1755:. In within-subjects or repeated measures designs, each participant serves in more than one or perhaps all of the conditions of a study. In between-subjects designs each participant serves in only one condition of an experiment. Within-subjects designs have significant advantages over between-subjects designs, especially when it comes to complex factorial designs that have many conditions. In particular, within-subjects designs eliminate person confounds, that is, they get rid of effects caused by differences among subjects that are irrelevant to the phenomenon under study. However, the within-subject design has the serious disadvantage of possible sequence effects. Because each participant serves in more than one condition, the passage of time or the performance of an earlier task may affect the performance of a later task. For example, a participant might learn something from the first task that affects the second.
1145:) and imageless thought. Mental set affects perception and problem solving without the awareness of the individual; it can be triggered by instructions or by experience. Similarly, according to Külpe, imageless thought consists of pure mental acts that do not involve mental images. William Bryan, an American student, working in Külpe's laboratory, provided an example of mental set. Bryan presented subjects with cards that had nonsense syllables written on them in various colors. The subjects were told to attend to the syllables, and in consequence, they did not remember the colors of the nonsense syllables. Such results made people question the validity of introspection as a research tool, leading to a decline in
2060:. In both experiments ordinary individuals were induced to engage in remarkably cruel behavior, suggesting that such behavior could be influenced by social pressure. Zimbardo's experiment noted the effect of conformity to specific roles in society and the social world. Milgram's study looked at the role of authority in shaping behavior, even when it had adverse effects on another person. Because of possible negative effects on the participants, neither of these experiments could be legally performed in the United States today. These two experiments also took place during the era prior to the existence of IRBs, and most likely played a role in the establishment of such boards
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is to make sure that experiments do not violate ethical codes or legal requirements; thus they protect human subjects from physical or psychological harm and assure the humane treatment of animal subjects. An IRB must review the procedure to be used in each experiment before that experiment may begin. The IRB also assures that human participants give informed consent in advance; that is, the participants are told the general nature of the experiment and what will be required of them. There are three types of review that may be undertaken by an IRB - exempt, expedited, and full review. More information is available on the main IRB page.
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are "interactions", which occur when the effect of one independent variable on a dependent variable depends on the level of a second independent variable. For example, the ability to catch a ball (dependent variable) might depend on the interaction of visual acuity (independent variable #1) and the size of the ball being caught (independent variable #2). A person with good eyesight might catch a small ball most easily, and person with very poor eyesight might do better with a large ball, so the two variables can be said to interact.
1918:. Most cognitive experiments are done in a lab instead of a social setting; this is done mainly to provide maximum control of experimental variables and minimal interference from irrelevant events and other aspects of the situation. A great many experimental methods are used; frequently used methods are described on the main pages of the topics just listed. In addition to studying behavior, experimenters may use EEG or fMRI to help understand how the brain carries out cognitive processes, sometimes in conjunction with
1964:. Sensory measurement plays a large role in the field, covering many aspects of sensory performance - for example, minimum discriminable differences in brightness or the detection of odors; such measurement involves the use of instruments such as the oscillator, attenuator, stroboscope, and many others listed earlier in this article. Experiments also probe subtle phenomena such as visual illusions, or the emotions aroused by stimuli of different sorts.
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knowledge or validate existing claims. Typically, this entails a number of stages, including selecting a sample, gathering data from this sample, and evaluating this data. From assumptions made by researchers when undertaking a project, to the scales used, the research design, and data analysis, proper methodology in experimental psychology is made up of several critical stages.
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932:, a German physician, is credited as one of experimental psychology's founders. Weber's main interests were the sense of touch and kinesthesis. His most memorable contribution to the field of experimental psychology is the suggestion that judgments of sensory differences are relative and not absolute. This relativity is expressed in "Weber's Law," which suggests that the
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idea is that such ratios remain the same regardless of the scale units used; for example, the ratio of A to B remains the same whether grams or ounces are used. Length, resistance, and Kelvin temperature are other things that can be measured on ratio scales. Some psychological properties such as the loudness of a sound can be measured on a ratio scale.
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itself may alter the results of a second test, other methods are often used. For example, in the "split-half" measure, a group of participants is divided at random into two comparable sub-groups, and reliability is measured by comparing the test results from these groups, It is important to note that a reliable measure need not yield a valid conclusion.
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laboratory. Behavioral experiments with both humans and animals typically measure reaction time, choices among two or more alternatives, and/or response rate or strength; they may also record movements, facial expressions, or other behaviors. Experiments with humans may also obtain written responses before, during, and after experimental procedures.
1488:. This is the assumption that any state of an object or event is determined by prior states. In other words, behavioral or mental phenomena are typically stated in terms of cause and effect. If a phenomenon is sufficiently general and widely confirmed, it may be called a "law"; psychological theories serve to organize and integrate laws.
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students and the results correlated with the grade-point averages of the individuals in that group. As this example suggests, there is often controversy in the selection of appropriate criteria for a given measure. In addition, a conclusion can only be valid to the extent that the observations upon which it is based are reliable.
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open to research with humans. In addition, processes such as conditioning my appear in simpler form in animals, certain animals display unique capacities (such as echo location in bats) that clarify important cognitive functions, and animal studies often have important implications for the survival and evolution of species.
