:(1966) as they lay on their backs in the MRI scanner. Despite the seemingly uncontrolled task and complex nature of the stimulus, brain activity was similar across viewers’ brains, particularly in spatiotemporal areas. When compared to a random sequence of scenes, the specific order of events seemed to be strongly associated with this similarity in brain activity. It was also determined that the level of control a movie has on someone's mental state is highly dependent upon the cinematic devices (pans, cuts and close-ups) it contains. Tightly edited films exert more control on brain activity and eye-movement than open-ended films. However, similar eye-movement and similarity in visual processing does not guarantee similar brain responses. In addition, the average correlation in taste between individual viewers is rather low and not well predicted by film critics.
272:
scanning to show transient evoked brain responses (changes in brain activity) at those points they identified as event boundaries (changes in situation). Situational changes were coded frame by frame into spatial, temporal, object, character, causal and goal changes. Participants were then instructed to perform an event segmentation task by watching a movie and pressing a button to identify units of activity that were natural and meaningful to them. Paying attention to situational changes gives rise to a neural cascade that is consciously perceived at the end of one event and the beginning of another.
256:
experimental-style editing. Regardless of expertise level, participants described the
Hollywood-like scenes in "naturalistic terms," as if their events had occurred in reality and tended not to make explicit references to stylistic techniques. This interpretational tendency reflects Hollywood's "invisible style." When describing the experimental scenes, inexperienced viewers struggled to construct a cohesive "naturalistic" narrative. More experienced viewers were more likely to make explicit reference to the "breaking of conventions" and the intentions behind them.
231:
films have significantly more motion and movement than older ones. Motion is the optical change created by moving objects, people, and shadows; movement is that change created by camera motion or gradual lens change. Presumably, the film industry has capitalized on the results of previous psychological research that shows motion and the onset of motion capture our attention. Finally, films have become darker over time, as the overall brightness of the images on the movie screen has decreased.
218:, however, ultimately derive from the notion that bigger is better. The lateral movement of a subject across the screen can also influence an audience's interpretation of the subject. For example, characters that move from left-to-right are perceived more positively than characters who move right-to-left. This partiality toward rightward movement likely has its roots in the predominance of right-handedness in society, as well as the practice of reading left-to-right in
296:, researchers have discovered a strong center-of-screen bias with a distribution of gaze points approximately peaking at the screen center. However, eye gazes rarely focus on the same location. Visual dispersion across the screen increases over time and particularly, after repeated exposure to the same video stimulus. Because of this, there is greater gaze dispersion when viewers are watching advertisements compared to a television show.
143:
111:
ultimately easier for viewers, regardless of their experience, to understand cuts that follow a continuous and familiar line of action as opposed to ones that are more discontinuous. When a familiar line is not present, more experienced viewers are significantly better at comprehending a complex narrative by "filtering" out editing discontinuities. In the end, however,
182:
techniques and the meanings attributed to them to adequately interpret the images on the screen. At a very young age, we learn how to watch videos and understand different editing techniques. One study looked at adult participants who had very little exposure to film to see if they were able to understand simple editing techniques, such as
74:, plots are guided by camera placement and movement, dialogue, sound effects, and editing. Some aspects of film are driven by bottom-up or sensory guided factors (such as light, motion or sound), whereas other aspects depend more on top-down or conceptually driven factors, like past experiences and internal motivations.
271:
Event segmentation is viewed as "the brain’s cutting-room floor." It is considered to be an automatic and ongoing process that depends on meaningful changes in a perceived situation. To test this, researchers measured brain activity while participants viewed an extended narrative film. They used MRI
172:
In one study, observers were instructed to look at short movies involving changes in point of view. They used 15 movie clips featuring a handbag, whose properties (color, position, identity, and shape) were manipulated across cuts. Observers' reactions were recorded by examining eye-movement, changes
110:
Schwan & Ildirar (2010), who focused solely on inexperienced viewers’ ability to comprehend film, found that the comprehensibility of films was determined by whether or not they followed a familiar line of action. Overall, our brains accept the perceptual discontinuities found in films, but it is
279:
Broader narrative comprehension theories have also been applied to the perception and memory of movies. This reflects the hypothesis that the same mechanisms are used to understanding stories and real life. In one study, researchers illustrated the common episodic structure between text and film, by
255:
One study compared the participants’ ability to understand narrative in
Hollywood versus experimental film, by measuring interpretational awareness. Subjects with significant, moderate and no formal background or experience in film viewed a film that contained both scenes with Hollywood-style and
130:
research demonstrates that some movies can exert considerable control over brain activity and eye movements. Studying the neuroscience of film is based on the hypothesis that some films, or film segments, lead viewers through a similar sequence of perceptual, emotional and cognitive states. Using
86:
Film cuts are instantaneous, perceptual, and sometimes temporal discontinuities that do not exist in our own realities. However, despite this, viewers accept cuts as a natural storytelling technique in film. Even though we see reality in a continuous flow of linked images, in movies, cuts seem to
230:
One study compiled data on the changing trends in techniques by examining 160 English-language films released from 1935 to 2010. The findings demonstrate that over time shot lengths have become shorter, while the shorter the shot the more motion it is likely to contain. In addition, contemporary
251:
Explicit awareness about the processes by which meaning is created by the visual media could be regarded as one measure of film expertise and sophistication. Increased awareness of the subtle techniques employed by filmmakers to "manipulate" audiences leads to increased admiration and aesthetic
82:
Cuts and flashbacks represent types of editing that alter the normal temporal sequencing of events, creating non-linear narrative structures. Editing creates the transition between events. Research focusing on recall ability for linear versus non-linear narratives suggests that temporal changes
275:
According to Event
Segmentation Theory (EST), the perception of event boundaries is a side effect of prediction during ongoing perception. Prediction is an adaptive mechanism made up of cognitive event models that represent "what is going on now" to create expectations and attentive biases for
181:
Cinematic techniques are often regarded as grammatical structures or components of the cinematic art as a language made up of images. A period of visual adaptation is necessary before being able to understand images in movies or on television. Viewers need sufficient exposure to cinematic
46:. A growing number of psychological scientists and brain scientists have begun conducting empirical studies that describe the cognitive and biological underpinnings of motion pictures or what has been called "psychocinematics". Early theoretical approaches included works by psychologists
213:
can affect our perception of what is occurring on screen. Low angle shots in which the camera is pointed up at a subject tend to make the subject appear more powerful or stronger. While high angle shots can make a subject appear weaker. These interpretations of
267:
Segmentation or event segmentation is a fundamental component of attention that facilitates understanding, object recognition and planning. Event segmentation constitutes breaking down dynamic scenes into spatial and temporal parts or units of events.
252:
responses to film, as in other forms of visual art. Researchers have identified a strong relationship between prior film experience and conscious awareness of visual manipulations, especially for people with practical experience in production.
242:
Top-down factors refer to expectations and background knowledge that influence viewers' perception, understanding and appreciation of film. Expertise, attention and eye-movements are top-down factors that guide how viewers experience film.
202:. These viewers were able to understand some of the techniques, such as ellipses of time; however, more complex techniques, like shot/reverse shot were more difficult for them to understand.
1018:
Zacks, J; Braver, TS; Sheridan, MA; Donaldson, DI; Snyder, AZ; Ollinger, JM; Buckner, RL; Raichle, ME (2001). "Human Brain
Activity Time-locked to Perceptual Event Boundaries".
155:
Viewing spaces on screen from a stable point of view is important for short-term spatial coding and long term spatial memory. Long-time viewers of the television show
559:
Hasson, Uri; Landesman, Ohad; Knappmeyer, Barbara; Vallines, Ignacio; Rubin, Nava; Heeger, David J. (30 August 2008). "Neurocinematics: The
Neuroscience of Film".
169:" were less likely to recall information about the set and be able to mentally orient themselves inside it, because the show is filmed from many different angles.
99:
looking at and what you are now looking at. Another possibility that Murch explores to explain humans’ innate acceptance of film cuts is the way in which we
284:. This task required participants to locate episodes and their components within the cinematic story: exposition, complication and resolution.
712:
Schwan, Stephan; Sermin
Ildirar (2010). "Watching Film for the First Time: How Adult Viewers Interpret Perceptual Discontinuities in Film".
532:
Cowen, Paul S. (1 January 1988). "Manipulating
Montage: Effects on Film Comprehension, Recall, Person Perception, and Aesthetic Responses".
489:
Schwan, S.; Ildirar, S. (7 June 2010). "Watching Film for the First Time: How Adult
Viewers Interpret Perceptual Discontinuities in Film".
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were significantly better at accurately recalling spatial information about the show's set, because the camera never moves away from the "
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Lowe, Phillip J.; Durkin, Kevin (1 January 1999). "The effect of flashback on children's understanding of television crime content".
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Film editing seems to be a barrier of awareness for conventional
Hollywood-type movies, as they create an illusion of "real life".
95:. When you turn to look at an object, for example, you normally blink, thus creating a visual break in continuity between what you
103:. Our dreams tend to jump around from place to place and situation to situation without any real sense of continuity. Thus the
1169:
Baggett, Patricia (1 June 1979). "Structurally equivalent stories in movie and text and the effect of the medium on recall".
136:
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790:"Which Way Did He Go? Directionality of Film Character and Camera Movement and Subsequent Spectator Interpretation"
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nature of films is familiar to viewers and allows them to innately understand the editing despite discontinuities.
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ongoing processing. Prediction errors occur at situational changes and cause information processing segmentation.
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These changes in film-making choices increase attention manipulation and are thought to facilitate comprehension.
219:
654:
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Zacks, Jeffrey M.; Speer, Nicole K.; Swallow, Khena M.; Braver, Todd S.; Reynolds, Jeremy R. (1 January 2007).
596:
Wallisch, Pascal; Alden
Whritner, Jake (2017). "Strikingly Low Agreement in the Appraisal of Motion Pictures".
