1087:) form the most speciose modern example of adaptive radiation. These lakes are believed to be home to about 2,000 different species of cichlid, spanning a wide range of ecological roles and morphological characteristics. Cichlids in these lakes fill nearly all of the roles typically filled by many fish families, including those of predators, scavengers, and herbivores, with varying dentitions and head shapes to match their dietary habits. In each case, the radiation events are only a few million years old, making the high level of speciation particularly remarkable. Several factors could be responsible for this diversity: the availability of a multitude of niches probably favored specialization, as few other fish taxa are present in the lakes (meaning that sympatric speciation was the most probable mechanism for initial specialization). Also, continual changes in the water level of the lakes during the Pleistocene (which often turned the largest lakes into several smaller ones) could have created the conditions for secondary allopatric speciation.
1200:) in the 1950s proved disastrous for Victoria cichlids, and the collective biomass of the Victoria cichlid species flock has decreased substantially and an unknown number of species have become extinct. However, the original range of morphological and behavioral diversity seen in the lake's cichlid fauna is still mostly present today, if endangered. These again include cichlids specialized for niches across the trophic spectrum, as in Tanganyika and Malawi, but again, there are standouts. Victoria is famously home to many piscivorous cichlid species, some of which feed by sucking the contents out of mouthbrooding females' mouths. Victoria's cichlids constitute a far younger radiation than even that of Lake Malawi, with estimates of the age of the flock ranging from 200,000 years to as little as 14,000.
1408:(Cuba and Hispaniola are both home to more than one species of crownâgiant). These anoles are all large, canopy-dwelling species with large heads and large lamellae (scales on the undersides of the fingers and toes that are important for traction in climbing), and yet none of these species are particularly closely related and appear to have evolved these similar traits independently. The same can be said of the other five ecomorphs across the Caribbean's four largest islands. Much like in the case of the cichlids of the three largest African Great Lakes, each of these islands is home to its own convergent
1144:
males looking to steal shells; (2) younger, "sneaker" males looking to fertilize eggs in a dominant male's territory; and (3) tiny, 2â4 cm "parasitic dwarf" males that also attempt to rush in and fertilize eggs in the dominant male's territory. These parasitic dwarf males never grow to the size of dominant males, and the male offspring of dominant and parasitic dwarf males grow with 100% fidelity into the form of their fathers. A number of other highly specialized
Tanganyika cichlids exist aside from these examples, including those adapted for life in open lake water up to 200m deep.
1176:). All of the other cichlid species in the lake are descendants of a single original colonist species, which itself was descended from Tanganyikan ancestors. The common ancestor of Malawi's species flock is believed to have reached the lake 3.4 million years ago at the earliest, making Malawi cichlids' diversification into their present numbers particularly rapid. Malawi's cichlids span a similarly range of feeding behaviors to those of Tanganyika, but also show signs of a much more recent origin. For example, all members of the Malawi species flock are
1106:. Lake Tanganyika is also the least speciose of the three largest African Great Lakes, with only around 200 species of cichlid; however, these cichlids are more morphologically divergent and ecologically distinct than their counterparts in lakes Malawi and Victoria, an artifact of Lake Tanganyika's older cichlid fauna. Lake Tanganyika itself is believed to have formed 9â12 million years ago, putting a recent cap on the age of the lake's cichlid fauna. Many of Tanganyika's cichlids live very specialized lifestyles. The giant or emperor cichlid (
977:, and are derived from a single ancestor that arrived in the Galapagos from mainland South America perhaps just 3 million years ago. Excluding the Cocos finch, each species of Darwin's finch is generally widely distributed in the Galapagos and fills the same niche on each island. For the ground finches, this niche is a diet of seeds, and they have thick bills to facilitate the consumption of these hard materials. The ground finches are further specialized to eat seeds of a particular size: the large ground finch (
884:
834:
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1343:. The Hawaiian lobelioids are significantly more speciose than the silverswords, perhaps because they have been present in Hawaii for so much longer: they descended from a single common ancestor who arrived in the archipelago up to 15 million years ago. Today the Hawaiian lobelioids form a clade of over 125 species, including succulents, trees, shrubs, epiphytes, etc. Many species have been lost to extinction and many of the surviving species endangered.