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contain two or more independent variables that are completely "crossed," which means that every level each independent variable appears in combination with every level of all other independent variables. Factorial designs carry labels that specify the number of independent variables and the number of
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Measurement can be defined as "the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to rules." Almost all psychological experiments involve some sort of measurement, if only to determine the reliability and validity of results, and of course measurement is essential if results are to be relevant
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in the United States following several controversial experiments. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) play an important role in monitoring the conduct of psychological experiments. Their presence is required by law at institutions such as universities where psychological research occurs. Their purpose
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for about twelve years. Unlike Wundt, Külpe believed experiments were possible to test higher mental processes. In 1883 he wrote
Grundriss der Psychologie, which had strictly scientific facts and no mention of thought. The lack of thought in his book is odd because the Würzburg School put a lot of
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in the 19th century, the kymograph is a revolving drum on which a moving stylus tracks the size of some measurement as a function of time. The kymograph is similar to the polygraph, which has a strip of paper moving under one or more pens. The kymograph was originally used to measure blood pressure
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The first stereoscope was invented by
Wheatstone in 1838. It presents two slightly different images, one to each eye, at the same time. Typically the images are photographs of the same object taken from camera positions that mimic the position and separation of the eyes in the head. When one looks
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An interval scale is constructed by determining the equality of differences between the things measured. That is, numbers form an interval scale when the differences between the numbers correspond to differences between the properties measured. For instance, one can say that the difference between 5
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In a nominal scale, numbers are used simply as labels – a letter or name would do as well. Examples are the numbers on the shirts of football or baseball players. The labels are more useful if the same label can be given to more than one thing, meaning that the things are equal in some way, and can
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PET is also used to look at brain activity. It can detect drugs binding neurotransmitter receptors in the brain. A down side to PET is that it requires radioisotopes to be injected into the body so the brain activity can be mapped out. The radioisotopes decay quickly so they do not accumulate in
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An olfactometer is any device that is used to measure the sense of smell. The most basic type in early studies was placing a subject in a room containing a specific measured amount of an odorous substance. More intricate devices involve some form of sniffing device, such as the neck of a bottle.
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around 1850, uses a vibrating reed to tick off time in 1000ths of a second. Originally designed for experiments in physics, it was later adapted to study the speed of bullets. After then being introduced to physiology, it was finally used in psychology to measure reaction time and the duration of
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Social psychologists use both empirical research and experimental methods to study the effects of social interactions on individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Social psychologists use experimental methods, both within and outside the laboratory, and there have been several key experiments
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Animal cognition refers to the mental capacities of non-human animals, and research in this field often focuses on matters similar to those of interest to cognitive psychologists using human participants. Cognitive studies using animals can often control conditions more closely and use methods not
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in factorial studies, taken singly, are referred to as main effects. This refers to the overall effect of an independent variable, averaging across all levels of the other independent variables. A main effect is the only effect detectable in a one-way design. Often more important than main effects
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to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights. Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1800s. The Peirce-Jastrow experiments were conducted as part
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The fMRI is an instrument that can detect changes in blood oxygen levels over time. The increase in blood oxygen levels shows where brain activity occurs. These are rather bulky and expensive instruments which are generally found in hospitals. They are most commonly used for cognitive experiments.
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The EEG is an instrument that can reflect the summed electrical activity of neural cell assemblies in the brain. It was originally used as an attempt to improve medical diagnoses. Later it became a key instrument to psychologists in examining brain activity and it remains a key instrument used in
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This device is a photographic recorder. It used mirrors and light to record the photos. Inside a small box with a slit for light there are two drive rollers with film connecting the two. The light enters through the slit to record on the film. Some photokymographs have a lens so an appropriate
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A ratio scale is constructed by determining the equality of ratios. For example, if, on a balance instrument, object A balances two identical objects B, then one can say that A is twice as heavy as B and can give them appropriate numbers, for example "A weighs 2 grams" and "B weighs 1 gram". A key
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refers to the extent to which a set of research findings provides compelling information about causality. High internal validity implies that the experimental design of a study excludes extraneous influences, such that one can confidently conclude that variations in the independent variable caused
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Another guiding idea of science is parsimony, the search for simplicity. For example, most scientists agree that if two theories handle a set of empirical observations equally well, we should prefer the simpler or more parsimonious of the two. A notable early argument for parsimony was stated by
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consists of multiple arms radiating from a central point. Each arm has a small piece of food at the end. The Morris water maze is meant to test spatial learning. It uses a large round pool of water that is made opaque. The rat must swim around until it finds the escape platform that is hidden
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This apparatus was designed to produce several fixed frequencies at different levels of intensity. It could either deliver the tone to a subject's ear or transmit sound oscillations to the skull. An experimenter would generally use an audiometer to find the auditory threshold of a subject. The
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An ordinal scale arises from the ordering or ranking objects, so that A is greater than B, B is greater than C, and so on. Many psychological experiments yield numbers of this sort; for example, a participant might be able to rank odors such that A is more pleasant than B, and B is more pleasant
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Sound methodology is essential to the study of complex behavioral and mental processes, and this implies, especially, the careful definition and control of experimental variables. The research methodologies employed in experimental psychology utilize techniques in research to seek to uncover new
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In the latter half of the 20th century, the phrase "experimental psychology" had shifted in meaning due to the expansion of psychology as a discipline and the growth in its sub-disciplines. Experimental psychologists use a range of methods and do not confine themselves to a strictly experimental
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Conceptual validity refers to how well specific research maps onto the broader theory that it was designed to test. Conceptual and construct validity have a lot in common, but conceptual validity relates a study to broad theoretical issues whereas construct validity has more to do with specific
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Validity measures the relative accuracy or correctness of conclusions drawn from a study. To determine the validity of a measurement quantitatively, it must be compared with a criterion. For example, to determine the validity of a test of academic ability, that test might be given to a group of
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Reliability measures the consistency or repeatability of an observation. For example, one way to assess reliability is the "test-retest" method, done by measuring a group of participants at one time and then testing them a second time to see if the results are consistent. Because the first test
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Eye trackers are used to measure where someone is looking or how their eyes are moving relative to the head. Eye trackers are used in the study of visual perception and—because people typically direct their attention to the place they are looking—also to provide directly observable measures of
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often respond to visual, auditory or other stimuli, following instructions given by an experimenter; animals may be similarly "instructed" by rewarding appropriate responses. Since the 1990s, computers have commonly been used to automate stimulus presentation and behavioral measurement in the
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Instruments used in experimental psychology evolved along with technical advances and with the shifting demands of experiments. The earliest instruments, such as the Hipp
Chronoscope and the kymograph, were originally used for other purposes. The list below exemplifies some of the different
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The use of experimental methods was perhaps the main characteristic by which psychology became distinguishable from philosophy in the late 19th century. Ever since then experiments have been an integral part of most psychological research. Following is a sample of some major areas that use
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refers to the extent to which the independent and dependent variables in a study represent the abstract hypothetical variables of interest. In other words, it has to do with whether the manipulated and/or measured variables in a study accurately reflect the variables the researcher hoped to
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is an experiment that is intended to test several hypotheses at the same time. Ideally, one hypothesis may be confirmed and all the others rejected. However, the data may also be consistent with several hypotheses, a result that calls for further research to narrow down the possibilities.
