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2648:. Here, the QC material is also etched to produce an isolated ridge. Now, however, new semiconductor material is grown over the ridge. The change in index of refraction between the QC material and the overgrown material is sufficient to create a waveguide. Dielectric material is also deposited on the overgrown material around QC ridge to guide the injected current into the QC gain medium. Buried heterostructure waveguides are efficient at removing heat from the QC active area when light is being produced.
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In an external cavity (EC) quantum cascade laser, the quantum cascade device serves as the laser gain medium. One, or both, of the waveguide facets has an anti-reflection coating that defeats the optical cavity action of the cleaved facets. Mirrors are then arranged in a configuration external to the
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values. For interband optical transitions, carriers change momentum through a slow, intermediate scattering process, dramatically reducing the optical emission intensity. Intersubband optical transitions, however, are independent of the relative momentum of conduction band and valence band minima and
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built on top of the waveguide to prevent it from emitting at other than the desired wavelength. This forces single mode operation of the laser, even at higher operating currents. DFB lasers can be tuned chiefly by changing the temperature, although an interesting variant on tuning can be obtained by
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material is typically deposited in the trenches to guide injected current into the ridge, then the entire ridge is typically coated with gold to provide electrical contact and to help remove heat from the ridge when it is producing light. Light is emitted from the cleaved ends of the waveguide, with
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The short wavelength limit of QCLs is determined by the depth of the quantum well and recently QCLs have been developed in material systems with very deep quantum wells in order to achieve short wavelength emission. The InGaAs/AlAsSb material system has quantum wells 1.6 eV deep and has been used to
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proving that the QC concept is not restricted to one material system. This material system has a varying quantum well depth depending on the aluminium fraction in the barriers. Although GaAs-based QCLs have not matched the performance levels of InP-based QCLs in the mid-infrared, they have proven to
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between two subbands in the system which is required in order to achieve laser emission. Because the position of the energy levels in the system is primarily determined by the layer thicknesses and not the material, it is possible to tune the emission wavelength of QCLs over a wide range in the same
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Fabry-Perot (FP) quantum cascade lasers were first commercialized in 1998, distributed feedback (DFB) devices were first commercialized in 2004, and broadly-tunable external cavity quantum cascade lasers first commercialized in 2006. The high optical power output, tuning range and room temperature
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The couple InAs/AlSb is the most recent QCL material family compared to alloys grown on InP and GaAs substrates. The main advantage of the InAs/AlSb material system is the small effective electron mass in quantum wells, which favors a high intersubband gain. This benefit can be better exploited in
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This is the simplest of the quantum cascade lasers. An optical waveguide is first fabricated out of the quantum cascade material to form the gain medium. The ends of the crystalline semiconductor device are then cleaved to form two parallel mirrors on either end of the waveguide, thus forming a
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There exists several methods to extend the tuning range of quantum cascade lasers using only monolithically integrated elements. Integrated heaters can extend the tuning range at fixed operation temperature to 0.7% of the central wavelength and superstructure gratings operating through the
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Bidaux, Yves; Bismuto, Alfredo; Tardy, Camille; Terazzi, Romain; Gresch, Tobias; Blaser, Stéphane; Muller, Antoine; Faist, Jerome (4 November 2015). "Extended and quasi-continuous tuning of quantum cascade lasers using superstructure gratings and integrated heaters".
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of the subbands. The scattering rate between two subbands is heavily dependent upon the overlap of the wave functions and energy spacing between the subbands. The figure shows the wave functions in a three quantum well (3QW) QCL active region and injector.
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long-wavelength QCLs where the lasing transition levels are close to the bottom of the conduction band, and the effect of nonparabolicity is weak. InAs-based QCLs have demonstrated room temperature (RT) continuous wave (CW) operation at wavelengths up to
4252:
Hannemann, M.; Antufjew, A.; Borgmann, K.; Hempel, F.; Ittermann, T.; Welzel, S.; Weltmann, K.D.; Völzke, H.; Röpcke, J. (2011). "Influence of age and sex in exhaled breath samples investigated by means of infrared laser absorption spectroscopy".
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Two types of optical waveguides are in common use. A ridge waveguide is created by etching parallel trenches in the quantum cascade gain material to create an isolated stripe of QC material, typically ~10 um wide, and several mm long. A
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When used in multiple-laser systems, intrapulse QCL spectroscopy offers broadband spectral coverage that can potentially be used to identify and quantify complex heavy molecules such as those in toxic chemicals, explosives, and drugs.
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If a frequency-selective element is included in the external cavity, it is possible to reduce the laser emission to a single wavelength, and even tune the radiation. For example, diffraction gratings have been used to create a
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resonator. The residual reflectivity on the cleaved facets from the semiconductor-to-air interface is sufficient to create a resonator. Fabry–Pérot quantum cascade lasers are capable of producing high powers, but are typically
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quantum cascade emitters have been made. Intersubband electroluminescence from non-polar SiGe heterostructures has been observed for mid-infrared and far-infrared wavelengths, both in the valence and conduction band.
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into the next period of the structure where another photon can be emitted. This process of a single electron causing the emission of multiple photons as it traverses through the QCL structure gives rise to the name
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3133:
Revin, D. G.; Cockburn, J. W.; Steer, M. J.; Airey, R. J.; Hopkinson, M.; Krysa, A. B.; Wilson, L. R.; Menzel, S. (2007-01-08). "InGaAs/AlAsSb/InP quantum cascade lasers operating at wavelengths close to 3μm".
177:
Additionally, in semiconductor laser diodes, electrons and holes are annihilated after recombining across the band gap and can play no further part in photon generation. However, in a unipolar QCL, once an
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120:, which is sparsely populated with high energy electrons. The two energy bands are separated by an energy band gap in which there are no permitted states available for electrons to occupy. Conventional
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Stark, David; Mirza, Muhammad; Persichetti, Luca; Montanari, Michele; Markmann, Sergej; Beck, Mattias; Grange, Thomas; Birner, Stefan; Virgilio, Michele; Ciano, Chiara; Ortolani, Michele (2021-03-08).
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Zibik, E. A.; W. H. Ng; D. G. Revin; L. R. Wilson; J. W. Cockburn; K. M. Groom; M. Hopkinson (March 2006). "Broadband 6 μm < λ < 8 μm superluminescent quantum cascade light-emitting diodes".