70:
904:
625:
1180:, meaning the female keeps her eggs in her mouth until they hatch; in almost all species, the eggs are also fertilized in the female's mouth, and in a few species, the females continue to guard their fry in their mouth after they hatch. Males of most species display predominantly blue coloration when mating. However, a number of particularly divergent species are known from Malawi, including the piscivorous
612:
1209:
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snakes of
Madagascar have evolved into fossorial, arboreal, terrestrial, and semi-aquatic forms that converge with the colubroid faunas in the rest of the world. These Madagascan examples are significantly older than most of the other examples presented here: Madagascar's fauna has been evolving in
1322:
consists of twenty-eight species of
Hawaiian plants which, aside from the namesake silverswords, includes trees, shrubs, vines, cushion plants, and more. The silversword alliance is believed to have originated in Hawaii no more than 6 million years ago, making this one of Hawaii's youngest adaptive
1246:
form a large, highly morphologically diverse species group of birds that began radiating in the early days of the
Hawaiian archipelago. While today only 17 species are known to persist in Hawaii (3 more may or may not be extinct), there were more than 50 species prior to Polynesian colonization of
1143:
is a unique egg-brooding species, with 15 cm-long males amassing collections of shells and guarding them in the hopes of attracting females (about 6 cm in length) to lay eggs in these shells. These dominant males must defend their territories from three types of rival: (1) other dominant
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possesses a large mouth with a protruding upper lip, and feeds by opening this mouth downward onto the sandy lake bottom, sucking in small invertebrates. A number of
Tanganyika's cichlids are shell-brooders, meaning that mating pairs lay and fertilize their eggs inside of empty shells on the lake
810:
This new habitat is relatively isolated. When a volcano erupts on the mainland and destroys an adjacent forest, it is likely that the terrestrial plant and animal species that used to live in the destroyed region will recolonize without evolving greatly. However, if a newly formed habitat is
1003:). There is some overlap: for example, the most robust medium ground finches could have beaks larger than those of the smallest large ground finches. Because of this overlap, it can be difficult to tell the species apart by eye, though their songs differ. These three species often occur
954:
Darwin's finches on the
Galapagos Islands are a model system for the study of adaptive radiation. Today represented by approximately 15 species, Darwin's finches are Galapagos endemics famously adapted for a specialized feeding behavior (although one species, the Cocos finch
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the archipelago (between 18 and 21 species have gone extinct since the discovery of the islands by westerners). The
Hawaiian honeycreepers are known for their beaks, which are specialized to satisfy a wide range of dietary needs: for example, the beak of the Ê»akiapĆlÄÊ»au (
1287:
evolved separately despite once forming the justification for lumping the two genera together. The
Hawaiian honeycreepers are believed to have descended from a single common ancestor some 15 to 20 million years ago, though estimates range as low as 3.5 million years.
3174:
Pinto, Gabriel, Luke Mahler, Luke J. Harmon, and
Jonathan B. Losos. "Testing the Island Effect in Adaptive Radiation: Rates and Patterns of Morphological Diversification in Caribbean and Mainland Anolis Lizards." NCBI (2008): n. pag. Web. 28 Oct.
1118:, the speckled peacock bass). It is thought that giant cichlids spawn only a single time, breeding in their third year and defending their young until they reach a large size, before dying of starvation some time thereafter. The three species of
1469:, which caused the disappearance of the dinosaurs and most other reptilian megafauna 65 million years ago, is seen as having triggered a global adaptive radiation event that created the mammal diversity that exists today. Also the
1223:
has served as the site of a number of adaptive radiation events, owing to its isolation, recent origin, and large land area. The three most famous examples of these radiations are presented below, though insects like the
Hawaiian
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is the site from which nearly all the cichlid lineages of East Africa (including both riverine and lake species) originated. Thus, the species in the lake constitute a single adaptive radiation event but do not form a single
677:
is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, alters biotic interactions or opens new
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studied their feeding behavior in the long dry season, and discovered that when food is scarce, the ground finches use their specialized beaks to eat the seeds that they are best suited to eat and thus avoid starvation.
1360:), they constitute one of the largest radiation events among all lizards. Anole radiation on the mainland has largely been a process of speciation, and is not adaptive to any great degree, but anoles on each of the
1380:) have adaptively radiated in separate, convergent ways. On each of these islands, anoles have evolved with such a consistent set of morphological adaptations that each species can be assigned to one of six "
1007:, and during the rainy season in the Galapagos when food is plentiful, they specialize little and eat the same, easily accessible foods. It was not well-understood why their beaks were so adapted until
1253:) is characterized by a short, sharp lower mandible for scraping bark off of trees, and the much longer, curved upper mandible is used to probe the wood underneath for insects. Meanwhile, the ʻiʻiwi (
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diversity can also increase. In addition, intraspecific competition will increase, promoting divergent selection to use a wider range of resources. This ecological release provides the potential for
1308:
Adaptive radiation is not a strictly vertebrate phenomenon, and examples are also known from among plants. The most famous example of adaptive radiation in plants is quite possibly the Hawaiian
760:), the evolution of a key innovation, or dispersal to a new environment. Any one of these ecological opportunities has the potential to result in an increase in population size and relaxed
2504:
Givnish, Thomas J; Millam, Kendra C; Mast, Austin R; Paterson, Thomas B; Theim, Terra J; Hipp, Andrew L; Henss, Jillian M; Smith, James F; Wood, Kenneth R; Sytsma, Kenneth J (2008-10-14).
1052:. Once they occurred in sympatry, niche specialization was favored so that the different species competed less directly for resources. This second, sympatric event was adaptive radiation.
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by Wilson, E.; Eisner, T.; Briggs, W.; Dickerson, R.; Metzenberg, R.; O'Brien, R.; Susman, M.; Boggs, W. (Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers, Stamford, Connecticut), c 1974. Chapters:
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The cichlids of Lake Malawi constitute a "species flock" of up to 1000 endemic species. Only seven cichlid species in Lake Malawi are not a part of the species flock: the Eastern happy (
1506:
341:
1186:, which lies on its side in the substrate until small cichlids, perhaps drawn to its broken white patterning, come to inspect the predator - at which point they are swiftly eaten.