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popularized the idea of operationism, or operational definition. Operational definition implies that a concept be defined in terms of concrete, observable procedures. Experimental psychologists attempt to define currently unobservable phenomena, such as mental events, by connecting them to
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The one-way design may be expanded to a one-way, multiple groups design. Here a single independent variable takes on three or more levels. This type of design is particularly useful because it can help to outline a functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
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may be run before a major experiment, in order to try out different procedures, determine optimal values of the experimental variables, or uncover weaknesses in experimental design. The pilot study may not be an experiment as usually defined; it might, for example, consist simply of
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Probably one of the oldest instruments for studying memory would be the maze. The common goal is to get from point A to point B, however the mazes can vary in size and complexity. Two types of mazes commonly used with rats are the radial arm maze and the Morris water maze. The
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The most common olfactometer found in psychology laboratories at one point was the
Zwaardemker olfactometer. It had two glass nasal tubes projecting through a screen. One end would be inserted into a stimulus chamber, the other end is inserted directly into the nostrils.
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The galvanometer is an early instrument used to measure the strength of an electric current. Hermann von
Helmholtz used it to detect the electrical signals generated by nerve impulses, and thus to measure the time taken by impulses to travel between two points on a nerve.
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The simplest experimental design is a one-way design, in which there is only one independent variable. The simplest kind of one-way design involves just two-groups, each of which receives one value of the independent variable. A two-group design typically consists of an
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and 10 degrees on a
Fahrenheit thermometer equals the difference between 25 and 30, but it is meaningless to say that something with a temperature of 20 degrees Fahrenheit is "twice as hot" as something with a temperature of 10 degrees. (Such ratios are meaningful on an
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Closely related to empiricism is the idea that, to be useful, a scientific law or theory must be testable with available research methods. If a theory cannot be tested in any conceivable way then many scientists consider the theory to be meaningless. Testability implies
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was published in
Fechner's work, "Elemente der Psychophysik," and Fechner, a student of Weber named his first law in honor of his mentor. Fechner was profoundly interested in establishing a scientific study of the mind-body relationship, which became known as
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claim that experimental psychology approaches humans as entities independent of the cultural, economic, and historical context in which they exist. These contexts of human mental processes and behavior are neglected, according to critical psychologists, like
1991:
2013:. Pavlov's experimental study of the digestive system in dogs led to extensive experiments through which he established the basic principles of classical conditioning. Watson popularized the behaviorist approach to human behavior; his experiments with
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are central to experimental methods in psychology. Because an understanding of these matters is important to the interpretation of data in almost all fields of psychology, undergraduate programs in psychology usually include mandatory courses in
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levels of each independent variable there are in the design. For example, a 2x3 factorial design has two independent variables (because there are two numbers in the description), the first variable having two levels and the second having three.
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refers to the extent to which the outcome of an experiment can be generalized to apply to other situations than those of the experiment - for example, to other people, other physical or social environments, or even other cultures.
1873:) is manipulated in a controlled way (for example, researchers give different kinds of toys to two different groups of children in a nursery school). Control is typically more lax than it would be in a laboratory setting.
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The behavioristic approach to psychology reached its peak of popularity in the mid-twentieth century but still underlies much experimental research and clinical application. Its founders include such figures as
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published in 1860 what is considered to be the first work of experimental psychology, "Elemente der
Psychophysik." Some historians date the beginning of experimental psychology to the publication of "Elemente."
903:. His research concluded that sensory nerves enter at the posterior (dorsal) roots of the spinal cord, and motor nerves emerge from the anterior (ventral) roots of the spinal cord. Eleven years later, a French
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Experiments on sensation and perception have a very long history in experimental psychology (see
History above). Experimenters typically manipulate stimuli affecting vision, hearing, touch, smell, taste and
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Both of these are mechanical stimulations of pain. They have a sharp needle-like stimulus point so it does not give the sensation of pressure. Experimenters use these when doing an experiment on analgesia.
1182:, the first American textbook that extensively discussed experimental psychology. Between Ladd's founding of the Yale Laboratory and his textbook, the center of experimental psychology in the US shifted to
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The work of the Würzburg School was a milestone in the development of experimental psychology. The School was founded by a group of psychologists led by Oswald Külpe, and it provided an alternative to the
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manipulate. Construct validity also reflects the quality of one's operational definitions. If a researcher has done a good job of converting the abstract to the observable, construct validity is high.
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One-way designs are limited in that they allow researchers to look at only one independent variable at a time, whereas many phenomena of interest are dependent on multiple variables. Because of this,
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Brewer, M. (2000). Research Design and Issues of
Validity. In Reis, H. & Judd, C. (eds) Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
1466:, which is the idea that some set of observations could prove the theory to be incorrect. Testability has been emphasized in psychology because influential or well-known theories like those of
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1888:, are often used by psychologists. These are not experimental methods, as they lack such aspects as well-defined, controlled variables, randomization, and isolation from unwanted variables.
1275:" (1883); both publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics. To Peirce and to experimental psychology belongs the honor of having invented
2301:. In so doing, experimental psychologists paint an inaccurate portrait of human nature while lending tacit support to the prevailing social order, according to critical theorists like
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than C, but these rankings ("1, 2, 3 ...") would not tell by how much each odor differed from another. Some statistics can be computed from ordinal measures – for example,
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These determine the color composition by measuring its tricolor characteristics or matching of a color sample. This type of device would be used in visual experiments.
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such as the Kelvin scale. See next section.) "Standard scores" on an achievement test are said to be measurements on an interval scale, but this is difficult to prove.
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Perhaps the most basic assumption of science is that factual statements about the world must ultimately be based on observations of the world. This notion of
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Bronte-Tinkew, J., Allen, T., & Joyner, K. (2008) Institutional Review Boards (IRBs): What are they and why are they important? Atlantic Philanthropies.