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1159:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} n_{i}}{\mathrm {d} t}}=\sum \limits _{j=1}^{N}{\frac {n_{j}}{\tau _{ji}}}-n_{i}\sum \limits _{j=1}^{N}{\frac {1}{\tau _{ij}}}+I(\delta _{iN}-\delta _{i1})}
888:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} n_{1}}{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {n_{2}}{\tau _{21}}}+{\frac {n_{3}}{\tau _{31}}}-{\frac {n_{1}}{\tau _{13}}}-{\frac {n_{1}}{\tau _{12}}}-I_{\mathrm {out} }}
549:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} n_{3}}{\mathrm {d} t}}=I_{\mathrm {in} }+{\frac {n_{1}}{\tau _{13}}}+{\frac {n_{2}}{\tau _{23}}}-{\frac {n_{3}}{\tau _{31}}}-{\frac {n_{3}}{\tau _{32}}}}
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and leads to the splitting of the band of permitted energies into a number of discrete electronic subbands. By suitable design of the layer thicknesses it is possible to engineer a
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In quantum cascade structures, electrons undergo intersubband transitions and photons are emitted. The electrons tunnel to the next period of the structure and the process repeats.
3944:
Faist, Jérome; Claire Gmachl; Frederico
Capasso; Carlo Sirtori; Deborah L. Silvco; James N. Baillargeon; Alfred Y. Cho (May 1997). "Distributed feedback quantum cascade lasers".
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2015:
708:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} n_{2}}{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {n_{3}}{\tau _{32}}}+{\frac {n_{1}}{\tau _{12}}}-{\frac {n_{2}}{\tau _{21}}}-{\frac {n_{2}}{\tau _{23}}}}
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in the valence band. The energy of the photon and hence the emission wavelength of laser diodes is therefore determined by the band gap of the material system used.
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253:
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Lang, N.; Röpcke, J.; Wege, S.; Steinach, A. (2009). "In situ diagnostic of etch plasmas for process control using quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy".
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Lynch, S. A.; Bates, R.; Paul, D. J.; Norris, D. J.; Cullis, A. G.; Ikonic, Z.; Kelsall, R. W.; Harrison, P.; Arnone, D. D.; Pidgeon, C. R. (2002-08-26).
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Bismuto, Alfredo; Bidaux, Yves; Tardy, Camille; Terazzi, Romain; Gresch, Tobias; Wolf, Johanna; Blaser, Stéphane; Muller, Antoine; Faist, Jerome (2015).
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Maulini, Richard; Mattias Beck; Jérome Faist; Emilio Gini (March 2004). "Broadband tuning of external cavity bound-to-continuum quantum-cascade lasers".
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End view of QC facet with buried heterostructure waveguide. Darker gray: InP, lighter gray: QC layers, black: dielectric. Heterostructure ~ 10 um wide
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are the initial and final subband indices. Assuming that no other subbands are populated, the rate equations for the three level lasers are given by:
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224:. Assuming the formation of the wavefunctions is a fast process compared to the scattering between states, the time independent solutions to the
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4524:
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Barate, D.; Teissier, R.; Wang, Y.; Baranov, A. N. (2005). "Short wavelength intersubband emission from InAs/AlSb quantum cascade structures".
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transition is one in which the upper laser level is localised in mainly the central and right-hand wells. This increases the overlap and hence
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4128:
3444:
Loghmari, Z.; Rodriguez, J.-B.; Baranov, A. N.; Rio-Calvo, M.; Cerutti, L.; Meguekam, A.; Bahriz, M.; Teissier, R.; Tournié, E. (2020-04-01).
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End view of QC facet with ridge waveguide. Darker gray: InP, lighter gray: QC layers, black: dielectric, gold: Au coating. Ridge ~ 10 um wide.
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2908:
Kazarinov, R. F.; Suris, R. A. (April 1971). "Possibility of amplification of electromagnetic waves in a semiconductor with a superlattice".
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Faist, Jerome; Federico
Capasso; Deborah L. Sivco; Carlo Sirtori; Albert L. Hutchinson; Alfred Y. Cho (April 1994). "Quantum Cascade Laser".
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Schematic of QC device in external cavity with frequency selective optical feedback provided by diffraction grating in
Littrow configuration.
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3839:
Walther, C.; Fischer, M.; Scalari, G.; Terazzi, R.; Hoyler, N.; Faist, J. (2007). "Quantum cascade lasers operating from 1.2 to 1.6 THz".
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Slivken, S.; A. Evans; J. David; M. Razeghi (December 2002). "High-average-power, high-duty-cycle (λ ~ 6 μm) quantum cascade lasers".
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Electron wave functions are repeated in each period of a three quantum well QCL active region. The upper laser level is shown in bold.
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QCLs currently cover the wavelength range from 2.63 μm to 250 μm (and extends to 355 μm with the application of a magnetic field.)
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3285:"Long Wavelength (λ > 17 µm) Distributed Feedback Quantum Cascade Lasers Operating in a Continuous Wave at Room Temperature"
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The scattering rates are tailored by suitable design of the layer thicknesses in the superlattice which determine the electron
3804:
Cathabard, O.; Teissier, R.; Devenson, J.; Moreno, J.C.; Baranov, A.N. (2010). "Quantum cascade lasers emitting near 2.6 μm".
3493:
Kinjalk, Kumar; Díaz-Thomas, Daniel Andres; Loghmari, Zeineb; Bahriz, Michael; Teissier, Roland; Baranov, Alexei N. (2022).
1816:, the lower laser level and the ground level wave functions are designed such that they have a good overlap and to increase
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light in a superluminescent configuration, it is most commonly used in combination with an optical cavity to form a laser.
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88:, an idea first proposed in the article "Possibility of amplification of electromagnetic waves in a semiconductor with a
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energy (~36 meV in GaAs) so that resonant LO phonon-electron scattering can quickly depopulate the lower laser level.
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Nguyen Van, Hoang; Loghmari, Zeineb; Philip, Hadrien; Bahriz, Michael; Baranov, Alexei N.; Teissier, Roland (2019).
