Russian nihilist movement - Knowledge (XXG)

1829: 1804: 6297:(1864). ... Chernyshevskii in 1864 was found guilty, through false testimony and provocation, of "taking steps to overthrow the existing system of government." He was sentenced to seven years' penal servitude and lifetime residence in Siberia. After the ceremony of "civil execution" in Mytninskaia Square on May 19, 1864, Chernyshevskii was sent to the Nerchinsk hard labor camps (Kadaia mine; transferred to the Aleksandrovskii plant in 1866). In 1871, having completed his term of hard labor, he was sent to jail in Viliuisk. 2452:). Others saw a managerial class as the basis for the new order. Most nihilists, however, were convinced that this positive goal could only be properly formulated when the chains of repression had been broken."; "This strange lack of concern was apparently the result of their belief that politics was linked to an outdated stage of humanity."; "The nihilists' neglect of politics, which they saw to be outdated, proved in this case to be their undoing. 492:, "defined nihilism as the symbol of struggle against all forms of tyranny, hypocrisy, and artificiality and for individual freedom." As only an early form of nihilist philosophy, Russian nihilism saw all the morality, philosophy, religion, aesthetics, and social institutions which were in place as worthless and meaningless but did not necessarily see meaninglessness in all ethics, knowledge, and human life. It did however, incorporate theories of 1487: 5882:

those with sufficient spiritual strength, a characteristic by him exclusively attributed to the young. Moreover, they possess the courage and capacity to face the times as they really are, despite whatever haunting social "malady". This is exactly what "Bazarovism" is: a malady that must be lived through rather than resisted in order for the patient, that is, society, to become healthy again.

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the characteristic glasses. Such a nihilist could, however, above all be identified by a reversal of official etiquette; the men demonstratively refusing to act chivalrously in the presence of women, and the women behaving contrary to expectations. Both sexes hence sought to incarnate Bazarov’s roughness, his "cynicism of manner and expression."

4440:... under the delayed influence of the French Enlightenment and the contemporaneous influence of post-Hegelian German materialism, came together with political radicalism to create a major social and intellectual movement with a broadly materialist philosophical foundation. ... the representatives of this movement came to be called 'nihilists' 2499:

nihilism. This is, however, a mistake. To confuse nihilism with terrorism is as wrong as to confuse a philosophical movement like stoicism or positivism with a political movement such as, for example, republicanism. Terrorism was called into existence by certain special conditions of the political struggle at a given historical moment.

2693:, in which he applied it to Aleksandr Pushkin. Nadezhdin, as did V.V. Bervi in 1858, equated nihilism with skepticism. Mikhail Nikiforovich Katkov, a well-known conservative journalist who interpreted nihilism as synonymous with revolution, presented it as a social menace because of its negation of all moral principles. 1513:. By an extraordinary failure of bureaucracy, government censors allowed the book to be published without any trouble despite it being the most openly revolutionary work of its era and a direct product of the suppression Chernyshevsky had faced. The novel marked a significant departure for Chernyshevsky into 6359:

It is worth while comparing this behavior with that of another Russian revolutionary, N. G. Chernyshevsky. For twenty years he was confined in a fortress and put to penal servitude in Siberia, but he did not sink so low as to plead for pardon from his mortal enemy, the tsar, although his position was

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The 1860s were once described by Trotsky as 'a brief eighteenth century' in Russian thought. The Nihilist thinkers sought to assimilate and resynthesize the main trends in Western materialism and positivism. As usual in Russia, imported ideas were treated selectively and deployed in quite distinctive

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heightened aggression within the movement and pressed for violent conflict against the tsarist regime. He appeared on the scene in 1868, and soon afterward fled to Switzerland. Bakunin, an admirer of Nechayev's zeal and success, provided contacts and resources to send Nechayev back to Russia to found

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Bakunin and Herzen held nihilistic views and contributed to the nihilists' cause. One should, however, remember that some significant differences remain between the nihilist "fathers" and the nihilist "children". ... Although Herzen could be qualified as a nihilist in several senses, he was by virtue

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were "educated commoners". Their backgrounds however, did not include peasants, foreigners, tributary natives, nor urban taxpayers such as merchants, guildsmen, and townsfolk, but instead included lower-end families of clergymen, civil servants, retired military servicemen, and minor officials. While

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The city of St. Petersburg erupted in flames in the spring and summer of 1862. Students of St. Petersburg and Moscow Universities, acting on an upsurge of revolutionary activism, had begun demonstrating their frustrations. Fyodor Dostoevsky blamed Nikolai Chernyshevsky, who at the time was a radical

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was first popularized. Pisarev graduated university in 1861, the same year as serfdom was abolished and the first major student demonstration was held in St. Petersburg. Turgenev himself notes that as early as 1862, the year of the novel's publishing, violent protestors had begun calling themselves

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The guiding figure in the university reform was A. V. Golovnin, the minister of education from 1861 to 1866. The new statute took shape against the backdrop of increasing student activism. Despite their refusal to grant students more rights, the reformers granted university professors considerable

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The movement is misunderstood in Western Europe. In the press, for example, nihilism is continually confused with terrorism. The revolutionary disturbance which broke out in Russia toward the close of the reign of Alexander II., and ended in the tragic death of the Tsar, is constantly described as

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attacked the book with such vitriol that others in the movement took issue with him. Pisarev famously published his own review at the time of the novel's release, where he championed Bazarov as the role model for the new generation and celebrated the embrace of nihilism. To him, Bazarovism was the

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Young nihilist men dressed in ill-fitting dark coats, aspiring to look like unpolished workers, let their hair grow bushy and often wore blue-tinted glasses. Correspondingly, the young women cut their hair shorter, wore large plain dresses and could be seen with a shawl or a big hat, together with

1093:'overwhelming' influence on them. During the communist period of Russian history, the principal 'nihilist' theoreticians were officially lionized under the designation 'Russian revolutionary democrats' and were called the most important materialist thinkers in the history of philosophy before Marx. 5881:

Pisarev responded by writing an enthusiastic review that at the time became almost as famous as the book, endorsing the young generation's embrace of nihilism, as well as its coronation of Bazarov as its role model. ... According to Pisarev, Bazarovism, and the "realism" it represents, draws upon

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as one of the great achievements of idealism which a crude materialism could threaten. In one of the first serious attempts to give a radical left-wing interpretation of Hegelian dialectics, Bakunin wrote his 1842 article "The Reaction in Germany" and essentially foreshadowed later generations of

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These virtuous fictional creations were not the genuine, flesh-and-blood egoists whose growing presence in Russia Dostoevsky feared. Yet the doctrine these pseudo-egoists advanced–Rational Egoism–was a genuine danger, because by glorifying the self it could turn the minds of impressionable young

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by the prison censor and published in 1863. With fantastic irony, the novel, which was to be the most revolutionary work of the nineteenth century, was published without difficulty. The publication has aptly been called "the most spectacular example of bureaucratic bungling in the cultural realm

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This nihilist movement was essentially Promethean"; "It has often been argued that Russian nihilism is little more than skepticism or empiricism. While there is a certain plausibility to this assertion, it ultimately fails to capture the millenarian zeal the characterized Russian nihilism. These

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The atmosphere of the 1860s had led to a period of great social and economic upheaval across the country and the driving force of revolutionary activism was taken up by university students in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Mass arson broke out in St. Petersburg in the spring and summer of 1862 and,

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After severely struggling in the face of censorship — from which much of its core content is left unclear and obscured — the open academic development of Russian materialism would later be suppressed by the state after an attempted assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1866, and would not see a

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Because outright denial of God's existence or rejection of faith as a source of knowledge could not readily be camouflaged to avoid censorship, the attention of Chernyshevskii, Sechenov and others in their works ... was directed primarily towards establishing the reductionist thesis - that is,

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Although most commonly associated with revolutionary activism, most nihilists were in fact not political and instead discarded politics as an outdated stage of humanity. They held that until a destructive programme had overcome the current conditions no constructive programme could be properly

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Goncharóff, in "Precipice," taking a real but unrepresentative individual of this class, made a caricature of nihilism. Turguenéneff was too good an artist, and had himself conceived too much admiration for the new type, to let himself be drawn into caricature painting; but even his nihilist,

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Pisarev responded by writing an enthusiastic review ... endorsing the young generation's embrace of nihilism"; "Although realism, like nihilism, implies the rejection of metaphysics, sophistry, sentimentalism and aestheticism, it may, however, harbour a more positive and objective approach to

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the following year that this Feuerbachian materialist trend developed into a broad philosophical movement. Alexander II's ascent to the throne brought liberal reforms to university entry regulations and loosened control over publication, much to the movement's good fortune. The newly emerging

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The only strictly philosophical legacy of the materialists came in the form of their influence on Russian Marxism. Georgii Plekhanov and Vladimir Lenin, the two thinkers most responsible for the development of Marxism in Russia, credited Chernyshevskii with having, respectively, 'massive' and

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was influential far beyond the mere character Nechayev personified in the minds of the revolutionaries. The organization had just a few dozen members when student Ivan Ivanovich Ivanov—one of Nechayev's first and most active followers—began to protest the leader's methods. This threat to his

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Materialism came to Russia in the nineteenth century as it had come to Germany - as a reaction against German Idealism; and in both countries the trend was initiated by Ludwig Feuerbach. Among the liberally minded, Western-oriented Russian intelligentsia, brief but intense infatuations with

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wrote: "On the evening of 21 November 1869 the victim was accordingly lured to the premises of the Moscow School of Agriculture, a hotbed of revolutionary sentiment, where Nechayev killed him by shooting and strangulation, assisted without great enthusiasm by three dupes. Nechayev's

980:(meaning "of indeterminate rank"), which began as an 18th-century legal designation for those of the miscellaneous lower-middle classes, by the 19th century had become a distinct yet ambiguously defined social stratum with a growing presence in the Russian intelligentsia. Put simply, the 5383:

The Russian tradition of 'civic criticism', inaugurated by Vissarion Belinskii, was developed further by Chernyshevskii, Pisarev, Dobroliubov and others, in part because the discussion of literature offered them a relatively protected forum for the social critique they could not publish

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among the Russian students who used the name "Nihilism" to dignify youthful rebelliousness, this rejection of traditional standards went still further, expressing itself in everything from harmless crudities of dress and behavior to the lethal fanaticism of a revolutionary like Sergey

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accomplices were arrested and tried", while he managed to flee back to Switzerland again. Upon his return from Russia to Switzerland, Nechayev was rejected by Bakunin for taking militant actions and was later extradited back to Russia where he spent the remainder of his life at the

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authority spurred Nechayev into action. He secretly gathered the group members closest to him, declared that the mysterious imaginary central committee possessed the evidence of Ivanov's betrayal, albeit not producible for security reasons, and obtained his death sentence. Author

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Reactionary publicistic writers seized upon the term during a lull in the revolutionary situation and used it as a derisive epithet. As such, it was extensively employed in publicistic articles, official government documents, and antinihilistic novels, notably A. F. Pisemskii's

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writer. The tale goes that Dostoevsky went to the home of Chernyshevsky to plead to him to stop fuelling the fires. While Chernyshevsky was no arsonist, this story is symptomatic of the 1860s atmosphere. This period was a time of great social and economic upheaval within Russia.

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from whom they had drawn their influence. Where those early thinkers such as Bakunin and Herzen had found use of Fichte and Hegel, the younger generation were set on their rejection of idealism and were more ready to abandon politics as well. Historian K. Petrov writes that:

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The group supported the intellectual development of social and political thought that expressed the critical interests of the Russian peasantry, and also worked to publish and disseminate prohibited revolutionary writings and ideas to commoners, intellectuals, and soldiers.