2044:, noticed that the presence of others had an effect on children's performance times. Other widely cited experiments in social psychology are projects like
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The rule for assigning numbers to a property of an object or event is called a "scale". Following are the basic scales used in psychological measurement.
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experiments, on the other hand, measure brain or (mostly in animals) single-cell activation during the presentation of a stimulus using methods such as
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requires that hypotheses and theories be tested against observations of the natural world rather than on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation.
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continued to conduct randomized experiments throughout his distinguished career in experimental psychology, much of which would later be recognized as
1374:, which were not previously part of experimental psychology. The phrase continues in use in the titles of a number of well-established, high prestige
911:, published the same findings without being aware of Bell's research. As a result of Bell not publishing his research, this discovery was called the
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have affected the exclusive prestige of experimentation. In contrast, experimental methods are now widely used in fields such as developmental and
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Fraisse, P, Piaget, J, & Reuchlin, M. (1963). Experimental psychology: its scope and method. 1. History and method. New York: Basic Books.
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Fraisse, P, Piaget, J, & Reuchlin, M. (1963). Experimental psychology: its scope and method. 1. History and method. New York: Basic Books.
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Peirce's pragmaticist philosophy also included an extensive theory of mental representations and cognition, which he studied under the name of
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Stevens, S. S. (1951) Mathematics, Measurement and Psychophysics in S. S. Stevens (Ed) Handbook of Experimental Psychology. New York: Wiley
1103:. He invented the psychophysical method of limits, the method of constant stimuli, and the method of adjustment, which are still in use.
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and established the experimental analysis of behavior as a major component in the subsequent development of experimental psychology.
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and it later was used to measure muscle contractions and speech sounds. In psychology, it was often used to record response times.
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done in the past few centuries. The Triplett experiment, one of the first social psychology experiments conducted in 1898 by
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Sowa, J.F. (1997). Matching logical structure to linguistic structure. In N. Houser, D.D. Roberts & J.V. Evra (Eds.),
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to honor both individuals. Bell's discovery disproved the belief that nerves transmitted either vibrations or spirits.
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One school opposed to experimental psychology has been associated with the Frankfurt School, which calls its ideas "
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of Edward Titchener and Wilhelm Wundt. Those in the School focused mainly on mental operations such as mental set (
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King, L. A.; King, D. W. (1990). "Role conflict and role ambiguity: A critical assessment of construct validity".
1865:, participants are observed in a naturalistic setting outside the laboratory. Field experiments differ from field
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Charness, G.; Gneezy, U.; Kuhn, M. A. (2012). "Experimental methods: Between-subject and within-subject design".
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through the stereoscope the photos fuse into a single image that conveys a powerful sense of depth and solidity.
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Meyer, J., & Quenzer, L. (2005) Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the Brain, and Behavior. Sinauer Associates, Inc.
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Abramson, P.R. (1992) A case for case studies: An immigrant's journal. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
2945:(1982). "External validity is more than skin deep: Some answers to criticisms of laboratory experiments".
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was not a psychologist, but it was Fechner who realized the importance of Weber's research to psychology.
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Benjafield, J. G. (2013). "The vocabulary of anglophone psychology in the context of other subjects".
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2599:(November 1992). "A Historical View of Statistical Concepts in Psychology and Educational Research".
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Wheatstone, C (1838). "On some remarkable and hitherto unobserved phenomena of binocular vision".
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instruments used over the years. These are only a few core instruments used in current research.
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McGuigan, F.J. (1997) Experimental Psychology: Methods of Research. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
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West, S. G.; Thoemmes, F. (2010). "Campbell's and Rubin's perspectives on causal inference".
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Price, P.C.; Jhangiani, R. S.; Chiang, C. A.; Leighton, D. C.; Cutter, C. (August 21, 2017).
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Khaleefa, Omar (1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?".
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introduced a mathematical and experimental approach to the field. Wundt founded the first
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1334:, this was less the case, as European psychology was influenced by psychologists such as
1112:
990:
836:
Experimental psychology emerged as a modern academic discipline in the 19th century when
1310:, particularly in schools, as part of his "experimental logic" and "public philosophy."
891:
whose main contribution to the medical and scientific community was his research on the
17:
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2508:
2504:
2402:
Hergenhahn, B.R. (2009) An Introduction to the History of Psychology. Cengage Learning.
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2006:
1961:
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Oswald Külpe is the main founder of the Würzburg School in Germany. He was a pupil of
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892:
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748:
to psychological study and the underlying processes. Experimental psychologists employ
3176:
Hearst, E. (1979) The First Century of Experimental Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
3137:"Counterbalancing for serial order carryover effects in experimental condition orders"
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1362:. This laid the foundations for the subsequent development of cognitive psychology.
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Beyond significance testing: Reforming data analysis methods in behavioral research
3036:
Beyond significance testing: Reforming data analysis methods in behavioral research
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2010:
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884:
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187:
1922:. They may also study patients with focal brain damage or neurologic disease (see
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2538:(September 1988). "Telepathy: Origins of Randomization in Experimental Design".
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Sturm, T.; Ash, M.G (2005). "Roles of instruments in psychological research".
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2472:"George Trumbull Ladd | American psychologist and philosopher | Britannica"
826:
2679:
2430:
1507:, and for this reason, the principle of parsimony is often referred to as
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2421:
Weber, E.H. (24 October 2018) . Helen, E. Ross; David, J. Murray (eds.).
1907:
1829:
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and structuralism. The work of the Würzburg School later influenced many
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486:
481:
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3058:(pp. 163-202). Washington, DC US: American Psychological Association.
3038:(pp. 203-243). Washington, DC US: American Psychological Association.
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3237:
3034:
Kline, R. B. (2004). Effect Size Estimation in Multifactor Designs. In
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Experimental psychologists, like most scientists, accept the notion of
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is the addition to it required for the difference to be perceived (the
781:
3063:
3043:
3007:
Torgerson, W. S. (1962) Theory and Methods of Scaling. New York: Wiley
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1174:
introduced experimental psychology into the United States and founded
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1903:
1650:
1355:
1331:
900:
765:
3253:
2745:"Peirce, logic diagrams, and the elementary operations of reasoning"
3054:
Kline, R. B. (2004). Effect Size Estimation in One-Way Designs. In
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2612:
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873:
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757:
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Conceptual structures: Information processing in mind and machine
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Some of the major topics studied by cognitive psychologists are
1785:
1327:
1322:
became a dominant paradigm within psychology, especially in the
501:
1560:
Several types of validity have been distinguished, as follows:
1789:
638:
2846:
Duffy, M. (1993). Occam's razor. London: Sinclair- Stevenson.