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The first step in processing quantum cascade gain material to make a useful light-emitting device is to confine the
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which reduces the population inversion, but it increases the strength of the radiative transition and therefore the
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Dehlinger, G.; Diehl, L.; Gennser, U.; Sigg, H.; Faist, J.; Ensslin, K.; Grützmacher, D.; Müller, E. (2000-12-22).
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at higher operating currents. The wavelength can be changed chiefly by changing the temperature of the QC device.
1547:, and it is possible only to find the relative population of each subband. If the total sheet density of carriers
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A QCL however does not use bulk semiconductor materials in its optically active region. Instead, it consists of a
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may be applied and the system can be modelled using rate equations. Each subband contains a number of electrons
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39:
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3389:
Loghmari, Z.; Bahriz, M.; Thomas, D. Díaz; Meguekam, A.; Van, H. Nguyen; Teissier, R.; Baranov, A.N. (2018).
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Subband populations are determined by the intersubband scattering rates and the injection/extraction current.
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QCLs may also allow laser operation in materials traditionally considered to have poor optical properties.
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steady-state rate equations are summed, the right hand side becomes zero, meaning that the system is
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substrate. This particular material system has a conduction band offset (quantum well depth) of 520
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of greater than unity possible which leads to higher output powers than semiconductor laser diodes.
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operation make QCLs useful for spectroscopic applications such as remote sensing of environmental
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3391:"Room temperature continuous wave operation of InAs/AlSb-based quantum cascade laser at λ ∼11 µm"
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of electrons occupying different positions over the length of the device. This is referred to as
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1529:{\displaystyle {\frac {n_{3}}{n_{2}}}={\frac {\tau _{32}}{\tau _{21}}}={\frac {W_{21}}{W_{32}}}}
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can extend it to 4% of the central wavelength, compared to <0.1% for a standard DFB device.
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As an approximation, it can be assumed that all the carriers in the system are supplied by
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3334:"Room temperature continuous wave operation of InAs-based quantum cascade lasers at 15 µm"
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further, the energy spacing between the subbands is designed such that it is equal to the
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85:
3639:"Intersubband electroluminescence from Si/SiGe cascade emitters at terahertz frequencies"
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fabricate QCLs emitting at 3.05 μm. InAs/AlSb QCLs have quantum wells 2.1 eV deep and
1871:. These InP-based devices have reached very high levels of performance across the mid-
17:
4616:
4045:"Extended tuning of mid-ir quantum cascade lasers using integrated resistive heaters"
3790:
3741:"THz intersubband electroluminescence from n-type Ge/SiGe quantum cascade structures"
3725:
3578:
3543:
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Razeghi, Manijeh (2009). "High-Performance InP-Based Mid-IR Quantum
Cascade Lasers".
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at room temperature have been demonstrated. The threshold obtained is lower than the
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being emitted when a high energy electron in the conduction band recombines with a
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3600:"Intersubband Electroluminescence from Silicon-Based Quantum Cascade Structures"
2699:" during the course of the pulse, allowing rapid scanning of a spectral region.
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Interband transitions in conventional semiconductor lasers emit a single photon.
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materials such as silicon have minimum electron and hole energies at different
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have also been achieved in InAs-based QCLs emitting in other spectral regions:
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51:
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3686:"The progress towards terahertz quantum cascade lasers on silicon substrates"
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3544:"Si/SiGe heterostructures: from material and physics to devices and circuits"
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3446:"InAs-based quantum cascade lasers grown on on-axis (001) silicon substrate"
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2690:(DFB) quantum cascade laser is similar to a Fabry–Pérot laser, except for a
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pulsing a DFB laser. In this mode, the wavelength of the laser is rapidly "
2817:
in the atmosphere and security. They may eventually be used for vehicular
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and a population inversion will exist. The population ratio is defined as
112:, electrons may occupy states in one of two continuous energy bands — the
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1237:{\displaystyle {\frac {n_{1}}{\tau _{12}}}={\frac {n_{2}}{\tau _{23}}}=0}
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such as breath analyzers. QCLs are also used to study plasma chemistry.
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1308:{\displaystyle {\frac {n_{3}}{\tau _{32}}}={\frac {n_{2}}{\tau _{21}}}}
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77:, QCLs are unipolar, and laser emission is achieved through the use of
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an active area that is typically only a few micrometers in dimension.
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to be built such that light can be coupled back into the gain medium.
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of the best reported InP-based QCLs to date without facet treatment.
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Under the assumption that absorption processes can be ignored, (i.e.
183:
125:
4339:
Howieson, Iain; Normand, Erwan; McCulloch, Michael T. (2005-03-01).
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Normand, Erwan; Howieson, Iain; McCulloch, Michael T. (April 2007).
3332:
Baranov, Alexei N.; Bahriz, Michael; Teissier, Roland (2016-08-08).
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2275:(QCL grown on InAs). Most recently, InAs-based QCLs operating near
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may be grown on to a substrate using a variety of methods such as
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across the length of the device, meaning that there is a varying
3495:"InAs-Based Quantum Cascade Lasers with Extremely Low Threshold"
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Although the quantum cascade gain medium can be used to produce
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population of carriers in each subband may be determined using:
139:
series of thin layers of varying material composition forming a
4398:
116:, which is heavily populated with low energy electrons and the
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2744:
2538:
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spectral range, achieving high power, above room-temperature,
1645:{\displaystyle \sum \limits _{i=1}^{N}n_{i}=N_{\mathrm {2D} }}
4389:
2624:. This makes it possible to direct the emitted light into a
1244:, valid at low temperatures) the middle rate equation gives
3230:"Quantum Cascade Lasers in the InAs/AlSb Material System"
309:(reciprocal of the average intersubband scattering rate
92:" by R. F. Kazarinov and R. A. Suris in 1971.
4182:"Tunable QC laser opens up mid-IR sensing applications"
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2555:
182:
has undergone an intersubband transition and emitted a
50:, Deborah Sivco, Carlo Sirtori, Albert Hutchinson, and
4212:"Quantum-cascade lasers enable gas-sensing technology"
3234:
IEEE Journal of
Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
2981:
IEEE Journal of
Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
954:{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {in} }=I_{\mathrm {out} }=I}
2507:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are
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at wavelengths as short as 2.5 μm has been observed.