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Petren, K.; Grant, P. R.; Grant, B. R.; Keller, L. F. (2005). "Comparative landscape genetics and the adaptive radiation of Darwin's finches: the role of peripheral isolation".
1978:
Petren, K.; Grant, P. R.; Grant, B. R.; Keller, L. F. (2005). "Comparative landscape genetics and the adaptive radiation of Darwin's finches: the role of peripheral isolation".
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Bell, M. A., and W. E. Aguirre. 2013. Contemporary evolution, allelic recycling, and adaptive radiation of the threespine stickleback. Evolutionary Ecology Research 15:377â411.
1275:). In at least some cases, similar morphologies and behaviors appear to have evolved convergently among the Hawaiian honeycreepers; for example, the short, pointed beaks of
1354:
lizards are distributed broadly in the New World, from the Southeastern US to South America. With over 400 species currently recognized, often placed in a single genus (
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Yoder, J. B.; Clancey, E.; Des Roches, S.; Eastman, J. M.; Gentry, L.; Godsoe, W.; Hagey, T. J.; Jochimsen, D.; Oswald, B. P.; Robertson, J.; Sarver, B. A. J. (2010).
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Adaptive radiations are thought to be triggered by an ecological opportunity or a new adaptive zone. Sources of ecological opportunity can be the loss of antagonists (
833:
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The mechanism by which the finches initially diversified is still an area of active research. One proposition is that the finches were able to have a non-adaptive,
1037:) has a slender beak which it uses to pick at wood in search of insects; it also uses small sticks to reach insect prey inside the wood, making it one of the few
656:
2780:
Wille, M; NÀgler, T.F.; Lehmann, B; Schröder, S; Kramers, J.D (June 2008). "Hydrogen sulphide release to surface waters at the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary".
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are also piscivores, but with laterally compressed bodies and thick scales enabling them to chase prey into thin cracks in rocks without damaging their skin.
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radiation events. This means that the silverswords evolved on Hawaii's modern high islands, and descended from a single common ancestor that arrived on
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with population size the expanded population will have more genetic diversity compared to the ancestral population. With reduced stabilizing selection
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isolation since the island split from India some 88 million years ago, and the Mantellidae originated around 50 mya. Older examples are known: the
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has evolved large, strangely curved teeth that are designed to scrape scales off of the sides of other fish, scales being its main source of food.
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Lake Victoria's cichlids are also a species flock, once composed of some 500 or more species. The deliberate introduction of the Nile Perch (
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The new habitat has a wide availability of niche space. The rare colonist can only adaptively radiate into as many forms as there are niches.
570:
1384:": trunkâground, trunkâcrown, grassâbush, crownâgiant, twig, and trunk. Take for example crownâgiants from each of these islands: the Cuban
38:
517:
2950:. In Butlin, R.K., J. Bridle, and D. Schluter (eds) Speciation and Patterns of Diversity, Cambridge University Press, page. 102â126.
2723:"Phylogenomics reveals rapid, simultaneous diversification of three major clades of Gondwanan frogs at the CretaceousâPaleogene boundary"
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A new habitat has opened up: a volcano, for example, can create new ground in the middle of the ocean. This is the case in places like
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795:. For aquatic species, the formation of a large new lake habitat could serve the same purpose; the tectonic movement that formed the
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species with long, silvery leaves that live for up to 20 years before growing a single flowering stalk and then dying. The Hawaiian
983:) is the largest species of Darwin's finch and has the thickest beak for breaking open the toughest seeds, the small ground finch (
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Presented above are the most well-documented examples of modern adaptive radiation, but other examples are known. Populations of
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Irschick, Duncan J.; et al. (1997). "A comparison of evolutionary radiations in mainland and Caribbean Anolis lizards".
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Irschick, Duncan J.; et al. (1997). "A comparison of evolutionary radiations in mainland and Caribbean Anolis lizards".
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A 2020 study found there to be no direct causal relationship between the proportionally most comparable mass radiations and
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could effectively achieve this same result, opening up niches that were previously occupied by species that no longer exist.
2215:"Out of Tanganyika: Genesis, explosive speciation, key-innovations and phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fishes"
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event on separate islands in the archipelago, such that when they reconverged on some islands, they were able to maintain
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cactus nectar and pollen while these plants are flowering, but on seeds during the rest of the year. The warbler-finches (
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from western North America. The closest modern relatives of the silverswords today are California tarweeds of the family
1586:"Ecological opportunity and the origin of adaptive radiations: Ecological opportunity and origin of adaptive radiations"
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association between environments and the morphological and physiological traits used to exploit those environments.
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1112:) is a piscivore often ranked the largest of all cichlids (though it competes for this title with South America's
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The other finches in the Galapagos are similarly uniquely adapted for their particular niche. The cactus finches (
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in terms of "co-occurrence of species", substantially challenging the hypothesis of "creative mass extinctions".
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sp.) have somewhat longer beaks than the ground finches that serve the dual purpose of allowing them to feed on
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and physiological traits. The prototypical example of adaptive radiation is finch speciation on the Galapagos ("
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frogs have radiated into forms that mirror other tropical frog faunas, with the brightly colored mantellas (
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Grant, P.R. 1999. The ecology and evolution of Darwin's Finches. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
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Schluter, D (1995). "Adaptive radiation in sticklebacks: trade-offs in feeding performance and growth".
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in the emergence of new species around the time that ecological and phenotypic divergence is underway.
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2506:"Origin, adaptive radiation and diversification of the Hawaiian lobeliads (Asterales: Campanulaceae)"
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995:) has a beak of intermediate size for optimal consumption of intermediately sized seeds (relative to
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2868:—on adaptive radiation in biology and human evolution, pp. 28â32, 1994, Orion Publishing.
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isolated, the species that colonize it will likely be somewhat random and uncommon arrivals.
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Rainey, P. B.; Travisano, M. (1998). "Adaptive radiation in a heterogeneous environment".
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1791:"Artificial intelligence finds surprising patterns in Earth's biological mass extinctions"
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Gavrilets, S.; Losos, J. B. (2009). "Adaptive radiation: contrasting theory with data".
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Evolution in Hawaii: A Supplement to Teaching about Evolution and the Nature of Science
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1999:
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1673:"Does population size affect genetic diversity? A test with sympatric lizard species"
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45:, which are thought to have evolved via an adaptive radiation that diversified their
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2015:
1816:
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2956:"Age and rate of diversification of the Hawaiian silversword alliance (Compositae)"
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2447:"Age and rate of diversification of the Hawaiian silversword alliance (Compositae)"
2194:
1815:
Hoyal Cuthill, Jennifer F.; Guttenberg, Nicholas; Budd, Graham E. (December 2020).
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are marked by very distinct beak shapes to suit their ecological roles. Madagascan
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507:
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286:
204:
37:
17:
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Schluter, Dolph. The ecology of adaptive radiation. Oxford University Press, 2000.
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Hawaii is also the site of a separate major floral adaptive radiation event: the
1433:
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1283:
1269:, is composed of thick-billed, mostly seed-eating birds, like the Laysan finch (
1230:
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pp 824â877. 40 Graphs, w species pictures, also Tables, Photos, etc. Includes
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1817:"Impacts of speciation and extinction measured by an evolutionary decay clock"
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Occupying a new environment might take place under the following conditions:
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989:) has a smaller beak for eating smaller seeds, and the medium ground finch (
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2385:"Convergent evolution of 'creepers' in the Hawaiian honeycreeper radiation"
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2250:
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2007:
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3091:"Adaptive Radiation, Ecological Opportunity, and Evolutionary Determinism"
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2490:
2163:"Adaptive Radiation, Ecological Opportunity, and Evolutionary Determinism"
611:
2568:
Lizards in an Evolutionary Tree: Ecology and Adaptive Radiation of Anoles
1438:
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sp.) have short, pointed beaks for eating insects. The woodpecker finch (
1017:
1004:
555:
154:
2801:
2648:"Diversification and the adaptive radiation of the vangas of Madagascar"
1688:
1442:) having evolved convergently with the Neotropical poison dart frogs of
27:
A process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species
3253:
3081:
2948:
Dynamic patterns of adaptive radiation: evolution of mating preferences
2881:
Kemp, A.C. (1978). "A review of the hornbills: biology and radiation".
2623:
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1448:
1377:
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1022:
974:
1216:). Note the long, curved beak for sipping nectar from tubular flowers.
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1356:
1277:
1220:
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2615:
3106:
2383:
Reding, DM; Foster, JT; James, HF; Pratt, HD; Fleisher, RC (2009).
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842:
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Relationship between mass-extinctions and mass adaptive radiations
2721:
Feng; Blackburn; Liang; Hillis; Wake; Cannatella; Zhang (2017).
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Lake Victoria Rock Cichlids: taxonomy, ecology, and distribution
1424:
have repeatedly diverged and evolved into distinct ecotypes. On
1365:
46:
1300:
A mixture of blooming and non-blooming HaleakalÄ silverswords (
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advantages of trait values in their corresponding environments.
682:. Starting with a single ancestor, this process results in the
1894:
40 years of Evolution: Darwin's Finches on Daphne Major Island
1265:
flowers. An entire clade of Hawaiian honeycreepers, the tribe
898:
3264:
Seehausen, O (2004). "Hybridization and adaptive radiation".
706:
Four features can be used to identify an adaptive radiation:
1766:"Earth's Biodiversity Bursts Do Not Follow Expected Pattern"
1259:) has a very long curved beak for reaching nectar deep in
2096:
Tanganyika Cichlids in their natural habitat, 3rd Edition
973:
in the true sense, but are members of the tanager family
2326:"Ancient diversification of Hyposmocoma moths in Hawaii"
1507:
List of adaptive radiated Hawaiian honeycreepers by form
49:
shapes, enabling them to exploit different food sources.
2646:
Reddy; Driskell; Rabosky; Hackett; Schulenberg (2012).