1807:, counterbalancing the order of experimental tasks, adequate
27:
Application of experimental method to psychological research
3416:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
2149:
data received from an audiometer is called an audiogram.
2730:(pp. 418–44). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
3502:
Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas
3238:"The Dynamogenic Factors in Pacemaking and Competition"
2702:
A General Introduction to the Semeiotic of C.S. Peirce.
756:
to study a great many topics, including (among others)
2548:(A Special Issue on Artifact and Experiment): 427–51.
3324:"Why Human Subjects Research Protection Is Important"
1046:
1014:
993:
949:
3212:"Cognitive Psychology Explores Our Mental Processes"
2891:
Fleiss, J. L. (1986). "Reliability of measurement".
2017:
are particularly well known. Skinner distinguished
3556:Solso, Robert L. & MacLin, M. Kimberly (2001).
3458:Duchowski, Andrew (2007), Duchowski, Andrew (ed.),
669:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1056:
1024:
1000:
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3590:Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)
1053:
1021:
997:
1572:any observed changes in the dependent variable.
3110:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
2893:The design and analysis of clinical experiments
2189:from view just below the surface of the water.
1040:is a constant. Thus, for k to remain constant,
2728:Studies in the logic of Charles Sanders Peirce
1122:emphasis on mental set and imageless thought.
848:. Other experimental psychologists, including
3464:Eye Tracking Methodology: Theory and Practice
3198:. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
3075:Xu, L.; Yang, F.; Abula, A.; Qin, S. (2013).
1366:approach, partly because developments in the
1330:phenomena within experimental psychology. In
620:
8:
3289:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2372:Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology
2208:Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
1194:were extending and qualifying Wundt's work.
3560:(7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
2530:
2528:
2526:
2513:Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences
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2493:
2491:
2386:American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences
1926:) or use brain stimulation techniques like
1705:(a group that does not receive treatment).
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3015:
3013:
2671:11370/459e54f0-1e56-4390-876a-46a33e80621d
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1721:popularized the use of factorial designs.
1008:is the original intensity of stimulation,
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36:
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2311:The Positivist Debate in German Sociology
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992:
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948:
729:Learn how and when to remove this message
3558:Experimental Psychology: A Case Approach
2634:
2632:
2630:
1989:
1701:(a group that receives treatment) and a
977:{\displaystyle {\frac {\Delta I}{I}}=k,}
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744:refers to work done by those who apply
44:
1869:in that some part of the environment (
1775:experimental methods. In experiments,
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2353:Society of Experimental Psychologists
2214:Functional magnetic resonance imaging
1528:observations by chains of reasoning.
1519:Some well-known behaviorists such as
1269:Illustrations of the Logic of Science
1263:, he was also developing a theory of
7:
3549:A History of Experimental Psychology
1743:Within- and between-subjects designs
1180:Elements of Physiological Psychology
667:adding citations to reliable sources
3466:, London: Springer, pp. 3–13,
2509:"On Small Differences in Sensation"
2125:speed for the film can be reached.
1759:Research in Experimental Psychology
1318:In the middle of the 20th century,
30:For the peer-reviewed journal, see
3242:The American Journal of Psychology
3216:American Psychological Association
3196:Experimental methods in psychology
2333:List of psychological laboratories
2223:Positron emission tomography (PET)
1876:Other methods of research such as
1279:decades before the innovations of
1242:randomly assigned volunteers to a
1047:
1015:
953:
25:
3504:. University of California Press.
1928:transcranial magnetic stimulation
1503:the medieval English philosopher
1404:established the existence of the
1306:, conducted experiments on human
32:Experimental Psychology (journal)
3194:Levine, G., Parkinson, S (1994)
3081:Journal of Multivariate Analysis
2814:"Research Methods in Psychology"
2423:E.H. Weber on the Tactile Senses
1390:Institutional review board (IRB)
1386:courses of study in psychology.
1350:, who focused on topics such as
643:
594:
52:
2328:Experimental Psychology Society
1803:, minimizing the potential for
1751:are within-subjects design and
860:in their experimental methods.
654:needs additional citations for
3551:(2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall.
2717:. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2073:Hipp chronoscope / chronograph
2046:the Stanford prison experiment
1326:. This led to some neglect of
1273:A Theory of Probable Inference
1:
2639:Trudy Dehue (December 1997).
2601:American Journal of Education
2348:Sackett self-selection circus
2077:This instrument, invented by
1730:Main effects and interactions
1470:have been difficult to test.
1092:Weber's law and Fechner's law
805:Early experimental psychology
337:Industrial and organizational
3537:Resources in other libraries
3283:Blass, Thomas (March 1991).
2425:. London: Psychology Press.
2229:Positron emission tomography
2161:Algesiometers and algometers
2054:Milgram obedience experiment
1605:manipulations and measures.
899:summarizing his research on
492:Human factors and ergonomics
3472:10.1007/978-1-84628-609-4_1
2818:Washington State University
2193:Electroencephalograph (EEG)
1661:, cannot properly be used.
1101:just-noticeable differences
3606:
3322:White, Michael G. (2020).
3301:10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.398
3122:10.1016/j.jebo.2011.08.009
3094:10.1016/j.jmva.2012.10.008
2995:10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.48
2959:10.1037/0003-066x.37.3.245
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1628:to quantitative theories.
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1406:institutional review board
1396:Institutional review board
1393:
1267:, which was published in "
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1057:{\displaystyle \Delta I\!}
1025:{\displaystyle \Delta I\!}
934:just-noticeable difference
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29:
3547:Boring, Edwin G. (1950).
3532:Resources in your library
3236:Triplett, Norman (1898).
2771:10.1080/13546780143000099
2704:Indiana University Press.