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formulated, and although some nihilists did begin to develop communal principles their formulations in this regard remained vague. With the widespread revolutionary arson of 1862, a number of assassinations and attempted assassinations of the 1860s and 70s, and the eventual

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While the two leading nihilist groups disagreed on details, they both sought to liberate the Promethean might of the Russian people"; "The nihilists believed that the prototypes of this new Promethean humanity already existed in the cadre of the revolutionary movement

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The actual content of the 'materialism' preached by the radicals of 'the 1860s' is not always clear. As indicated, they often avoided the term itself for reasons of censorship"; "Government repression after 1866 put an end to the open development of this materialist

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Most nihilists, however, were convinced that this positive goal could only be properly formulated when the chains of repression had been broken"; "This strange lack of concern was apparently the result of their belief that politics was linked to an outdated stage of

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societal struggle that must be toiled through rather than resisted—he attributed it to the exclusive and distinct spiritual strength of the young and their courage to face social disorder. The popularity of Pisarev's review rivaled that of even the novel itself.

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The "fathers" of the novel are full of humanitarian, progressive sentiments ... But to the "sons," typified by the brusque scientifically minded Bazarov, the "fathers" were concerned too much with generalities, not enough with the specific material evils of the

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wing of the 1840s and 50s intelligentsia who saw adopting Western European ideas as the necessary way forward for Russia's development. In general Westernizers were advocates of liberal reform, the abolition of serfdom, Western science and technology, and

1129:, both sons of noblemen though Herzen had been born illegitimate. Bakunin became a Hegelian in 1838 and an extreme Left Hegelian shortly after visiting Berlin in 1840. That same year, Herzen began work on his own analysis of Hegel interpreted through 1919:

and weaving even his jailers into his plots and escape plans. In December 1881 69 members of the prison guard were arrested and Nechayev's prison regime was rendered exceedingly harsher. He was found dead of scurvy in his cell on 21 November 1882.

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These Promethean cadres were called "new people" by Chernyshevsky, the "thinking proletariat" by Pisarev and Nikolai Shelgunov, "critically thinking personalities" by P. L. Lavrov, and "cultural pioneers" by others. N. K. Mikhaylovsky called them

1828: 842:. However, the role of politics was seen as outdated and irrelevant by most nihilists. Rather, they discarded politics, and those who did hold political views or socialist sympathies remained vague. Russian nihilism has also been defined in 1270:

In 1855, Chernyshevsky completed his first philosophical work and master's dissertation "The Aesthetic Relation of Art to Reality" — applying Feuerbach's methods to a critique of Hegelian aesthetics. The mid-1850s also saw the emergence of

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This strange lack of concern was apparently the result of their belief that politics was linked to an outdated stage of humanity."; "The nihilists' neglect of politics, which they believed to be outdated, proved in this case to be their

1169:, whose ideas he began circulating among Moscow's radical circles in the 1840s. The first roots of Bakunin's own interest in anarchism can also be traced to around this time. Bakunin was also the one to introduce Hegelian thought to 471: 'nothing') came to represent the movement's unremitting attacks on morality, religion, and traditional society. Even as it was yet unnamed, the movement arose from a generation of young radicals disillusioned with the 2476:

The philosophy of nihilism then began to be associated erroneously with the regicide of Alexander II (1881) and the political terror that was employed by those active at the time in clandestine organizations opposed to

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states in his memoirs that Bazarov was a more admirable portrayal yet was still found dissatisfying to nihilists for his harsh attitude, his coldness towards his old parents, and his neglect of duties as a citizen.

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By the late 1850s however, Chernyshevsky had become politically radicalized and began to reject Herzen's social discourse, devoting himself instead to the revolutionary socialist cause. Alongside Chernyshevsky came

726:. Likewise, the movement very soon adopted the name, despite the novel's initial harsh reception among both the conservatives and younger generation, and wherever the term was not embraced it was at least accepted. 5950:

In 1863 Poland, that had dreamed of an untrampled autonomy, at least since 1815, became the scene of a bloody insurrection, while all over Russia blazed up incendiary fires, and St. Petersburg was threatened with

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Nihilism was not so much a corpus of formal beliefs and programs (like populism, liberalism, Marxism) as it was a cluster of attitudes and social values and a set of behavioral affects—manners, dress, friendship

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Nihilism and anarchism, which for a while would completely dominate the intelligentsia and become a major factor in the history of nineteenth-century Russia, emerged in the final years of the reign of Alexander

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virtuous fictional creations were not the genuine, flesh-and-blood egoists whose growing presence in Russia Dostoevsky feared", writes scholar James P. Scanlan. "Yet the doctrine these pseudo-egoists advanced –

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model, and Sechenov lent particular influence to Chernyshevsky in this regard. This more subtle argument was favoured since state censorship made no allowance for outwardly challenging its religious doctrines.

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From the 1840s the raznochintsy had a significant influence on the development of Russian society and culture, and became the main social stratum for the formation of the Russian intelligentsia in the 1860s.

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were seen as bitterly failing. The nihilist characters of Turgenev's novel take up the name of their own volition, stating that negation is the most necessary thing in the present age and as such they deny

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The theoretical underpinnings of the movement were elaborated in Russia (as far as tsarist censorship would permit) by Nikolai Chernyshevskii, Dmitrii Pisarev, Nikolai Dobroliubov, Ivan Sechenov and others

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Turgenev himself recounts what is now a famous anecdote from his life, when he returned to Saint Petersburg in 1862 on the same day that young radicals—calling themselves "nihilists"—were setting fire to

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which Belinsky had begun. The discoursing of Russian literature allowed them the vehicle to have their ideas published that censorship would not have otherwise granted. Pisarev himself wrote at first for

909:, which exercised great intellectual force in Russian at the time, especially among those whose intellectual education had been shaped by Böhemian mysticism of the radical orthodox sects, the so-called 5582:

towards functions, from the most 'animal' to the most refined, are materially based and can be exhaustively comprehended by the natural sciences. ... Sechenov's contribution to this argument is evident

2661:, protesting the misuse in the West of the word "nihilist," he says that the Russian revolutionaries themselves use two names: a formal one—"socialist revolutionaries"—and a colloquial one—"radicals." 3043:

When emancipation finally came in 1861, however, it was a bitter disappointment to the men of the sixties, for its terms gave the serfs little chance of economic self-sufficiency or genuine freedom.