2510:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolution in Our Time
915:
825:
Cambrian explosion § End-Ediacaran mass extinction
710:
A common ancestry of component species: specifically a
690:
adaptation of an array of species exhibiting different
30:
For a more general term to describe any radiation, see
894:
Phanerozoic biodiversity as shown by the fossil record
2877:. 2001. What evolution is. Basic Books, New York, NY.
2138:
Malawi Cichlids in their natural habitat, 5th edition
1896:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 16.
1737:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
2098:. El Paso, TX: Cichlid Press. pp. 8, 325â328.
1973:
1971:
1969:
1967:
2692:"Where did all of Madagascar's species come from?"
2303:. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.
1939:
1636:Simpson, G (1949). "Tempo and Mode in Evolution".
698:"), but examples are known from around the world.
2954:Baldwin, Bruce G.; Sanderson, Michael J. (1998).
2445:Baldwin, Bruce G.; Sanderson, Michael J. (1998).
1638:Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences
2960:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2570:. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
2451:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1733:"Ecological Opportunity and Adaptive Radiation"
1549:
1547:
2262:
2260:
1644:. New York: Columbia University Press: 45â60.
1538:Our Origins: Discovering Physical Anthropology
1503:âa more general term to describe any radiation
1497:âthe most notable evolutionary radiation event
1485:were filled up by the emergence of new phyla.
1234:moths have also undergone adaptive radiation.
722:descendants of a common ancestor are included.
714:ancestry. Note that this is not the same as a
2208:
2206:
2204:
650:
8:
2840:The Multiplication of Species; Biogeography,
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
1512:List of adaptive radiated marsupials by form
961:), is not found in the Galapagos but on the
799:, ultimately leading to the creation of the
2589:
2587:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2089:
2087:
2085:
2083:
1946:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. pp.
1560:. Oxford University Press. pp. 10â11.
2440:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2269:Darwin's Dreampond: Drama in Lake Victoria
2213:Salzburger; Mack; Verheyen; Meyer (2005).
2081:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2063:
1933:
882:
739:Rapid speciation: presence of one or more
657:
643:
52:
41:Four of the 14 finch species found in the
2989:
2979:
2929:
2919:
2756:
2746:
2667:
2537:
2480:
2470:
2410:
2359:
2349:
2240:
2230:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1748:
1704:
1601:
1452:species are the Madagascan equivalent of
2896:"Dynamic patterns of adaptive radiation"
2561:
2559:
2557:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2288:
1726:
1724:
36:
1528:
1302:Argyroxiphium sandwicense macrocephalum
725:A phenotype-environment correlation: a
60:
1750:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-121415-032254
969:). Darwin's finches are not actually
7:
1631:
1629:
1579:
1577:
1164:), and five tilapia species (genera
1671:Hague, M T J; Routman, E J (2016).
1312:, named for alpine desert-dwelling
1056:Cichlids of the African Great Lakes
2652:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
2324:Haines; Schmitz; Rubinoff (2014).
1650:10.1111/j.2164-0947.1945.tb00215.x
1540:(2 ed.). Norton. p. A11.
732:Trait utility: the performance or
25:
3266:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2946:Gavrilets, S. and A. Vose. 2009.
1557:The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation
3316:Evolutionary biology terminology
3152:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02632.x
2894:Gavrilets, S.; Vose, A. (2005).
2271:. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
2000:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02632.x
1603:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02029.x
902:
832:
624:
623:
610:
68:
1590:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
617:Evolutionary biology portal
2698:. October 2009. Archived from
2654:. 279:1735 (1735): 2062â2071.
2140:. El Paso, TX: Cichlid Press.
576:Creationâevolution controversy
330:History of evolutionary theory
1:
1483:End-Ediacaran mass extinction
780:and thus adaptive radiation.
764:(constraining) selection. As
1204:Adaptive radiation in Hawaii
1109:Boulengerochromis microlepis
803:, is an example of this. An
561:Evolution as fact and theory
1133:Gnathochromis permaxillaris
3332:
3278:10.1016/j.tree.2004.01.003
3089:Losos, Jonathan B (2010).
2267:Goldschmidt, Tijs (1996).
2161:Losos, Jonathan B (2010).
1477:left by the extinction of
1412:adaptive radiation event.
822:
596:Nature-nurture controversy
29:
1938:Weiner, Jonathan (1994).
1841:10.1038/s41586-020-3003-4
1731:Stroud and Losos (2016).
1536:Larsen, Clark S. (2011).
1422:three-spined sticklebacks
483:Evolutionary neuroscience
458:Evolutionary epistemology
438:Evolutionary anthropology
418:Applications of evolution
2566:Losos, Jonathan (2009).
2219:BMC Evolutionary Biology
1554:Schluter, Dolph (2000).
1189:
1183:Nimbochromis livingtonii
1155:Astatotilapia calliptera
1009:Peter and Rosemary Grant
473:Evolutionary linguistics
468:Evolutionary game theory
443:Evolutionary computation
3095:The American Naturalist
3029:10.1126/science.1157966
2981:10.1073/pnas.95.16.9402
2921:10.1073/pnas.0506330102
2866:The Origin of Humankind
2748:10.1073/pnas.1704632114
2472:10.1073/pnas.95.16.9402
2167:The American Naturalist
2042:Seehausen, Ole (1996).
1161:Serranochromis robustus
1140:Lamprologus callipterus
949:
586:Objections to evolution
493:Evolutionary psychology
488:Evolutionary physiology
433:Evolutionary aesthetics
412:Fields and applications
394:History of paleontology
2660:10.1098/rspb.2011.2380
2522:10.1098/rspb.2008.1204
2403:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0589
2232:10.1186/1471-2148-5-17
1501:Evolutionary radiation
1428:, birds of the family
1305:
1244:Hawaiian honeycreepers
1238:Hawaiian honeycreepers
1217:
1050:reproductive isolation
1039:animals that use tools
867:Other mass extinctions
518:Speciation experiments
498:Experimental evolution
453:Evolutionary economics
275:Recent human evolution
133:Processes and outcomes
50:
32:Evolutionary radiation
2330:Nature Communications
2299:Olsen, Steve (2004).
1517:Nonadaptive radiation
1467:K-Pg extinction event
1446:, while the arboreal
1299:
1292:Hawaiian silverswords
1211:
1046:allopatric speciation
1034:Camarhynchus pallidus
980:Geospiza magnirostris
958:Pinaroloxias inornata
849:"Well-defined" genera
778:ecological speciation
478:Evolutionary medicine
423:Biosocial criminology
389:History of speciation
302:Evolutionary taxonomy
265:Timeline of evolution
43:GalĂĄpagos Archipelago
40:
2854:subcontinent, (plus
2136:Konings, Ad (2016).
2094:Konings, Ad (2015).
2046:. Verduyn Cichlids.
1320:silversword alliance
680:environmental niches
671:evolutionary biology
448:Evolutionary ecology
62:Evolutionary biology
3238:1995Ecol...76...82S
3193:1998Natur.394...69R
3144:2005MolEc..14.2943P
3066:1997Ecol...78.2191I
3021:2009Sci...323..732G
2972:1998PNAS...95.9402B
2912:2005PNAS..10218040G
2906:(50): 18040â18045.
2802:10.1038/nature07072
2794:2008Natur.453..767W
2739:2017PNAS..114E5864F
2608:1997Ecol...78.2191I
2463:1998PNAS...95.9402B
2342:2014NatCo...5.3502H
1992:2005MolEc..14.2943P
1833:2020Natur.588..636H
1770:Scientific American
1689:10.1038/hdy.2015.76
1387:Anolis luteogularis
1341:Hawaiian lobelioids
1335:Hawaiian lobelioids
1250:Hemignathus wilsoni
1190:Victoria's cichlids
1091:Tanganyika cichlids
986:Geospiza fuliginosa
877:Thousands of genera
550:Social implications
538:Universal Darwinism
528:Island biogeography
463:Evolutionary ethics
428:Ecological genetics
374:Molecular evolution
312:Transitional fossil
140:Population genetics
56:Part of a series on
18:Radiation (biology)
2834:Wilson, E. et al.
2351:10.1038/ncomms4502
1890:Grant, B. Rosemary
1495:Cambrian explosion
1471:Cambrian Explosion
1306:
1218:
1127:Plecodus straeleni
914:. You can help by
675:adaptive radiation
581:Theistic evolution
513:Selective breeding
225:Parallel evolution
190:Adaptive radiation
51:
3138:(10): 2943â2957.
3132:Molecular Ecology
3015:(5915): 732â737.
2966:(16): 9402â9406.
2844:GalĂĄpagos Islands
2733:(29): 5864â5870.
2516:(1656): 407â416.
2457:(16): 9402â9406.
2147:978-1-932892-23-9
2105:978-1-932892-18-5
1986:(10): 2943â2957.
1980:Molecular Ecology
1827:(7839): 636â641.
1462:pseudoxyrhophiine
1272:Telespiza cantans
1256:Drepanis coccinea
1214:Drepanis coccinea
1075:(particularly in
1073:East African Rift
932:
931:
872:Million years ago
801:Rift Valley Lakes
797:East African Rift
766:genetic diversity
667:
666:
358:Origin of Species
160:Natural selection
16:(Redirected from
3323:
3297:
3257:
3220:
3171:
3126:
3085:
3060:(7): 2191â2203.
3048:
3003:
2993:
2983:
2943:
2933:
2923:
2890:
2822:
2821:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2760:
2750:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2671:
2643:
2637:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2602:(7): 2191â2203.
2591:
2582:
2581:
2563:
2552:
2551:
2541:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2484:
2474:
2442:
2425:
2424:
2414:
2380:
2374:
2373:
2363:
2353:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2296:
2283:
2282:
2264:
2255:
2254:
2244:
2234:
2210:
2199:
2198:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2133:
2110:
2109:
2091:
2058:
2057:
2039:
2020:
2019:
1975:
1962:
1961:
1945:
1935:
1908:
1907:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1752:
1728:
1719:
1718:
1708:
1668:
1662:
1661:
1633:
1624:
1623:
1605:
1596:(8): 1581â1596.