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4188:. PennWell Publications. 2006-07-01. Archived from
4159:. PennWell Publications. 2004-04-19. Archived from
4153:"Alpes offers CW and pulsed quantum cascade lasers"
3986:. PennWell Publications. 2005-03-01. Archived from
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2724:that can tune over 15% of its center wavelength.
4531:Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser
1696:is approximately equal to the doping density.
81:in a repeated stack of semiconductor multiple
4410:
4306:The European Physical Journal Applied Physics
3228:Baranov, Alexei N.; Teissier, Roland (2015).
902:, the time derivatives are equal to zero and
8:
2780:The alternating layers of the two different
2474:Learn how and when to remove these messages
4457:Separate confinement heterostructure laser
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2829:, industrial process control, and medical
186:in one period of the superlattice, it can
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2580:Learn how and when to remove this message
2527:Learn how and when to remove this message
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2251:
2230:
2218:
2204:
2175:
2154:
2142:
2128:
2099:
2078:
2066:
2052:
2028:
2022:
2001:
1989:
1975:
1951:
1945:
1916:
1827:
1821:
1800:
1794:
1766:
1760:
1731:
1725:
1676:
1675:
1669:
1660:. If the dopant species has a negligible
1632:
1631:
1618:
1608:
1597:
1591:
1559:
1558:
1552:
1518:
1508:
1502:
1491:
1481:
1475:
1464:
1454:
1448:
1446:
1422:
1409:
1403:
1382:
1369:
1363:
1342:
1329:
1323:
1297:
1287:
1281:
1270:
1260:
1254:
1252:
1220:
1210:
1204:
1193:
1183:
1177:
1175:
1144:
1128:
1104:
1095:
1089:
1078:
1068:
1050:
1040:
1034:
1028:
1017:
999:
991:
982:
979:
977:
932:
931:
914:
913:
907:
872:
871:
856:
846:
840:
829:
819:
813:
802:
792:
786:
775:
765:
759:
745:
737:
728:
725:
723:
697:
687:
681:
670:
660:
654:
643:
633:
627:
616:
606:
600:
586:
578:
569:
566:
564:
538:
528:
522:
511:
501:
495:
484:
474:
468:
457:
447:
441:
428:
427:
409:
401:
392:
389:
387:
364:
344:
320:
314:
290:
284:
260:
239:
233:
2716:QC device to create the optical cavity.
2503:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1940:with a pulsed threshold current density
1351:{\displaystyle \tau _{32}>\tau _{21}}
143:. The superlattice introduces a varying
2942:. Graduate Texts in Physics. Springer.
2846:
4525:Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser
4341:"Quantum-cascade lasers smell success"
3980:"Quantum-cascade lasers smell success"
2852:
2850:
2798:metalorganic chemical vapor deposition
2644:The second waveguide type is a buried
1863:material system lattice-matched to an
1579:in the system is also known, then the
96:Intersubband vs. interband transitions
3022:Sirtori; et al. (1998). "GaAs/Al
7:
1855:The first QCL was fabricated in the
4312:(13110) (published 2009-12-11): 3.
4261:(27101) (published 2011-04-01): 9.
1594:
1075:
1014:
3067:"Terahertz quantum-cascade lasers"
1890:QCLs were demonstrated by Sirtori
1680:
1636:
1563:
1000:
983:
939:
936:
933:
918:
915:
879:
876:
873:
746:
729:
587:
570:
432:
429:
410:
393:
25:
4463:Distributed Bragg reflector laser
4129:"Extrait du registre du commerce"
2911:Fizika I Tekhnika Poluprovodnikov
2794:metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy
2692:distributed Bragg reflector (DBR)
2455:This section has multiple issues.
1689:{\displaystyle N_{\mathrm {2D} }}
1572:{\displaystyle N_{\mathrm {2D} }}
4425:
4390:Optipedia: Quantum Cascade Laser
2748:
2542:
2485:
2444:
1845:longitudinal optical (LO) phonon
1391:{\displaystyle W_{21}>W_{32}}
220:QCLs are typically based upon a
4602:List of semiconductor materials
2463:or discuss these issues on the
2087:{\displaystyle 0.715~kA/cm^{2}}
279:between levels with a lifetime
42:and were first demonstrated by
3065:Williams, Benjamin S. (2007).
2939:Quantum Photonics, 2nd edition
2239:{\displaystyle 0.75~kA/cm^{2}}
2163:{\displaystyle 0.99~kA/cm^{2}}
1431:{\displaystyle n_{3}>n_{2}}
1153:
1121:
1:
3690:Laser & Photonics Reviews
3616:10.1126/science.290.5500.2277
2374:{\displaystyle 0.6~kA/cm^{2}}
69:through the recombination of
34:that emit in the mid- to far-
4451:Double heterostructure laser
4275:10.1088/1752-7155/5/2/027101
3030:As quantum cascade lasers".
2879:10.1126/science.264.5158.553
275:is the subband index) which
108:Within a bulk semiconductor
3571:10.1088/0268-1242/19/10/R02
2682:Distributed feedback lasers
2010:{\displaystyle 1~kA/cm^{2}}
969:level system is therefore:
124:generate light by a single
4649:
4574:Laser diode rate equations
4569:Semiconductor laser theory
4469:Distributed-feedback laser
4255:Journal of Breath Research
3254:10.1109/JSTQE.2015.2426412
3001:10.1109/JSTQE.2008.2006764
2423:theoretical proposals for
1933:{\displaystyle 17.7~\mu m}
1895:be very successful in the
302:{\displaystyle \tau _{if}}
122:semiconductor laser diodes
2948:10.1007/978-3-030-47325-9
2936:Pearsall, Thomas (2020).
2268:{\displaystyle 7.7~\mu m}
67:electromagnetic radiation
61:Unlike typical interband
4548:Semiconductor ring laser
3542:Paul, Douglas J (2004).
3520:10.3390/photonics9100747
3310:10.3390/photonics6010031
3094:10.1038/nphoton.2007.166
2297:{\displaystyle 14~\mu m}
2192:{\displaystyle 11~\mu m}
2116:{\displaystyle 15~\mu m}
1899:region of the spectrum.