1924:cognitive neuropsychology
678:"Experimental psychology"
267:Applied behavior analysis
2749:Thinking & Reasoning
2064:Experimental instruments
1949:Sensation and perception
1886:naturalistic observation
1747:Two basic approaches to
1640:be classified together.
1532:Reliability and Validity
1248:repeated-measures design
1214:Repeated measures design
1184:Johns Hopkins University
18:Psychological experiment
3585:Experimental psychology
3523:Experimental psychology
3393:10.1037/1093-4510.8.1.3
2370:Pashler, H. (Ed)(2002)
1920:computational modelling
1823:of results, and proper
1815:, emphasis on both the
1813:operational definitions
1753:between-subjects design
786:developmental processes
742:Experimental psychology
457:Behavioral neuroscience
114:Behavioral neuroscience
3428:10.1098/rstl.1838.0019
3135:Brooks, J. L. (2012).
2983:Psychological Bulletin
2294:Critical psychologists
2199:Electroencephalography
2023:classical conditioning
1997:
1986:Classical Conditioning
1955:Sensation (psychology)
1657:– but others, such as
1619:Systems of measurement
1515:Operational definition
1277:randomized experiments
1255:program to understand
1231:
1223:
1222:Charles Sanders Peirce
1204:Charles Sanders Peirce
1198:Charles Sanders Peirce
1192:Charles Sanders Peirce
1058:
1026:
1002:
978:
881:
833:
507:Psychology of religion
447:Behavioral engineering
133:Cognitive neuroscience
99:Affective neuroscience
3381:History of Psychology
3144:Psychological Methods
2947:American Psychologist
2908:Psychological Methods
2858:History of Psychology
2700:Liszka, J.J. (1996).
2431:10.4324/9781315782089
2338:Outline of psychology
1993:
1968:Behavioral psychology
1736:independent variables
1609:Scales of measurement
1538:Validity (statistics)
1419:Design of experiments
1402:National Research Act
1368:philosophy of science
1336:Sir Frederic Bartlett
1265:statistical inference
1229:
1221:
1151:Gestalt psychologists
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877:
829:
601:Psychology portal
3500:Held, David (1980).
3340:10.31486/toj.20.5012
2323:Empirical psychology
2309:(in their essays in
2019:operant conditioning
1980:Operant Conditioning
1898:Cognitive psychology
1892:Cognitive psychology
1825:statistical analysis
1801:extraneous variables
1665:Interval measurement
1623:Level of measurement
1615:Units of measurement
1300:cognitive psychology
1172:George Trumbull Ladd
1167:George Trumbull Ladd
1161:George Trumbull Ladd
1088:Ernst Heinrich Weber
1044:
1012:
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930:Ernst Heinrich Weber
925:Ernst Heinrich Weber
919:Ernst Heinrich Weber
746:experimental methods
663:improve this article
3328:The Ochsner Journal
2741:Johnson-Laird, P.N.
2713:Sowa, J.F. (1984).
2343:Psychonomic Society
1782:Psychophysiological
1644:Ordinal measurement
1635:Nominal measurement
1600:Conceptual validity
1380:scientific journals
1294:. Peirce's student
1001:{\displaystyle I\!}
452:Behavioral genetics
367:Occupational health
109:Behavioral genetics
40:Part of a series on
3460:"Visual Attention"
2476:www.britannica.com
2284:positivism dispute
2280:Alasdair MacIntyre
2082:mental processes.
1998:
1841:crucial experiment
1777:human participants
1699:experimental group
1659:standard deviation
1653:, percentile, and
1593:Construct validity
1588:Construct validity
1382:, as well as some
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1224:
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1022:
998:
974:
882:
850:Hermann Ebbinghaus
834:
750:human participants
569:Schools of thought
407:Sport and exercise
253:Applied psychology
3567:978-0-205-41028-6
3518:Library resources
3481:978-1-84628-609-4
3064:10.1037/10693-006
3044:10.1037/10693-007
2440:978-1-315-78208-9
2374:; New York: Wiley
2204:the field today.
2035:Social psychology
2029:Social psychology
1805:experimenter bias
1723:Factorial designs
1713:Factorial designs
1678:Ratio measurement
1655:order correlation
1581:External Validity
1576:External validity
1569:Internal validity
1564:Internal validity
1376:learned societies
1372:social psychology
1271:" (1877–78) and "
1240:Charles S. Peirce
1234:With his student
1208:Random assignment
963:
913:Bell–Magendie law
909:Francois Magendie
796:of all of these.
794:neural substrates
790:social psychology
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534:Counseling topics
477:Consumer behavior
218:Psycholinguistics
104:Affective science
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2258:Frankfurt school
2052:in 1971 and the
1940:Animal cognition
1934:Animal cognition
1862:field experiment
1521:Edward C. Tolman
1505:William of Occam
1348:Donald Broadbent
1287:in agriculture.
1257:human perception
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3480:
3450:
3441:
3406:
3371:
3314:
3295:(3): 398–413.
3275:
3248:(4): 507–533.
3228:
3200:
3187:
3178:
3169:
3150:(4): 600–614.
3127:
3100:
3067:
3047:
3027:
3009:
3000:
2973:
2964:
2953:(3): 245–257.