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Nihilism, (from Latin nihil, "nothing"), originally a philosophy of moral and epistemological skepticism that arose in 19th-century Russia during the early years of the reign of Tsar Alexander II.

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Nihilism, (from Latin nihil, "nothing"), originally a philosophy of moral and epistemological skepticism that arose in 19th-century Russia during the early years of the reign of Tsar Alexander II.

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Chernyshevskii described the lives of new types of persons—the "rational egoists," who live by their own labor, lead a new kind of family life, and disseminate the ideas of socialism in practice.

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Let us therefore trust the eternal spirit which destroys and annihilates only because it is the unfathomable and eternal source of all life. The passion for destruction is a creative passion too!

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and violent crime. Kropotkin argues that while violence and terrorism were used, this was due to the specific revolutionary context and was not inherent to nihilist philosophy, though historian

3256:"Realists" have the same referent as "nihilists"; the character chosen by Pisarev to represent "our realism" is Bazarov, the "representative of our young generation"—the archetypical nihilist. 609:"No, it's not the same thing. A nihilist is a man who does not bow down before any authority, who does not take any principle on faith, whatever reverence that principle may be enshrined in." 1197:

became an admirer of Feuerbach, Herzen, and Belinsky towards the end of the 1840s. It was at this time that he drew towards socialist materialism and was in close contact with members of the

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Bazároff, did not satisfy us. We found him too harsh, especially in his relations with his old parents, and, above all, we reproached him with his seeming neglect of his duties as a citizen.

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For it was Bazarov who had first declared himself to be a "Nihilist" and who announced that, "since at the present time, negation is the most useful of all," the Nihilists "deny—everything."

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But the materialist trend in philosophy that Feuerbach inspired did not become a broad movement in Russia until the death of Nicholas I in 1855 and the end of the Crimean War a year later.

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at all, or employed this word correctly in the specific, narrow sense of the mid-1870's. ... The same holds true of the writings of no less an authority than Stepniak-Kravchinsky. ... In

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many of the most prominent nihilist thinkers were raised free from the extremes of poverty and hardship — some even having been born into aristocratic families — a connection between the

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did not imply, as one might expect from a purely semantic viewpoint, a universal "negation" of ethical normativity, the foundations of knowledge or the meaningfulness of human existence.

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character of the nihilist movement. In fact, the nihilists sought to liberate the Promethean might of the Russian people which they saw embodied in a class of prototypal individuals, or

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Though the sorokovniki had provided the šestidesjatniki with theoretical grounds for ideological advancement, the two generations became increasingly confrontational towards each other.

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in Saint Petersburg. The attempt failed and Karakozov was sentenced to death. Nikolai Ishutin was also arrested and sentenced to be executed before ultimately being exiled to a life of

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Revolutionary organizations during the 1860s took only the form of conspiratorial groups. From the revolutionary turmoil of the years 1859–1861, which had included peasant uprisings in

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autonomy over curriculum, hiring and promotion, and internal university judicial proceedings. ... The University Statute did not open universities to matriculation by female students.

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And it was a "Nihilist student," Dmitry Karakosov, whose attempt on the Tsar's life in 1866 completed the return of Russian society to the dark repression of the era of Nicholas I.

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After the self-liquidation of the latter, the circle, having developed an independent existence, to some extent brought together the uncoordinated groups of the Moscow underground.

1300:—Chernyshevsky being its principle editor. With their contributions, the journal became the primary organ of revolutionary thought in its time. The two of them, later followed by 1136:

Both Bakunin and Herzen held concerns about the extremes of materialism. Whereas Bakunin is more strictly considered a Russian materialist, Herzen sought a reconciliation between

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a secret revolutionary organization founded in Moscow by N. A. Ishutin ... The Ishutin Circle emerged in September 1863, as a group aligned with the first Land and Liberty group.

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gained significant influence over the development of Russian society and culture, the intelligentsia of this class came to be synonymous with the "revolutionary intelligentsia".

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After the opening of university education for the middle class, the number of educated people in the Russian empire rapidly increased. Thus increased the number of raznochintsy.

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Herzen, being one of the latter, argued in 1868, six years after the publication of Turgenev's novel and Pisarev's review (and hence in a different political climate), that the

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Peter Kropotkin, the leading Russian anarchist, defined nihilism as the symbol of struggle against all forms of tyranny, hypocrisy, and artificiality and for individual freedom.

1873:. As a political party, the organization became the first to separate itself from past conspiratorial groups with its open advocacy of revolution. The party was predominated by 632:

has been widely misused in the West when discussing the Russian movement, especially in relation to revolutionary activity. Criticizing this misterming by Western commentators,

2923:(an 1840s man), used the term to describe "the children", the new generation of students and intellectuals who, by virtue of their relation to their fathers, were considered 1996:

are used for the sake of accuracy in delineating the two generations. The former is often translated as 'man of the forties' and the latter as 'man of the sixties', though

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of belonging to an older generation, supposedly prone to philosophical idealism, still regarded as an "other" by some of the canonized nihilists among the 1860s generation.

893:. "Their attraction to the airy heights of idealism was partly a result of the stultifying political atmosphere of the autocracy, but was also an unintended consequence of 377: 4892:

When Mikhail Bakunin closed his essay, "The Reaction in Germany," with a celebration of "the passion for destruction," he was in effect anticipating the men of the 1860's

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First, the positive or constructive side of nihilism was never clearly defined. For some radicals, it was vaguely socialist, based on the idea of the village commune (

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During the communist period of Russian history, the principal "nihilist" theoreticians were officially lionized under the designation "Russian revolutionary democrats"

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First, the positive or constructive side of nihilism was never clearly defined. For some radicals, it was vaguely socialist, based on the idea of the village commune (

1294:, who in turn had used it synonymously with skepticism. Together with Chernyshevsky, of whom he was a disciple and comrade, Dobrolyubov wrote for the literary journal 6887:

Zemlya i Volya, English Land and Freedom, first Russian political party to openly advocate a policy of revolution; it had been preceded only by conspiratorial groups.