79:intersubband transitions
40:electromagnetic spectrum
4542:Interband cascade laser
4095:Applied Physics Letters
4010:Applied Physics Letters
3946:Applied Physics Letters
3911:Applied Physics Letters
3841:Applied Physics Letters
3806:Applied Physics Letters
3745:Applied Physics Letters
3643:Applied Physics Letters
3179:Applied Physics Letters
3136:Applied Physics Letters
2796:(MOVPE), also known as
2786:quantum heterostructure
2728:Extended tuning devices
3710:10.1002/lpor.200910038
3551:Semicond. Sci. Technol
2825:, collision avoidance
2821:in conditions of poor
2790:molecular beam epitaxy
2712:
2703:External cavity lasers
2613:
2605:
2405:
2404:{\displaystyle J_{th}}
2375:
2328:
2327:{\displaystyle J_{th}}
2298:
2269:
2240:
2193:
2164:
2117:
2088:
2041:
2040:{\displaystyle J_{th}}
2011:
1964:
1963:{\displaystyle J_{th}}
1934:
1837:
1836:{\displaystyle W_{21}}
1810:
1809:{\displaystyle W_{21}}
1776:
1775:{\displaystyle W_{32}}
1741:
1740:{\displaystyle W_{32}}
1704:
1690:
1646:
1613:
1573:
1530:
1432:
1392:
1352:
1309:
1238:
1160:
1094:
1033:
955:
889:
709:
550:
373:
353:
333:
332:{\displaystyle W_{if}}
303:
269:
249:
217:
174:
105:
28:Quantum-cascade lasers
18:Quantum cascade lasers
4491:External-cavity laser
4485:Quantum-cascade laser
4326:10.1051/epjap/2009198
2710:
2611:
2603:
2406:
2376:
2329:
2299:
2270:
2241:
2194:
2165:
2118:
2089:
2042:
2012:
1965:
1935:
1838:
1811:
1789:In order to increase
1777:
1742:
1720:In order to decrease
1708:Active region designs
1702:
1691:
1647:
1593:
1574:
1531:
1433:
1393:
1353:
1310:
1239:
1161:
1074:
1013:
956:
890:
710:
551:
374:
354:
334:
304:
270:
250:
248:{\displaystyle n_{i}}
215:
172:
156:multiple quantum well
103:
4633:Terahertz technology
4628:Semiconductor lasers
4537:Hybrid silicon laser
4508:Volume Bragg grating
4431:Semiconductor lasers
4133:Registre du commerce
4070:10.1364/OE.23.029715
3684:Paul, D. J. (2010).
3415:10.1049/el.2018.5258
3359:10.1364/OE.24.018799
2688:distributed feedback
2496:factual accuracy is
2436:Emission wavelengths
2385:
2338:
2308:
2279:
2250:
2203:
2174:
2127:
2098:
2051:
2021:
1974:
1944:
1915:
1820:
1793:
1759:
1724:
1668:
1590:
1551:
1445:
1402:
1362:
1322:
1251:
1174:
976:
906:
722:
563:
386:
363:
343:
313:
283:
259:
232:
226:Schrödinger equation
203:Operating principles
163:population inversion
73:across the material
63:semiconductor lasers
32:semiconductor lasers
4623:American inventions
4318:2010EPJAP..49a3110L
4267:2011JBR.....5b7101H
4107:2015ApPhL.107v1108B
4061:2015OExpr..2329715B
4055:(23): 29715–29722.
4022:2004ApPhL..84.1659M
3958:1997ApPhL..70.2670F
3923:2002ApPhL..81.4321S
3888:2006ApPhL..88l1109Z
3853:2007ApPhL..91m1122W
3818:2010ApPhL..96n1110C
3767:2021ApPhL.118j1101S
3702:2010LPRv....4..610P
3655:2002ApPhL..81.1543L
3610:(5500): 2277–2280.
3563:2004SeScT..19R..75P
3511:2022Photo...9..747K
3462:2020APLP....5d1302L
3407:2018ElL....54.1045L
3395:Electronics Letters
3350:2016OExpr..2418799B
3344:(16): 18799–19506.
3301:2019Photo...6...31N
3246:2015IJSTQ..21...85B
3191:2005ApPhL..87e1103B
3148:2007ApPhL..90b1108R
3086:2007NaPho...1..517W
3044:1998ApPhL..73.3486S
2993:2009IJSTQ..15..941R
2871:1994Sci...264..553F
2628:beam, and allows a
1905:electroluminescence
71:electron–hole pairs
4475:Quantum well laser
2760:. You can help by
2713:
2664:Fabry–Perot lasers
2614:
2606:
2596:Optical waveguides
2554:. You can help by
2401:
2371:
2324:
2294:
2265:
2236:
2189:
2160:
2113:
2084:
2037:
2007:
1960:
1930:
1833:
1806:
1772:
1737:
1705:
1686:
1642:
1569:
1526:
1428:
1388:
1348:
1305:
1234:
1156:
951:
885:
705:
546:
369:
349:
329:
299:
265:
245:
222:three-level system
218:
197:quantum efficiency
175:
145:electric potential
106:
4610:
4609:
4480:Quantum dot laser
4385:Bell Labs summary
4345:Laser Focus World
4216:Laser Focus World
4186:Laser Focus World
4157:Laser Focus World
4115:10.1063/1.4936931
4030:10.1063/1.1667609
3984:Laser Focus World
3931:10.1063/1.1526462
3917:(23): 4321–4323.
3896:10.1063/1.2188371
3861:10.1063/1.2793177
3826:10.1063/1.3385778
3775:10.1063/5.0041327
3663:10.1063/1.1501759
3471:10.1063/5.0002376
3401:(17): 1045–1047.
3199:10.1063/1.2007854
3156:10.1063/1.2431035
2957:978-3-030-47324-2
2865:(5158): 553–556.
2778:
2777:
2590:
2589:
2582:
2572:
2571:
2537:
2536:
2529:
2478:
2346:
2287:
2258:
2211:
2182:
2135:
2106:
2059:
1982:
1923:
1662:ionisation energy
1524:
1497:
1470:
1303:
1276:
1226:
1199:
1113:
1059:
1008:
862:
835:
808:
781:
754:
703:
676:
649:
622:
595:
544:
517:
490:
463:
418:
372:{\displaystyle f}
352:{\displaystyle i}
268:{\displaystyle i}
166:material system.
56:Bell Laboratories
16:(Redirected from
4640:
4596:Gallium arsenide
4429:
4419:
4412:
4405:
4396:
4372:
4371:
4369:
4368:
4359:. Archived from
4336:
4330:
4329:
4301:
4295:
4294:
4249:
4243:
4242:
4240:
4239:
4230:. Archived from
4207:
4201:
4200:
4198:
4197:
4178:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4168:
4149:
4143:
4142:
4140:
4139:
4125:
4119:
4118:
4089:
4083:
4082:
4072:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3996:
3995:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3966:10.1063/1.119208
3941:
3935:
3934:
3906:
3900:
3899:
3876:Appl. Phys. Lett
3871:
3865:
3864:
3836:
3830:
3829:
3801:
3795:
3794:
3760:
3736:
3730:
3729:
3681:
3675:
3674:
3649:(9): 1543–1545.
3634:
3628:
3627:
3595:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3585:
3557:(10): R75–R108.
3548:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3522:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3473:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3386:
3380:
3379:
3361:
3329:
3323:
3322:
3312:
3280:
3274:
3273:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3105:
3074:Nature Photonics
3071:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3052:10.1063/1.122812
3032:Appl. Phys. Lett
3019:
3013:
3012:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2919:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2854:
2773:
2770:
2752:
2745:
2585:
2578:
2567:
2564:
2546:
2539:
2532:
2525:
2521:
2518:
2512:
2509:reliably sourced
2489:
2488:
2481:
2470:
2448:
2447:
2440:
2416:Indirect bandgap
2410:
2408:
2407:
2402:
2400:
2399:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2357:
2344:
2333:
2331:
2330:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2295:
2285:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2266:
2256:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2222:
2209:
2198:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2180:
2169:
2167:
2166:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2146:
2133:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2104:
2093:
2091:
2090:
2085:
2083:
2082:
2070:
2057:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2017:. Low values of
2016:
2014:
2013:
2008:
2006:
2005:
1993:
1980:
1969:
1967:
1966:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1939:
1937:
1936:
1931:
1921:
1851:Material systems
1842:
1840:
1839:
1834:
1832:
1831:
1815:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1781:
1779:
1778:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1746:
1744:
1743:
1738:
1736:
1735:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1651:
1649:
1648:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1623:
1622:
1612:
1607:
1578:
1576:
1575:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1566:
1535:
1533:
1532:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1513:
1512:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1486:
1485:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1468:
1459:
1458:
1449:
1437:
1435:
1434:
1429:
1427:
1426:
1414:
1413:
1397:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1387:
1386:
1374:
1373:
1357:
1355:
1354:
1349:
1347:
1346:
1334:
1333:
1314:
1312:
1311:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1301:
1292:
1291:
1282:
1277:
1275:
1274:
1265:
1264:
1255:
1243:
1241:
1240:
1235:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1215:
1214:
1205:
1200:
1198:
1197:
1188:
1187:
1178:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1151:
1136:
1135:
1114:
1112:
1111:
1096:
1093:
1088:
1073:
1072:
1060:
1058:
1057:
1045:
1044:
1035:
1032:
1027:
1009:
1007:
1003:
997:
996:
995:
986:
980:
960:
958:
957:
952:
944:
943:
942:
923:
922:
921:
894:
892:
891:
886:
884:
883:
882:
863:
861:
860:
851:
850:
841:
836:
834:
833:
824:
823:
814:
809:
807:
806:
797:
796:
787:
782:
780:
779:
770:
769:
760:
755:
753:
749:
743:
742:
741:
732:
726:
714:
712:
711:
706:
704:
702:
701:
692:
691:
682:
677:
675:
674:
665:
664:
655:
650:
648:
647:
638:
637:
628:
623:
621:
620:
611:
610:
601:
596:
594:
590:
584:
583:
582:
573:
567:
555:
553:
552:
547:
545:
543:
542:
533:
532:
523:
518:
516:
515:
506:
505:
496:
491:
489:
488:
479:
478:
469:
464:
462:
461:
452:
451:
442:
437:
436:
435:
419:
417:
413:
407:
406:
405:
396:
390:
378:
376:
375:
370:
358:
356:
355:
350:
338:
336:
335:
330:
328:
327:
308:
306:
305:
300:
298:
297:
274:
272:
271:
266:
254:
252:
251:
246:
244:
243:
86:heterostructures
48:Federico Capasso
21:
4648:
4647:
4643:
4642:
4641:
4639:
4638:
4637:
4613:
4612:
4611:
4606:
4590:Indium arsenide
4578:
4557:
4553:Polariton laser
4513:
4496:
4433:
4423:
4381:
4376:
4375:
4366:
4364:
4338:
4337:
4333:
4303:
4302:
4298:
4251:
4250:
4246:
4237:
4235:
4209:
4208:
4204:
4195:
4193:
4180:
4179:
4175:
4166:
4164:
4151:
4150:
4146:
4137:
4135:
4127:
4126:
4122:
4091:
4090:
4086:
4042:
4041:
4037:
4007:
4006:
4002:
3993:
3991:
3978:
3977:
3973:
3943:
3942:
3938:
3908:
3907:
3903:
3873:
3872:
3868:
3838:
3837:
3833:
3803:
3802:
3798:
3738:
3737:
3733:
3683:
3682:
3678:
3636:
3635:
3631:
3597:
3596:
3592:
3583:
3581:
3546:
3541:
3540:
3536:
3492:
3491:
3487:
3443:
3442:
3438:
3388:
3387:
3383:
3331:
3330:
3326:
3282:
3281:
3277:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3132:
3131:
3127:
3069:
3064:
3063:
3059:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3020:
3016:
2978:
2977:
2973:
2958:
2935:
2934:
2930:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2902:
2856:
2855:
2848:
2843:
2806:
2784:which form the
2774:
2768:
2765:
2758:needs expansion
2743:
2730:
2705:
2684:
2666:
2654:
2646:heterostructure
2630:laser resonator
2598:
2586:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2552:needs expansion
2533:
2522:
2516:
2513:
2502:
2494:This section's
2490:
2486:
2449:
2445:
2438:
2388:
2383:
2382:
2361:
2336:
2335:
2311:
2306:
2305:
2277:
2276:
2248:
2247:
2226:
2201:
2200:
2172:
2171:
2150:
2125:
2124:
2096:
2095:
2074:
2049:
2048:
2024:
2019:
2018:
1997:
1972:
1971:
1947:
1942:
1941:
1913:
1912:
1877:continuous wave
1853:
1823:
1818:
1817:
1796:
1791:
1790:
1762:
1757:
1756:
1727:
1722:
1721:
1710:
1671:
1666:
1665:
1627:
1614:
1588:
1587:
1554:
1549:
1548:
1545:underdetermined
1514:
1504:
1487:
1477:
1460:
1450:
1443:
1442:
1418:
1405:
1400:
1399:
1378:
1365:
1360:
1359:
1338:
1325:
1320:
1319:
1293:
1283:
1266:
1256:
1249:
1248:
1216:
1206:
1189:
1179:
1172:
1171:
1140:
1124:
1100:
1064:
1046:
1036:
998:
987:
981:
974:
973:
927:
909:
904:
903:
867:
852:
842:
825:
815:
798:
788:
771:
761:
744:
733:
727:
720:
719:
693:
683:
666:
656:
639:
629:
612:
602:
585:
574:
568:
561:
560:
534:
524:
507:
497:
480:
470:
453:
443:
423:
408:
397:
391:
384:
383:
361:
360:
341:
340:
316:
311:
310:
286:
281:
280:
257:
256:
235:
230:
229:
210:
205:
153:one-dimensional
118:conduction band
98:
38:portion of the
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4646:
4644:
4636:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4615:
4614:
4608:
4607:
4605:
4604:
4599:
4593:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4565:
4563:
4559:
4558:
4556:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4539:
4534:
4528:
4521:
4519:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4511:
4504:
4502:
4498:
4497:
4495:
4494:
4488:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4466:
4460:
4454:
4448:
4441:
4439:
4435:
4434:
4424:
4422:
4421:
4414:
4407:
4399:
4393:
4392:
4387:
4380:
4379:External links
4377:
4374:
4373:
4331:
4296:
4244:
4202:
4173:
4144:
4120:
4101:(22): 221108.
4084:
4049:Optics Express
4035:
4000:
3971:
3936:
3901:
3882:(12): 121109.
3866:
3847:(13): 131122.
3831:
3812:(14): 141110.
3796:
3751:(10): 101101.
3731:
3696:(5): 610–632.
3676:
3629:
3590:
3534:
3485:
3436:
3381:
3338:Optics Express
3324:
3275:
3220:
3169:
3125:
3080:(9): 517–525.
3057:
3027:
3023:
3014:
2987:(3): 941–951.
2971:
2956:
2928:
2900:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2819:cruise control
2805:
2802:
2782:semiconductors
2776:
2775:
2755:
2753:
2742:
2739:
2735:Vernier effect
2729:
2726:
2704:
2701:
2683:
2680:
2665:
2662:
2653:
2650:
2620:in an optical
2597:
2594:
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2569:
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2491:
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2290:
2284:
2264:
2261:
2255:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2208:
2188:
2185:
2179:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2138:
2132:
2112:
2109:
2103:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2062:
2056:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1985:
1979:
1957:
1954:
1950:
1929:
1926:
1920:
1852:
1849:
1830:
1826:
1803:
1799:
1769:
1765:
1751:transition. A
1734:
1730:
1714:wave functions
1709:
1706:
1682:
1679:
1674:
1654:
1653:
1638:
1635:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1611:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1596:
1565:
1562:
1557:
1537:
1536:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1507:
1501:
1494:
1490:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1453:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1318:Therefore, if
1316:
1315:
1300:
1296:
1290:
1286:
1280:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1259:
1233:
1230:
1223:
1219:
1213:
1209:
1203:
1196:
1192:
1186:
1182:
1168:
1167:
1155:
1150:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1092:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1077:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1039:
1031:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1006:
1002:
994:
990:
985:
950:
947:
941:
938:
935:
930:
926:
920:
917:
912:
896:
895:
881:
878:
875:
870:
866:
859:
855:
849:
845:
839:
832:
828:
822:
818:
812:
805:
801:
795:
791:
785:
778:
774:
768:
764:
758:
752:
748:
740:
736:
731:
716:
715:
700:
696:
690:
686:
680:
673:
669:
663:
659:
653:
646:
642:
636:
632:
626:
619:
615:
609:
605:
599:
593:
589:
581:
577:
572:
557:
556:
541:
537:
531:
527:
521:
514:
510:
504:
500:
494:
487:
483:
477:
473:
467:
460:
456:
450:
446:
440:
434:
431:
426:
422:
416:
412:
404:
400:
395:
368:
348:
326:
323:
319:
296:
293:
289:
264:
242:
238:
209:
208:Rate equations
206:
204:
201:
97:
94:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4645:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4620:
4618:
4603:
4600:
4597:
4594:
4591:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4581:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4566:
4564:
4560:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4532:
4529:
4526:
4523:
4522:
4520:
4516:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4499:
4492:
4489:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4470:
4467:
4464:
4461:
4458:
4455:
4452:
4449:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4420:
4415:
4413:
4408:
4406:
4401:
4400:
4397:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4378:
4363:on 2013-01-27
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4335:
4332:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4300:
4297:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4248:
4245:
4234:on 2013-01-27
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4206:
4203:
4192:on 2013-01-27
4191:
4187:
4183:
4177:
4174:
4163:on 2013-01-28
4162:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4145:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4121:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4088:
4085:
4080:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4039:
4036:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4004:
4001:
3990:on 2013-01-28
3989:
3985:
3981:
3975:
3972:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3940:
3937:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3916:
3912:
3905:
3902:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3870:
3867:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3835:
3832:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3800:
3797:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3735:
3732:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3680:
3677:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3633:
3630:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3594:
3591:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3545:
3538:
3535:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3489:
3486:
3481:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3456:(4): 041302.
3455:
3451:
3450:APL Photonics
3447:
3440:
3437:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3385:
3382:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3328:
3325:
3320:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3279:
3276:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3224:
3221:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3185:(5): 051103.
3184:
3180:
3173:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3142:(2): 021108.
3141:
3137:
3129:
3126:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3068:
3061:
3058:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3018:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2975:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2940:
2932:
2929:
2925:(4): 797–800.
2924:
2920:
2917:
2912:
2904:
2901:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2772:
2763:
2759:
2756:This section
2754:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2722:tunable laser
2717:
2709:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2693:
2689:
2681:
2679:
2677:
2672:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2651:
2649:
2647:
2642:
2639:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2610:
2602:
2595:
2593:
2584:
2581:
2566:
2557:
2553:
2550:This section
2548:
2545:
2541:
2540:
2531:
2528:
2520:
2510:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2492:
2483:
2482:
2477:
2475:
2468:
2467:
2462:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2442:
2441:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2421:
2417:
2412:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2341:
2319:
2316:
2312:
2291:
2288:
2282:
2262:
2259:
2253:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2212:
2206:
2186:
2183:
2177:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2136:
2130:
2110:
2107:
2101:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2060:
2054:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1927:
1924:
1918:
1908:
1906:
1900:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1828:
1824:
1801:
1797:
1787:
1785:
1767:
1763:
1754:
1750:
1732:
1728:
1718:
1715:
1707:
1701:
1697:
1677:
1672:
1663:
1659:
1633:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1609:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1586:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1560:
1555:
1546:
1542:
1519:
1515:
1509:
1505:
1499:
1492:
1488:
1482:
1478:
1472:
1465:
1461:
1455:
1451:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1326:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1271:
1267:
1261:
1257:
1247:
1246:
1245:
1231:
1228:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1207:
1201:
1194:
1190:
1184:
1180:
1148:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1115:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1090:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1041:
1037:
1029:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1010:
1004:
992:
988:
972:
971:
970:
968:
964:
948:
945:
928:
924:
910:
901:
868:
864:
857:
853:
847:
843:
837:
830:
826:
820:
816:
810:
803:
799:
793:
789:
783:
776:
772:
766:
762:
756:
750:
738:
734:
718:
717:
698:
694:
688:
684:
678:
671:
667:
661:
657:
651:
644:
640:
634:
630:
624:
617:
613:
607:
603:
597:
591:
579:
575:
559:
558:
539:
535:
529:
525:
519:
512:
508:
502:
498:
492:
485:
481:
475:
471:
465:
458:
454:
448:
444:
438:
424:
420:
414:
402:
398:
382:
381:
380:
366:
346:
324:
321:
317:
294:
291:
287:
278:
262:
240:
236:
227:
223:
214:
207:
202:
200:
198:
194:
189:
185:
181:
171:
167:
164:
160:
157:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
102:
95:
93:
91:
87:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
19:
4501:Hybrid types
4484:
4365:. Retrieved
4361:the original
4348:
4344:
4334:
4309:
4305:
4299:
4258:
4254:
4247:
4236:. Retrieved
4232:the original
4222:(4): 90–92.
4219:
4215:
4205:
4194:. Retrieved
4190:the original
4185:
4176:
4165:. Retrieved
4161:the original
4156:
4147:
4136:. Retrieved
4132:
4123:
4098:
4094:
4087:
4052:
4048:
4038:
4016:(10): 1659.
4013:
4009:
4003:
3992:. Retrieved
3988:the original
3983:
3974:
3952:(20): 2670.
3949:
3945:
3939:
3914:
3910:
3904:
3879:
3875:
3869:
3844:
3840:
3834:
3809:
3805:
3799:
3748:
3744:
3734:
3693:
3689:
3679:
3646:
3642:
3632:
3607:
3603:
3593:
3582:. Retrieved
3554:
3550:
3537:
3502:
3498:
3488:
3453:
3449:
3439:
3398:
3394:
3384:
3341:
3337:
3327:
3292:
3288:
3278:
3240:(6): 85–96.
3237:
3233:
3223:
3182:
3178:
3172:
3139:
3135:
3128:
3103:1721.1/17012
3077:
3073:
3060:
3038:(24): 3486.
3035:
3031:
3017:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2938:
2931:
2922:
2909:
2903:
2862:
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2766:
2762:adding to it
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2551:
2523:
2517:January 2012
2514:
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2464:
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2457:Please help
2454:
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192:
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141:superlattice
134:
114:valence band
107:
90:superlattice
83:quantum well
60:
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27:
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4518:Other Types
4445:Laser diode
4438:Basic types
4351:(3): S3–+.
3505:(10): 747.
2914: [
2831:diagnostics
2671:Fabry–Pérot
2652:Laser types
2618:gain medium
159:confinement
149:probability
30:(QCLs) are
4617:Categories
4367:2008-01-25
4238:2008-01-25
4196:2008-03-26
4167:2007-12-01
4138:2016-04-28
3994:2008-03-26
3758:2101.05518
3584:2007-02-18
3547:(abstract)
2841:References
2823:visibility
2815:pollutants
2658:incoherent
2638:dielectric
2626:collimated
2460:improve it
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1970:as low as
1879:emission.
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52:Alfred Cho
4583:Materials
4357:0740-2511
4228:1043-8092
3791:231602947
3783:0003-6951
3726:120927848
3718:1863-8899
3671:0003-6951
3579:250846255
3529:2304-6732
3499:Photonics
3480:218844666
3431:126174361
3423:0013-5194
3368:1094-4087
3319:2304-6732
3295:(1): 31.
3289:Photonics
3262:1077-260X
3207:0003-6951
3164:0003-6951
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2895:220111282
2800:(MOCVD).
2792:(MBE) or
2769:June 2008
2622:waveguide
2563:June 2008
2505:talk page
2466:talk page
2289:μ
2260:μ
2184:μ
2108:μ
1925:μ
1897:terahertz
1595:∑
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3270:46218942
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3120:29073195
3009:37864645
2887:17732739
2498:disputed
2420:momentum
1882:In 1998
1873:infrared
1753:vertical
1749:diagonal
1581:absolute
180:electron
137:periodic
75:band gap
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4314:Bibcode
4263:Bibcode
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4018:Bibcode
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3753:arXiv
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