1581:
1572:
1571:
1551:
1542:
1541:
1533:
1402:, and Jamaica's
1396:, Puerto Rico's
1362:Greater Antilles
1347:Caribbean anoles
950:Darwin's finches
927:
924:
906:
899:
886:
878:
873:
868:
863:
861:mass extinctions
855:
850:
845:
836:
805:extinction event
696:Darwin's finches
659:
652:
645:
632:
627:
626:
619:
615:
614:
591:Level of support
384:Current research
369:Modern synthesis
364:Before synthesis
317:Extinction event
75:Darwin's finches
72:
53:
21:
3331:
3330:
3326:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3301:
3300:
3263:
3246:10.2307/1940633
3223:
3187:(6688): 69â72.
3178:
3129:
3088:
3074:10.2307/2265955
3051:
3006:
2953:
2893:
2883:The Living Bird
2880:
2862:Leakey, Richard
2831:
2829:Further reading
2826:
2825:
2788:(7196): 767â9.
2779:
2778:
2774:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2705:
2703:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2645:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2616:10.2307/2265955
2593:
2592:
2585:
2578:
2565:
2564:
2555:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2444:
2443:
2428:
2390:Biology Letters
2382:
2381:
2377:
2323:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2298:
2297:
2286:
2279:
2266:
2265:
2258:
2212:
2211:
2202:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2135:
2134:
2113:
2106:
2093:
2092:
2061:
2054:
2041:
2040:
2023:
1977:
1976:
1965:
1958:
1937:
1936:
1911:
1904:
1886:Grant, David R.
1884:
1883:
1879:
1869:
1867:
1814:
1813:
1809:
1799:
1797:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1774:
1772:
1763:
1762:
1758:
1730:
1729:
1722:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1635:
1634:
1627:
1583:
1582:
1575:
1568:
1553:
1552:
1545:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1525:
1491:
1479:Ediacaran biota
1473:, where vacant
1418:
1393:Anolis ricordii
1390:, Hispaniola's
1349:
1337:
1294:
1240:
1206:
1197:Lates niloticus
1192:
1158:), the sungwa (
1150:
1148:Malawi cichlids
1121:Altolamprologus
1115:Cichla temensis
1096:Lake Tanganyika
1093:
1077:Lake Tanganyika
1058:
997:G. magnirostris
992:Geospiza fortis
963:island of Cocos
952:
947:
941:
928:
922:
919:
912:needs expansion
897:
896:
895:
893:
888:
887:
880:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
858:
856:
853:
851:
848:
846:
840:
837:
827:
821:
750:
704:
702:Characteristics
663:
622:
609:
608:
601:
600:
551:
543:
542:
413:
405:
404:
403:
331:
323:
322:
321:
270:Human evolution
260:History of life
244:
243:Natural history
236:
235:
234:
134:
126:
81:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3329:
3327:
3319:
3318:
3313:
3303:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3272:(4): 198â207.
3261:
3258:
3221:
3176:
3172:
3127:
3107:10.1086/652433
3101:(6): 623â639.
3086:
3049:
3004:
2951:
2944:
2891:
2878:
2872:
2869:
2859:
2858:Island, etc.).
2836:Life on Earth,
2830:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2772:
2713:
2683:
2638:
2629:
2583:
2577:978-0520255913
2576:
2553:
2496:
2426:
2397:(2): 221â224.
2375:
2316:
2309:
2284:
2278:978-0262071789
2277:
2256:
2200:
2179:10.1086/652433
2173:(6): 623â639.
2153:
2146:
2111:
2104:
2059:
2052:
2021:
1963:
1956:
1909:
1903:978-0691160467
1902:
1877:
1807:
1782:
1764:Black, Riley.
1756:
1720:
1663:
1625:
1573:
1566:
1543:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1498:
1490:
1487:
1417:
1416:Other examples
1414:
1405:Anolis garmani
1399:Anolis cuvieri
1348:
1345:
1336:
1333:
1293:
1290:
1267:Psittirostrini
1239:
1236:
1205:
1202:
1191:
1188:
1178:mouth-brooders
1149:
1146:
1092:
1089:
1067:fishes in the
1057:
1054:
951:
948:
946:
943:
930:
929:
909:
907:
890:
889:
881:
875:
870:
865:
857:
852:
847:
839:
838:
831:
830:
829:
828:
820:
817:
816:
815:
812:
808:
768:is positively
749:
746:
745:
744:
737:
730:
723:
703:
700:
665:
664:
662:
661:
654:
647:
639:
636:
635:
634:
633:
620:
603:
602:
599:
598:
593:
588:
583:
578:
573:
571:Social effects
568:
563:
558:
552:
549:
548:
545:
544:
541:
540:
535:
530:
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520:
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510:
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304:
299:
297:Classification
294:
289:
284:
279:
278:
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267:
262:
257:
255:Common descent
252:
250:Origin of life
246:
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97:
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64:
58:
57:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3328:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3308:
3306:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3262:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3201:10.1038/27900
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
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3141:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3120:
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3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3042:
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3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2952:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2776:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2717:
2714:
2702:on 2011-05-16
2701:
2697:
2693:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2675:
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2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
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2617:
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2590:
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2535:
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2527:
2523:
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2515:
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2500:
2497:
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2468:
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2379:
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2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2320:
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1085:Lake Victoria
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1062:haplochromine
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503:Phylogenetics
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347:Before Darwin
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2704:. Retrieved
2700:the original
2695:
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1941:
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1880:
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1824:
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1773:. Retrieved
1769:
1759:
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1736:
1683:(1): 92â98.