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In Russia, nihilism became identified with a loosely organized revolutionary movement (C.1860-1917) that rejected the authority of the state, church, and family.

860:, "is perhaps best regarded as the intellectual pool of the period 1855–1866 out of which later radical movements emerged". During this foundational period, the 7125: 4867:

By promoting the role of negation, against the political as well as divine sovereign, Bakunin provided the radical movement with a pre-Marxist Hegelian impetus.

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s literary criticism department entered into bitter disputes with other publications ever since his disagreements with Pisarev over Bazarovism. Under Pisarev,

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In this context the very term "nihilism" was, if not embraced, so at least tolerated and occasionally used self-referentially—as the nihilists saw themselves.

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Following the attempt on the Tsar's life, the political environment in Russia immediately began returning to the stifling atmosphere of Nicholas I's rule.

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from prison in 1864. The same year, the group founded a bookbinding workshop, then in 1865, a sewing workshop, a tuition-free school, and a cotton wadding

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had adopted. Contemporary scholarship has challenged the equating of Russian nihilism with mere skepticism, instead identifying it with the fundamentally

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In the meantime, extensive castigation of nihilism had found its place in Russian publication, official government documents, and a burgeoning trend of

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By 1861 the radicals were disappointed by the slow pace of reform, and especially by the illiberal terms of the emancipation of the serfs in that year.

1281:, he further elborated the ideas of Russian materialism and is at times seen as a leading nihilist. Dobrolyubov had in fact occasionally used the term 4478:

liberal critics called the radicals "materialists"; but then, when it was no longer sufficiently derogatory, they came to prefer the term "nihilists".

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liberal critics called the radicals "materialists"; but then, when it was no longer sufficiently derogatory, they came to prefer the term "nihilists".

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It is, however, the vagueness of their positive programmes that distinguishes the Nihilists from the revolutionary socialists who followed them.

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At the novel's first appearance, the radical younger generation attacked it bitterly as a slander, and conservatives condemned it as too lenient

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intelligentsia, refused to grant more rights to students and university admittance remained exclusively male. Historian Kristian Petrov writes:

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when he returned to Saint Petersburg in 1862 on the same day that young radicals—calling themselves "nihilists"—were setting fire to buildings

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Ill-informed authors of that time usually referred to all Russian revolutionaries as "nihilists." Well-informed ones either did not refer to

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first Russian political party to openly advocate a policy of revolution; it had been preceded only by conspiratorial groups. Founded in 1876

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during the reign of Alexander II." Moreover, it was this censoring of Chernyshevsky and his imprisonment that drove him to write his novel.

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indeed rejected idealism; their masters, however, like Herzen and Bakunin, had found understanding in the philosophies of Fichte and Hegel.

1084: 1074:. However, it was in fact those among the older generation who were first characterized as nihilists, and it was Left Hegelianism that the 856: 741:, which had flourished in Russia in the wake of Pushkin. Although Pisarev was among those who celebrated the embrace of nihilism, the term 683:

The intellectual origins of the nihilist movement can be traced back to 1855 and perhaps earlier, where it was principally a philosophy of

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Chernyshevsky's legacy was continued and developed by a variety of individuals and organisations, including the first 'Land and Freedom' (

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Nihilism in Russia is said to have been deeply rooted in the radical temperament of the Russian people before it took the form of thought.

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as a direct satire upon Chernyshevsky's novel. Interestingly, the protagonist both criticizes and is a parody of Chernyshevsky's views on

864:

aspects of the movement scandalized the country and even minor indiscretions left nihilists imprisoned for lengthy periods or in exile to

4307:

were of noble birth like their "fathers", or at least children of clergymen, both lacking first-hand experience of repression and poverty

1807:

Russian nihilists tied to chairs on horse-drawn platforms and paraded past groups of soldiers on their way to execution in St. Petersburg

1775:, Polish revolutionaries, and fellow organizations in Saratov, Nizhny Novgorod, Kaluga Province, and elsewhere. The Circle then formed a 5667: 6360:

much worse than that of Bakunin, and although he had no rich an prominent relatives to intercede for him as was the case with Bakunin.

6018:

In sociopolitical terms, represents the victory of the revolutionary intelligentsia over the aristocracy, to which Turgenev belonged.

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Russian Nihilism is perhaps best regarded as the intellectual pool of the period 1855–66 out of which later radical movements emerged

2821:

Russian Nihilism is perhaps best regarded as the intellectual pool of the period 1855–66 out of which later radical movements emerged

993:

and the new radicals has often been emphasized in comparison to the dominance of aristocratic intellectuals in previous generations.

7098: 6786: 6326: 5982: 5826: 5786: 5574: 5504: 5376: 5218: 5112: 5013: 4822: 4779: 4739: 4698: 4658: 4517: 4433: 4216: 4053: 3888: 3793: 3755: 3716: 3680: 3622: 3539: 3436: 3397: 3133: 3075: 3020: 2814: 2530: 2441: 2398: 2346: 2076: 1897:

a new secret cell based organization, called the People's Retribution (Russian: Narodnaya Rasprava), based on the principles of the

1972:

will be capitalized when referring to the Russian movement though this is not ubiquitous nor does it correspond with Russian usage.

7140: 6233: 6186: 5805:

Frede, Victoria S. (2010). "Materialism and the Radical Intelligentsia: the 1860s". In Hamburg, G. M.; Poole, Randall A. (eds.).

4718:

Frede, Victoria S. (2010). "Materialism and the Radical Intelligentsia: the 1860s". In Hamburg, G. M.; Poole, Randall A. (eds.).

905:. "Their flight from the harsh reality of everyday life into the ideal was prepared on an intellectual level by the theosophy of 5690: 4665:

It was this apotheosis of man that outraged the Schellingians and led them to characterize Russian Left Hegelianism as nihilism.