2933:
2898:
2883:
2848:
2839:
2830:
2793:
2784:
2732:
2719:
2706:
2693:
2662:10.1086/383850
2626:
2613:10.1086/444032
2583:
2554:10.1086/354775
2522:
2487:
2463:
2454:
2439:
2413:
2404:
2395:
2376:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2318:
2315:
2303:Theodor Adorno
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2242:Main article:
2239:
2236:
2227:Main article:
2224:
2221:
2212:Main article:
2209:
2206:
2197:Main article:
2194:
2191:
2180:
2177:
2171:
2168:
2162:
2159:
2154:
2151:
2145:
2142:
2133:Main article:
2130:
2127:
2121:
2118:
2105:Main article:
2102:
2099:
2090:Main article:
2087:
2084:
2074:
2071:
2065:
2062:
2033:Main article:
2030:
2027:
2007:John B. Watson
1972:Main article:
1969:
1966:
1962:proprioception
1953:Main article:
1950:
1947:
1938:Main article:
1935:
1932:
1896:Main article:
1893:
1890:
1880:, interviews,
1768:Main article:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1744:
1741:
1731:
1728:
1714:
1711:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1679:
1676:
1666:
1663:
1645:
1642:
1636:
1633:
1610:
1607:
1601:
1598:
1589:
1586:
1577:
1574:
1565:
1562:
1553:
1550:
1544:
1541:
1536:Main article:
1533:
1530:
1516:
1513:
1496:Main article:
1493:
1490:
1478:Main article:
1475:
1472:
1464:falsifiability
1455:Main article:
1452:
1449:
1437:Main article:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1417:Main article:
1414:
1411:
1394:Main article:
1391:
1388:
1315:
1312:
1296:Joseph Jastrow
1236:Joseph Jastrow
1230:Joseph Jastrow
1199:
1196:
1165:Main article:
1162:
1159:
1155:Max Wertheimer
1130:Main article:
1127:
1124:
1111:Main article:
1108:
1105:
1078:Gustav Fechner
1076:Main article:
1073:
1072:Gustav Fechner
1070:
1052:
1049:
1020:
1017:
996:
985:
984:
973:
970:
967:
962:
958:
955:
923:Main article:
920:
917:
893:nervous system
887:was a British
868:Main article:
865:
862:
844:laboratory in
820:Main article:
817:
814:
806:
803:
801:
798:
737:
736:
651:
649:
642:
635:
634:
632:
631:
624:
617:
609:
606:
605:
604:
603:
588:
587:
582:
581:
576:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
546:
541:
536:
530:
529:
528:
523:
522:
519:
518:
515:
514:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
438:
435:
434:
431:
430:
425:
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
258:
257:
256:
251:
250:
247:
246:
241:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
150:Cross-cultural
147:
142:
141:
140:
130:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
96:
90:
89:
88:
83:
82:
79:
78:
77:
76:
71:
66:
58:
57:
49:
48:
42:
41:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3602:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3569:
3563:
3559:
3554:
3550:
3545:
3544:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3511:
3503:
3496:
3493:
3483:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3454:
3451:
3445:
3442:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3410:
3407:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3375:
3372:
3367:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3318:
3315:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3279:
3276:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3232:
3229:
3217:
3213:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3188:
3182:
3179:
3173:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3138:
3131:
3128:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3104:
3101:
3095:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3068:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3031:
3028:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3016:
3014:
3010:
3004:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2977:
2974:
2968:
2965:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2937:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2902:
2899:
2894:
2887:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2852:
2849:
2843:
2840:
2834:
2831:
2819:
2815:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2788:
2785:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2736:
2733:
2729:
2723:
2720:
2716:
2710:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2694:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2656:(4): 653–73.
2655:
2651:
2650:
2642:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2597:Stigler, S.M.
2592:
2590:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2488:
2477:
2473:
2467:
2464:
2458:
2455:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2414:
2408:
2405:
2399:
2396:
2391:
2387:
2380:
2377:
2373:
2367:
2364:
2358:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2295:
2291:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2257:
2252:
2250:
2245:
2237:
2235:
2230:
2222:
2220:
2215:
2207:
2205:
2200:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2178:
2176:
2169:
2167:
2160:
2158:
2152:
2150:
2143:
2141:
2136:
2128:
2126:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2111:Developed by
2108:
2100:
2098:
2093:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2079:Matthäus Hipp
2072:
2070:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2048:conducted by
2047:
2043:
2036:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2015:Little Albert
2012:
2008:
2004:
1996:
1992:
1987:
1981:
1975:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1956:
1948:
1946:
1941:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1899:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1882:opinion polls
1879:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1863:
1857:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1842:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1811:, the use of
1810:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1771:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1720:
1712:
1710:
1706:
1704:
1703:control group
1700:
1691:
1686:
1684:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1643:
1641:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1608:
1606:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1551:
1549:
1542:
1539:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1522:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1509:Occam's razor
1506:
1499:
1498:Occam's razor
1491:
1489:
1487:
1481:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1440:
1432:
1427:
1425:
1420:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1403:
1400:In 1974, the
1397:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1340:Kenneth Craik
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1324:United States
1321:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1285:Ronald Fisher
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1261:psychophysics
1258:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1228:
1220:
1215:
1209:
1205:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1168:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1139:structuralism
1133:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1119:Wilhelm Wundt
1114:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1097:psychophysics
1093:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1064:must rise as
1050:
1039:
1035:
1018:
994:
971:
968:
965:
960:
956:
943:
942:
941:
939:
935:
931:
926:
918:
916:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
895:. He wrote a
894:
890:
886:
880:
876:
871:
863:
861:
859:
858:introspection
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
838:Wilhelm Wundt
832:
831:Wilhelm Wundt
828:
823:
822:Wilhelm Wundt
816:Wilhelm Wundt
815:
812:
811:Psychophysics
804:
799:
797:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
733:
730:
722:
719:February 2022
711:
708:
704:
701:
697:
694:
690:
687:
683:
680: –
679:
675:
674:Find sources:
668:
664:
658:
657:
652:This article
650:
646:
641:
640:
630:
625:
623:
618:
616:
611:
610:
608:
607:
602:
592:
591:
590:
589:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
560:
557:
555:
554:Psychologists
552:
550:
547:
545:
544:Organizations
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
531:
526:
521:
520:
513:
512:Psychometrics
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
472:Consciousness
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
439:
433:
432:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
392:Psychotherapy
390:
388:
387:Psychometrics
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
259:
254:
249:
248:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
160:Developmental
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
139:
136:
135:
134:
131:
129:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
91:
86:
81:
80:
75:
72:
70:
67:
65:
62:
61:
60:
59:
55:
51:
50:
47:
43:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3557:
3548:
3522:
3501:
3495:
3485:, retrieved
3463:
3453:
3444:
3419:
3415:
3409:
3384:
3380:
3374:
3334:(1): 16–33.
3331:
3327:
3317:
3292:
3288:
3278:
3245:
3241:
3231:
3219:. Retrieved
3215:
3195:
3190:
3181:
3172:
3147:
3143:
3130:
3113:
3109:
3103:
3084:
3080:
3070:
3055:
3050:
3035:
3030:
3003:
2989:(1): 48–64.