1680:
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1310:silverswords
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1107:
1101:monophyletic
1094:
1059:
1043:
1032:
1026:
1016:
1014:
1000:
996:
990:
984:
978:
956:
953:
940:
933:
923:January 2021
920:
916:adding to it
911:
782:
751:
740:
726:
719:
711:
705:
674:
668:
523:Sociobiology
508:Paleontology
356:
292:Biogeography
287:Biodiversity
205:Coextinction
195:Co-operation
189:
170:Polymorphism
95:Introduction
2875:Mayr, Ernst
2361:10125/40006
1743:: 507â532.
1458:glass frogs
1374:Puerto Rico
1231:Hyposmocoma
1226:drosophilid
1212:An ʻiʻiwi (
1167:Oreochromis
1081:Lake Malawi
1069:Great Lakes
936:extinctions
859:"Big Five"
762:stabilizing
754:competitors
727:significant
533:Systematics
342:Renaissance
220:Convergence
210:Contingency
200:Coevolution
3311:Speciation
3305:Categories
2889:: 105â136.
2856:St. Helena
2225:(17): 17.
1870:17 January
1800:17 January
1775:17 January
1523:References
1454:tree frogs
1426:Madagascar
1370:Hispaniola
1329:Asteraceae
1284:Oreomystis
1228:flies and
975:Thraupidae
967:Costa Rica
854:Trend line
823:See also:
774:phenotypic
770:correlated
748:Conditions
688:phenotypic
684:speciation
307:Cladistics
230:Extinction
215:Divergence
185:Speciation
165:Adaptation
79:John Gould
2852:Australia
2530:0962-8452
1865:228090659
1849:1476-4687
1697:0018-067X
1434:mantellid
1382:ecomorphs
1028:Certhidea
965:south of
793:Galapagos
758:predators
718:in which
716:monophyly
566:Dysgenics
282:Phylogeny
180:Gene flow
150:Diversity
145:Variation
3286:16701254
3217:40896184
3168:20787729
3160:16101765
3115:20412015
3037:19197052
2940:16330783
2810:18509331
2767:28673970
2678:22217720
2548:18854299
2421:19087923
2370:24651317
2336:: 3502.
2251:15723698
2187:20412015
2016:20787729
2008:16101765
1892:(2014).
1857:33299185
1795:phys.org
1715:26306730
1677:Heredity
1658:21012247
1620:25334971
1612:20561138
1489:See also
1439:Mantella
1430:Vangidae
1173:Coptodon
1137:bottom.
1018:Geospiza
945:Examples
791:and the
630:Category
556:Eugenics
398:timeline
379:Evo-devo
337:Overview
155:Mutation
117:Evidence
112:Glossary
3294:9992822
3254:1940633
3234:Bibcode
3226:Ecology
3209:9665128
3189:Bibcode
3140:Bibcode
3123:1657188
3082:2265955
3062:Bibcode
3054:Ecology
3045:5601085
3017:Bibcode
3009:Science
3000:9689092
2968:Bibcode
2931:1312382
2908:Bibcode
2818:4425120
2790:Bibcode
2758:5530686
2735:Bibcode
2706:June 3,
2696:WebCite
2669:3311898
2624:2265955
2604:Bibcode
2596:Ecology
2539:2664350
2491:9689092
2459:Bibcode
2412:2665804
2338:Bibcode
2195:1657188
1988:Bibcode
1829:Bibcode
1706:4675878
1481:during
1449:Boophis
1378:Jamaica
1262:Lobelia
1071:of the
1065:cichlid
1023:Opuntia
971:finches
734:fitness
122:History
105:Outline
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1460:. The
1410:Anolis
1376:, and
1357:Anolis
1278:Loxops
1221:Hawaii
1083:, and
843:genera
789:Hawaii
741:bursts
712:recent
628:
352:Darwin
3290:S2CID
3250:JSTOR
3213:S2CID
3175:2014.
3164:S2CID
3119:S2CID
3078:JSTOR
3041:S2CID
2991:21350
2814:S2CID
2620:JSTOR
2482:21350
2191:S2CID
2012:S2CID
1861:S2CID
1616:S2CID
1352:Anole
1325:Kauai
1104:clade
90:Index
3282:PMID
3205:PMID
3156:PMID
3111:PMID
3033:PMID
2996:PMID
2936:PMID
2900:PNAS
2806:PMID
2763:PMID
2727:PNAS
2708:2018
2674:PMID
2572:ISBN
2544:PMID
2526:ISSN
2487:PMID
2417:PMID
2366:PMID
2305:ISBN
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2100:ISBN
2048:ISBN
2004:PMID
1952:ISBN
1898:ISBN
1872:2021
1853:PMID
1845:ISSN
1802:2021
1777:2021
1711:PMID
1693:ISSN
1654:PMID
1608:PMID
1562:ISBN
1456:and
1366:Cuba
1281:and
1242:The
1170:and
1060:The
999:and
841:All
686:and
100:Main
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