4319: 1757:, the Ishutin Circle began to unite various underground groups in Moscow. The group arranged the escape of Polish revolutionary 1870: 1461: 6341:

In the meantime he had grown into a martyr of the radical movement, and this undoubtedly enhanced the popularity of his novel.

1584:

followed by further imprisonment. Chernyshevsky gained a legendary reputation as a martyr of the radical movement and, unlike

7068: 4829:

The theoretical underpinnings of the movement were elaborated in Russia ... and more freely in emigration by Mikhail Bakunin.

3848: 3579: 3140:

Bazarov's nihilism quickly became famous in Russia and was warmly endorsed by certain revolutionary groups there in the 1860s

2840: 838:, the movement has also been defined in political terms. Soviet scholarship, for example, often interchanges the designation 2152:"nihilism" was via Turgenev's F&C introduced to a wider audience in the early 1860s Russia, in the form of the loanword 1741:

was oriented, did not take place, and the Polish uprising was suppressed. Under these conditions, the revolutionary work of

451: 1438:

as responsible for inciting the revolutionaries to action and supposedly pleaded with him to bring a stop to it. Historian

6061: 5428: 5180: 5037: 4929: 4887: 3823: 3038: 2975: 1737:

During 1863, the revolutionary situation in Russia virtually exhausted itself. The general peasant uprising, toward which

1501: 1492: 1481: 7145: 5974: 5851:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 5723:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 5596:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 5438:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 5284:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 5233:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 5136:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 5104: 5056:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 4939:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 4837:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 4650: 4596:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 4533:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 4448:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 4261:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 4118:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 4074:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 4045: 3983:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 3932:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 3747: 3708: 3672: 3531: 3452:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 3428: 3389: 3331:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 3286:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 3226:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 3179:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 2889:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 2748:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 2701:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 2568: 2522: 2243:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 2193:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 2122:"'Strike out, right and left!': a conceptual-historical analysis of 1860s Russian nihilism and its notion of negation" 718: 633: 6268: 3501: 1745:

began to die down. Many members of the society were arrested or were forced to emigrate, and by the spring of 1864,

6778: 5810: 5793:

Thereafter Nihilism quickly became the subject of polemical debate in the journal press and in works of literature.

4723: 3840: 3067: 2390: 1395: 688: 646: 488: 203: 1379:, was the marked embrace of the style and cynicism of the nihilist character Yevgeny Bazarov from Ivan Turgenev's 670:. From there, nihilism was interpreted as a revolutionary social menace by the well-known conservative journalist 6668: 2964:

concerns the inevitable conflict between generations and between the values of traditionalists and intellectuals.

1662: 1658: 1576:

Chernyshevsky continued to write essays and literature while incarcerated. In 1864, he was sentenced and given a

1521: 568:

adds that nihilism was nevertheless at the core of revolutionary thought in Russia throughout the lead-up to the

79: 35: 5119:

The nihilists' neglect of politics, which they believed to be outdated, proved in this case to be their undoing.

6930:

The first truly Narodnik organization to emerge from this situation was the revolutionary group Zemlya i Volya.

3267: 1915:. Due to his charisma and force of will, Nechayev continued to influence events, maintaining a relationship to 1381: 697: 619: 385: 143: 4347:

Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling (1992). "Problematics of Status Definition in Imperial Russia: The Raznočincy".

4232:

Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling (1992). "Problematics of Status Definition in Imperial Russia: The Raznočincy".

4164:

Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling (1992). "Problematics of Status Definition in Imperial Russia: The Raznočincy".

1783:, who was the cousin of Nikolai Ishutin, joined the Circle in 1866 and on April 4 of that year carried out an 1758: 5511:

Its fullest legal expression in Russia came in the published writings of Chernyshevskii, Sechenov and Pisarev

5318:

and sociologist Vasilij Bervi-Flerovskij. In 1858, Bervi-Flerovskij used nihilism as a synonym for scepticism

5966: 5837:

as a personal attack on Dobroliubov."; " was so vituperative that it embarrassed many of his contemporaries.

5096: 4642: 4037: 3739: 3700: 3664: 3523: 3420: 3381: 2559: 2514: 2429: 1934: 1912: 1506: 902: 637: 565: 253: 228: 138: 5635: 3146: 1449:, since I don't know whether I love him or hate him!" Nevertheless, Bazarov represented the triumph of the 1445:

Turgenev's own opinion of Bazarov is highly ambiguous, stating: "Did I want to abuse Bazarov or extol him?

1836: 1556: 1442:

writes that while St. Petersburg faced threat of destruction, arson became rampant all throughout Russia.

1391: 1291: 1166: 1010:

were among these, being prominent figures of the movement to abolish serfdom. Of the nihilist generation,

948:

ideals imported particularly from France or Germany. Other preliminary figures of this generation include

655: 438: 430: 403: 360: 6986:

Angel of Vengeance: The Girl Who Shot the Governor of St. Petersburg and Sparked the Age of Assassination

1285:

prior to its popularization at the hands of Turgenev, which he had picked up from sociologist and fellow

1157:

Bakunin and Herzen began to meet rejection from others in the Westernizer camp for their open embrace of

6108: 5926: 2919:

Even so, the term nihilism did not become popular until Turgenev published F&C in 1862. Turgenev, a

1929: 1666: 1654: 1435: 1414: 1253: 1194: 1180: 1162: 1011: 790: 248: 475:

of the past, and from a growing divide between the old aristocratic intellectuals and the new radical

6967: 3909:

The Midnight Sun, The Tsar and The Nihilist: Adventures and Observations In Norway, Sweden and Russia

2546: 1816: 1210: 1045: 945: 816: 573: 513: 345: 213: 6255:

people away from sound values and push them in the direction of a true, immoral, destructive egoism.