2986:
2982:
2976:
2967:
2950:
2946:
2936:
2914:(1): 18–37.
2911:
2907:
2901:
2892:
2886:
2864:(1): 36–56.
2861:
2857:
2851:
2842:
2833:
2821:. Retrieved
2817:
2787:
2752:
2748:
2735:
2727:
2722:
2714:
2709:
2701:
2696:
2653:
2647:
2607:(1): 60–70.
2604:
2600:
2545:
2539:
2536:Hacking, Ian
2516:
2512:
2501:Peirce, C.S.
2479:. Retrieved
2475:
2466:
2457:
2422:
2416:
2407:
2398:
2389:
2385:
2379:
2371:
2366:
2310:
2287:
2247:
2244:Eye tracking
2238:Eye tracking
2232:
2217:
2202:
2182:
2173:
2170:Olfactometer
2164:
2156:
2153:Colorimeters
2147:
2138:
2135:Galvanometer
2129:Galvanometer
2123:
2110:
2095:
2076:
2067:
2038:
2011:B.F. Skinner
1999:
1958:
1943:
1901:
1878:case studies
1875:
1870:
1866:
1860:
1858:
1854:self-reports
1848:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1832:methods and
1798:
1796:or similar.
1773:
1746:
1733:
1716:
1707:
1695:
1681:
1668:
1647:
1638:
1630:
1626:
1603:
1591:
1579:
1567:
1559:
1555:
1546:
1518:
1501:
1483:
1460:
1442:
1422:
1399:
1364:
1317:
1314:20th century
1289:
1281:Jerzy Neyman
1251:of Peirce's
1233:
1179:
1170:
1153:, including
1142:
1135:
1116:
1113:Oswald Külpe
1107:Oswald Külpe
1081:
1065:
1037:
1033:
986:
937:
928:
905:physiologist
889:physiologist
885:Charles Bell
883:
879:Charles Bell
870:Charles Bell
864:Charles Bell
835:
741:
740:
725:
716:
706:
699:
692:
685:
673:
661:Please help
656:verification
653:
497:Intelligence
228:Quantitative
193:Mathematical
188:Intelligence
179:Experimental
175:Evolutionary
165:Differential
3422:: 371–394.
3387:(1): 3–34.
3221:January 10,
3087:: 172–180.
2823:January 11,
2505:Jastrow, J.
2249:attention.
2113:Carl Ludwig
2092:Stereoscope
2086:Stereoscope
2003:Ivan Pavlov
1995:Ivan Pavlov
1974:Behaviorism
1849:pilot study
1817:reliability
1809:sample size
1799:Control of
1764:Experiments
1543:Reliability
1486:determinism
1480:Determinism
1474:Determinism
1457:Testability
1451:Testability
1428:Assumptions
1413:Methodology
1320:behaviorism
1188:George Hall
1147:voluntarism
1143:Einstellung
856:, included
539:Disciplines
412:Suicidology
307:Educational
262:Anomalistic
238:Theoretical
213:Personality
145:Comparative
128:Cognitivism
119:Behaviorism
3579:Categories
3512:References
3487:2024-01-11
3116:(1): 1–8.
2481:2022-07-27
2262:See also:
2234:the body.
2144:Audiometer
1984:See also:
1978:See also:
1834:statistics
1770:Experiment
1719:R.A Fisher
1525:Clark Hull
1445:empiricism
1439:Empiricism
1433:Empiricism
1384:university
1304:John Dewey
1212:See also:
842:psychology
809:See also:
792:, and the
778:motivation
762:perception
689:newspapers
467:Competence
332:Humanistic
312:Ergonomics
297:Counseling
272:Assessment
208:Perception
170:Ecological
46:Psychology
3348:1524-5012
3309:1939-1315
3262:0002-9556
2757:CiteSeerX
2755:: 69–95.
2621:143685203
2449:142219230
2253:Criticism
2107:Kymograph
2101:Kymograph
1916:attention
1492:Parsimony
1360:attention
1344:W.E. Hick
1308:cognition
1292:semiotics
1253:pragmatic
1048:Δ
1016:Δ
954:Δ
770:cognition
758:sensation
462:Cognition
377:Political
287:Community
124:Cognitive
74:Subfields
3436:36512205
3401:16021762
3366:32284679
3164:22799624
2928:20230100
2878:23394175
2743:(2002).
2688:23526321
2578:52201011
2519:: 73–83.
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2317:See also
1908:learning
1830:research
1821:validity
1552:Validity
1352:thinking
1186:, where
897:pamphlet
774:learning
574:Timeline
487:Feelings
482:Emotions
442:Behavior
436:Concepts
397:Religion
382:Positive
372:Pastoral
357:Military
322:Forensic
317:Feminist
302:Critical
292:Consumer
282:Coaching
277:Clinical
155:Cultural
94:Abnormal
3357:7122250
3270:1412188
2779:5726135
2680:9519574
2570:1013489
1867:studies
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1036:), and
901:rabbits
800:History
782:emotion
703:scholar
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417:Systems
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1356:memory
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987:where
766:memory
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579:Topics
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327:Health
233:Social
138:Social
3432:S2CID
3266:JSTOR
3140:(PDF)
2775:S2CID
2684:S2CID
2644:(PDF)
2617:S2CID
2574:S2CID
2558:JSTOR
2445:S2CID
2359:Notes
2179:Mazes
2021:from
1871:field
1859:In a
1468:Freud
710:JSTOR
696:books
525:Lists
362:Music
347:Media
342:Legal
198:Moral
3562:ISBN
3476:ISBN
3397:PMID
3362:PMID
3344:ISSN
3305:ISSN
3258:ISSN
3223:2024
3160:PMID
2924:PMID
2874:PMID
2825:2024
2676:PMID
2649:Isis
2541:Isis
2435:ISBN
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2305:and
1884:and
1819:and
1786:fMRI
1523:and
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682:news
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3424:doi
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3389:doi
3352:PMC
3336:doi
3297:doi
3250:doi
3152:doi
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