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Cutting, James E; Brunick, Kaitlin L; DeLong, Jordan E; Iricinschi, Catalina; Candan, Ayse (1 January 2011).
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suggests that this is because viewers are in fact used to cuts in their everyday lives through the act of
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that influence the way viewers see certain images or sequence of images. An example of this would be how
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linearity that creates temporal continuity is more important than plot for recall and understanding of a
797:
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Egizii, Matthew L; Denny, James; Neuendorf, Kimberly A; Skalski, Paul D; Campbell, Rachel (1 May 2012).
104:
398:
Park, Whan; Daniel C. Smith (December 1989). "Product Level Choice: A Top-Down or Bottom-Up Process?".
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Levin, Daniel T.; Wang, Caryn (1 June 2009). "Spatial Representation in Cognitive Science and Film".
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Film is rather unusual as it involves an integration of visual and auditory stimuli. In
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Messaris, Paul (1981). "The Film Audience's Awareness of the Production Process".
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asking participants to match a constructed text story to the dialogueless movie
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Zacks, Jeffrey M.; Speer, Nicole K.; Reynolds, Jeremy R. (1 January 2009).
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that studies the characteristics of film and its production in relation to
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Through Navajo Eyes: An Exploration in Film Communication and Anthropology
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Gross, L. (1 December 1973). "Art as the communication of competence".
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Some filmmaking techniques derive meaning through past experiences or
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brain imaging, researchers asked participants to watch 30 minutes of
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829:"Quicker, faster, darker: Changes in Hollywood film over 75 years"
757:"Effect of Camera Angle on Perception of Trust and Attractiveness"
141:
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655:"Perception and memory across viewpoint changes in moving images"
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132:
326:"78 Psychology Films You Must See – Updated List (July 2020)"
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Driver, J. (1998). "Parietal neglect and visual awareness".
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In the blink of an eye : a perspective on film editing
146:
The Greenwich Village building seen in TV series Friends
1198:"Points of view: Where do we look when we watch TV?"
353:
Psychocinematics: Exploring Cognition at the Movies
968:
876:Hillstrom, Anne P.; Yantis, Steven (1 July 1994).
453:
755:Baranowski, Andreas; Hecht, Heiko (30 May 2017).
460:(1st ed.). Los Angeles: Silman-James Press.
87:work, regardless of how experienced a viewer is.
1112:"Segmentation in reading and film comprehension"
247:Expertise and awareness of audience manipulation
83:impact memory of events, but not comprehension.
1196:Brasel, S Adam; Gips, James (1 January 2008).
1171:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
427:Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media
8:
1063:"Event perception: A mind-brain perspective"
165:". Equally experienced viewers of the show "
1116:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
998:Journal of the University Film Association
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62:fostered its philosophical underpinnings.
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975:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
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878:"Visual motion and attentional capture"
699:Visual "Literacy": Image, Mind, Reality
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385:Film as Art: 50th Anniversary Printing
714:Association for Psychological Science
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369:The Photoplay. A psychological study
351:Shimamura, Arthur P., ed. (2013).
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653:Hirose, Yoriko (1 January 2010).
387:. University of California Press.
42:, narrative understanding, and
882:Perception & Psychophysics
137:The Good, the Bad and the Ugly
1:
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761:Empirical Studies of the Arts
534:Empirical Studies of the Arts
400:Journal of Consumer Research
1079:10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.273
546:10.2190/MF18-FTXE-NBLH-PV98
54:. Cognitive film theorists
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956:. New York: Benjamin Blom.
954:When the Movies Were Young
931:10.1177/053901847301200604
919:Social Science Information
366:MĂĽnsterberg, Hugo (1916).
355:. Oxford University Press.
306:Psychoanalytic film theory
226:Changes in film techniques
439:10.1080/08838159909364476
774:10.1177/0276237417710762
726:10.1177/0956797610372632
637:10.3167/proj.2009.030103
610:10.3167/proj.2017.110107
583:10.3167/proj.2008.020102
503:10.1177/0956797610372632
383:Arnheim, Rudolf (2006).
198:, ellipsis of time, and
952:Griffith, D.W. (1975).
697:Messaris, Paul (1994).
1067:Psychological Bulletin
805:Cite journal requires
452:Murch, Walter (1995).
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128:Cognitive neuroscience
30:is a sub-field of the
28:The psychology of film
491:Psychological Science
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701:. Boulder: Westview.
177:Cinematic techniques
1245:Nature Neuroscience
1020:Nature Neuroscience
967:Worth, Sol (1972).
184:point of view shots
151:Spatial Information
895:10.3758/BF03205298
188:establishing shots
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123:Sequence of events
1298:Psychology of art
1208:(12): 1890–1894.
662:Journal of Vision
220:Western languages
196:shot/reverse shot
32:psychology of art
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625:Projections
598:Projections
567:(1): 1–26.
561:Projections
372:. Appleton.
163:fourth wall
117:narrative's
1287:Categories
1202:Perception
767:: 90–100.
312:References
294:eyetracker
207:ideologies
36:perception
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292:Using an
192:pan shots
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330:Psychreg
300:See also
119:events.
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