4746:

Materialism returned to intellectual prominence in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

1726: 7080: 6862:(Northern Revolutionary-Populist Group), an organization which two years later came to be known as 5770: 5558: 5488: 5340:(The Contemporary). Together with his friend and disciple Nicholas Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky have 5202: 4997: 4806: 4763: 4682: 4501: 4417: 4200: 3777: 3606: 3117: 3004: 2798: 2330: 2060: 1418: 1272: 1198: 1063: 1015: 1007: 561: 350: 273: 532:. In its most complete forms it also denied the possibility of common ideals, instead favouring a 30:

This article is about the revolutionary philosophical movement in Russia, not to be confused with

6849: 6841: 6695: 6332: 6245: 6198: 5872: 5744: 5617: 5459: 5305: 5254: 5157: 5077: 4960: 4858: 4617: 4554: 4469: 4356: 4282: 4241: 4173: 4139: 4095: 4004: 3953: 3473: 3352: 3307: 3247: 3200: 2910: 2769: 2722: 2644: 2636: 2580: 2301: 2264: 2214: 2143: 1776: 1581: 1543: 1538: 1510: 1309: 1170: 1130: 1003: 953: 659: 569: 325: 31: 5336:

began to write for some of the leading literary journals, soon becoming principle editor of the

1721:

accrued supporters within the Russian military and allied itself with revolutionary activity in

1439: 6554: 6499: 5672:

Encyclopedia of Modern Europe: Europe 1789-1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire

4977:

like Herzen and Belinsky, and also Turgenev, but was politically radicalized in the late 1850s.

1644: 1335:, who would later be credited as the father of Russian physiology and scientific psychology by 7120: 7094: 6989: 6782: 6322: 5978: 5941: 5822: 5782: 5570: 5500: 5372: 5214: 5108: 5009: 4818: 4775: 4735: 4694: 4654: 4513: 4429: 4212: 4049: 3912: 3884: 3844: 3789: 3751: 3712: 3676: 3618: 3575: 3535: 3432: 3393: 3129: 3071: 3016: 2836: 2810: 2526: 2437: 2394: 2342: 2072: 1551: 1514: 1431: 1233: 1158: 800: 667: 651: 600:"Say, who respects nothing," put in Pavel Petrovitch, and he set to work on the butter again. 549: 434: 396: 330: 74: 6954: 6722: 6641: 6611: 6581: 5989:

Turgenev's own opinion of Bazarov was ambivalent. "Did I want to abuse Bazarov or extol him?

5314:

Dobrolyubov, perhaps himself a role model for Bazarov, came to the term nihilism through the

711:, towards both the traditionalists and the progressive reformists that came before them, the 6833: 6477: 6469: 6237: 6190: 6088: 6038: 5910: 5862: 5814: 5774: 5734: 5607: 5562: 5530: 5492: 5449: 5364: 5295: 5244: 5206: 5147: 5067: 5001: 4950: 4848: 4810: 4767: 4727: 4686: 4607: 4544: 4505: 4459: 4421: 4272: 4204: 4129: 4085: 3994: 3943: 3876: 3781: 3610: 3463: 3342: 3297: 3237: 3190: 3121: 3008: 2900: 2802: 2759: 2712: 2628: 2572: 2366:

on the whole the Westernizers were an obsolete older generation in the eyes of the Nihilists

2334: 2293: 2254: 2204: 2133: 2064: 1949: 1784: 1780: 1706: 1674: 1670: 1629: 1609: 1588:, not once did he plead for mercy or pardon during his treatment at the hands of the state. 1525: 1422: 1301: 1245: 1237: 1219: 1218:

generation continued to draw from the Left Hegelians but thoroughly abandoned Hegel and the

1141: 1122: 1118: 1049: 1019: 766: 738: 684: 541: 521: 493: 456: 365: 340: 310: 233: 6901:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

6804:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

6753:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

6058:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

5425:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

5332:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

5177:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

5034:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

4926:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

4884:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

4374: 3820:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

3035:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

2972:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

2362:

Russian Philosophy Volume II: the Nihilists, The Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture

7086: 6030: 5807:

A History of Russian Philosophy 1830–1930: Faith, Reason, and the Defense of Human Dignity

4904: 4720:

A History of Russian Philosophy 1830–1930: Faith, Reason, and the Defense of Human Dignity

1944: 1916: 1893: 1832: 1766: 1730: 1714: 1690: 1585: 1570: 1466: 1340: 1126: 1106: 1053: 1040:, which quickly became synonymous with Russian nihilism, developed under the influence of 894: 861: 795: 537: 529: 483: 472: 335: 320: 305: 243: 7076:

George Kennan and the Russian Empire: How America's Conscience Became an Enemy of Tsarism

6519: 520:

approach of the previous generation. Russian nihilism developed an atmosphere of extreme

5519:"Discoveries in the Human Brain. Neuroscience Prehistory, Brain Structure, and Function" 3837:

The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism, 1860-1930

597:, nothing, as far as I can judge; the word must mean a man who... who accepts nothing?" 7043: 7007: 6128: 3635: 1907: 1855: 1710: 1678: 1649: 1577: 1533: 1456: 1413:

Literary works and journals quickly became enrapt with polemical debate over nihilism.

1376: 1319: 1305: 1263: 1249: 1248:, though his bourgeois liberalism was detested, and later from evolutionary biologists 758: 734: 671: 476: 464: 442: 208: 123: 6905:

Bakuninists predominated in the re-establishment of the underground Land and Liberty (

3317:

reality, in contrast to nihilism and its connotations of subjectivism and nothingness.

674:, for its negation of moral principles. The term came into favour when accusations of 7109: 6949:

Nihilists; Russian radicals and revolutionaries in the reign of Alexander II, 1855-81

6947: 6853: 6771: 6400: 6009: 5876: 5748: 5621: 5463: 5309: 5258: 5161: 5081: 4964: 4862: 4621: 4558: 4473: 4286: 4143: 4099: 4008: 3957: 3477: 3356: 3311: 3251: 3204: 3097: 3060: 2952: 2914: 2773: 2726: 2648: 2598: 2383: 2268: 2218: 2147: 1866: 1792: 1788: 1640: 1364: 1344: 1332: 1071: 1041: 1030:"Russian materialism" redirects here. For an overview of materialist philosophy, see 949: 940: 910: 692: 614: 355: 148: 6376: 5391: 445:

during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, from which the broader philosophy of

1694: 1145: 1075: 975: 967: 934: 808: 762: 746: 315: 153: 6878: 6432: 3962:

Russian nihilism was essentially a product of the 1860s evolving dialogue between

2110:

from Latin nihil "nothing at all" ... Turgenev used the Russian form of the word (

1486: 898: 6076: 5898: 5818: 5778: 5566: 5496: 5368: 5210: 5005: 4814: 4771: 4731: 4690: 4509: 4425: 4208: 3880: 3785: 3614: 3125: 3012: 2806: 2731:

Vissarion Belinsky, had symptomatically employed the term in a more neutral sense

2338: 2068: 1765:. They failed, however, in their attempts to arrange Chernyshevsky's escape from 846:

terms, in philosophical terms, and incorrectly as a form of political terrorism.

3405:

nihilists were not skeptics but passionate advocates of negation and liberation.

1762: 1356: 1336: 1296: 1214: 1176: 1114: 1067: 1031: 906: 843: 828: 782: 750: 737:

to describe the nihilist position and was also the name of a literary movement,

676: 525: 517: 501: 218: 118: 103: 17: 6092: 5914: 5867: 5850: 5739: 5722: 5612: 5595: 5454: 5437: 5300: 5283: 5249: 5232: 5152: 5135: 5072: 5055: 4955: 4938: 4853: 4836: 4612: 4595: 4549: 4532: 4464: 4447: 4277: 4260: 4134: 4117: 4090: 4073: 3999: 3982: 3948: 3931: 3468: 3451: 3347: 3330: 3302: 3285: 3242: 3225: 3195: 3178: 2905: 2888: 2764: 2747: 2717: 2700: 2259: 2242: 2209: 2192: 2138: 2121: 871:

At its core, Russian nihilism inhabited an ever-evolving discourse between the

560:

in 1881, Russian nihilism was characterized throughout Europe as a doctrine of

512:

in an aim to assimilate and distinctively recontextualize core elements of the

43: 6473: 6336: 6310: 5535: 5518: 1874: 1360: 1259: 1137: 663: 577: 533: 505: 381: 158: 128: 48: 7074: 2933: 2676: 576:

further states that Russian nihilism in fact had its deepest expression in a

6921: 6285:

While in the Peter and Paul Fortress, Chernyshevskii also wrote the novella

2946:(1862), who popularized the term through the figure of Bazarov the nihilist. 2863: 2467: 2170: 2024: 1939: 1840: 1244:

became new favourites. Further influence came from the utilitarian ideas of

1241: 754: 280: 258: 188: 183: 163: 98: 4017:."; "The term nihilist, I suggest, in its significant association with the 2101: 1455:

intelligentsia over those like Turgenev from the aristocracy. Comparing to

1102: 1022:

were all sons of unaffluent priests before turning to atheist materialism.

603:"Who regards everything from the critical point of view," observed Arkady. 193: 4191:

Walicki, Andrzej (1998). "Chernyshevskii, Nikolai Gavrilovich (1828–89)".

4021:, should in this context be understood in relation to the idealist of the 691:. However, it was not until 1862 that the term was first popularized when 644:

was misapplied to the entirety of the country's revolutionary milieu. The

1880: 890: 835: 446: 238: 223: 113: 62: 4360: 4245: 4177: 2083:

Nihilism was a broad social and cultural movement as well as a doctrine.

1082:

significant intellectual revival until the late nineteenth century. The

749:

and nothingness that burdened nihilism while retaining the rejection of

650:

attributes the probable first use of the term in Russian publication to

6993: 6845: 6482: 6249: 6202: 3916: 2640: 2584: 2305: 1795:

in Siberia. In total, thirty-two members of the Circle were sentenced.

1698: 1596:

Leading up to 1864, the movement underwent what Dostoevsky termed the '

865: 497: 268: 263: 133: 108: 6217: 6170: 2277: 1779:, known as the Organization, and a sub-group within it known as Hell. 6457: 4525:

Schelling, Hegel and Fichte were followed by enthusiasm for Feuerbach

4013:

Accordingly, nihilism, as a movement, did not exclusively consist of

2689:

was probably first used by N.I. Nadezhdin, in an 1829 article in the

1722: 1682: 1597: 1561: 545: 509: 198: 6837: 6241: 6194: 2632: 2297: 1117:

generation who sought to radicalize Hegelian thought and build upon

640:, or informally as radicals. However, from outside Russia, the term 6739:

The Supreme Criminal Court gave out various sentences to 32 members

2576: 1343:

were wholly adequate to study human and animal life according to a

5344:

its character as foremost organ of radical opinion in the sixties.

2414:

Kline, George L. (1967). "Pisarev, Dmitri Ivanovich (1840–1868)".

1827: 1802: 1686: 1485: 1394:'s education reforms, under the supervision of education minister 1355: 1258: 1175: 1101: 42: 6858:

Mark Natanson and Alexander Mikhailov, who in 1876 organized the

1390:

nihilists. The surge of student activism became the backdrop for

3766:). Others saw a managerial class as the basis for the new order. 2040: 1630:

Dmitry Karakozov § Attempted assassination of Alexander II

1604:

began taking a more moderate or even regressive position while

1580:

before being exiled to Siberia, where he served seven years in

1183:, utopian socialist, a major intellectual force behind nihilism 705:

to describe the disillusionment of the younger generation, the

593:"A nihilist," said Nikolai Petrovitch. "That's from the Latin, 7017:(in Italian) (2nd ed.). Turin: Einaudi. pp. 305–306. 5553:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

5483:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

5359:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

5197:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

4992:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

4801:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

4758:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

4677:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

4626:

Even earlier, older generations had pejoratively depicted the

4496:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

4412:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

3601:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

2999:

Scanlan, James P. (1998). "Russian Materialism: 'the 1860s'".

831:

of the Russian people, long pre-existing the movement itself.

6899: