618:
244:
exposure. As of 2012, the risk of low dose radiation in medical imaging was unproven. It is difficult to establish risks associated with low dose radiation. One reason why is that a long period of time occurs from exposure to radiation and the appearance of cancer. Also, there is a natural incidence of cancer. It is difficult to determine whether increases in cancer in a population are caused by low dose radiation. Lastly, we live in environments where other powerful carcinogens may affect the results of these studies. This includes chemicals, pollutants, cigarette smoke, and more.
699:
carbon-14 inside their bodies from birth). Aside from medical imaging, other man-made sources of radiation include building and road construction materials, combustible fuels, including gas and coal, televisions, smoke detectors, luminous watches, tobacco, some ceramics, and more in the reference. Below is an example from the US Nuclear
Regulatory Commission on how different types of food contain small amounts of radiation. The sources of radiation are radioactive potassium-40 (40K), radium-226 (226Ra), and other atoms:
27:
630:
have been increased cellular and animal data that supports this view. However, there is uncertainty at doses about 100 mSv or less. It is possible to assume that the incidence of cancer will rise with the equivalent dose in the relevant organs and tissues. Thus, the
Commission bases recommendations on this assumption. Doses below this threshold of 100 mSv will produce a direct increase in probability of incurring cancer. This dose-response model is known as '
614:(from less than 0.005 Gy to 4 Gy). There is also a wide range in age. About 45,000 people were exposed to 0.005 Gy or 5mSv. The study shows a linear dose response for all solid tumors. This means the relationship between dose and human body response is a straight line. To see an example, look at the graph titled "Linear graph." Linear dose response also means that the rate of change of human body response is the same at any dose.
94:, and more. Each type of test carries its own amount of radiation exposure. There are two general categories of adverse health effects caused by radiation exposure: deterministic effects and stochastic effects. Deterministic effects (harmful tissue reactions) are due to the killing/malfunction of cells following high doses; and stochastic effects involve either cancer development in exposed individuals caused by mutation of
578:. The Life-Span Study (LSS) is a long-term study of health effects in Japanese atomic bomb survivors. Also, increased incidence of cancer has been observed in uranium miners. It is also seen in other medical, occupational, and environmental studies. This includes medical patients exposed to diagnostic or therapeutic doses of radiation. It also includes persons exposed to environmental sources of radiation including
482:
666:, ensuring personnel wear proper aprons/scrubs, shields/masks, goggles, gloves, etc., it is also important that the personal protective equipment be worn and removed correctly. To further implement the safety of personnel, the healthcare facilities have controlled areas and zones. These areas will be restricted with signage and barriers to ensure only authorized staff have access.
198:
comparable to the amount of background radiation a person is exposed to in 1 year. Background radiation is from naturally radioactive materials and cosmic radiation from space. The embryo and fetus are considered highly sensitive to radiation exposure. Complications from radiation exposure include malformation of internal organs, reduction of IQ, and cancer formation. The
586:
868:
Effects of Atomic
Radiation calculated excess relative risk in the first trimester. It is 0.28 per mGy. Excess relative risk is the rate of disease in an exposed population divided by the rate of disease in an unexposed population, minus 1.0. This means that the risk of cancer from irradiation in the first trimester is 28% higher than in the third trimester.
661:
One crucial measure to decrease the risk of radiation exposure in the healthcare field is having safety training for all personnel working in the different operational fields of radiation. These trainings will ensure that workers have the right knowledge to be able to handle these equipment properly.
457:
quantity used to assess the dose from radiation exposure. Another common measurement for human tissue is Gray (Gy, International or SI unit). The reference for this sentence has a table that gives the exposure to dose conversion for these four materials. The amount of energy deposited in human tissue
654:. These imaging techniques use ion radiation to make detailed images of the internal structure of body parts which are vital roles in healthcare for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. The implementation of preventive measures is essential in order to decrease the risk of exposure and to make sure
629:
which causes clinical radiation damage of cells in the body. As the dose increases, the severity of injury increases. This also impairs tissue recovery. The IRCP also describes how cancer develops following radiation exposure. This happens via DNA damage response processes. In recent decades, there
867:
is 2.7. Relative risk is a measure of probability of an outcome in one group versus the other. In this case, the risk of cancer formation in the first trimester is 2.7 times higher than the risk of cancer formation in the third trimester. In addition, the United
Nations Scientific Committee on the
698:
gas is a radioactive chemical element that is the largest source of background radiation, about 2mSv per year. This is similar to a head CT (see table). Other sources include cosmic radiation, dissolved uranium and thorium in water, and internal radiation (humans have radioactive potassium-40 and
197:
The risk of low dose radiation in medical imaging is unproven. It is difficult to establish risk due to low dose radiation. This is in part because there are other carcinogens in the environment, including smoking, chemicals, and pollutants. A common head CT has an effective dose of 2 mSv. This is
230:
Radiation is a moving form of energy, classified into ionizing and non-ionizing type. Ionizing radiation is further categorized into electromagnetic radiation (without matter) and particulate radiation (with matter). Electromagnetic radiation consists of photons, which can be thought of as energy
243:
as exposure incurred by people as part of their own medical or dental diagnosis or treatment; by persons, other than those occupationally exposed, knowingly, while voluntarily helping in the support and comfort of patients; and by volunteers in a programme of biomedical research involving their
61:
as exposure incurred by people as part of their own medical or dental diagnosis or treatment; by persons, other than those occupationally exposed, knowingly, while voluntarily helping in the support and comfort of patients; and by volunteers in a programme of biomedical research involving their
597:
or number of new cancers is about to 7,000. 850 of these cancers were diagnosed in individuals with estimated doses greater than 0.005 Gy. In other words, they were due to the atomic bomb radiation exposure, which is 11% or 1 in 10 of the cancers diagnosed. The population was defined as those
124:
during World War 2. Over 100,000 individuals were followed for 50 years. 1 in 10 of the cancers that formed during this time was due to radiation. The study shows a linear dose response for all solid tumors. This means the relationship between dose and human body response is a straight line.
489:
For example, suppose a person's small intestine and stomach are both exposed to radiation separately. The absorbed dose of small intestine is 100 mSv and the absorbed dose of stomach is 70 mSv. The tissue weighting factors of various organs are listed in the following table:
854:
of the fetus. The estimated dose threshold is 0.1 Gylow-linear-energy-transfer (LET) radiation, and this period generally occurs from day 14–50. Animal data supports the idea that malformations are induced at a dose of around 100 mGy. Another risk is reduction of
231:
packets, traveling in the form of a wave. Examples of electromagnetic radiation includes X-rays and gamma rays (see photo "Types of
Electromagnetic Radiation"). These types of radiation can easily penetrate the human body because of high energy.
859:(IQ). The most sensitive period is weeks 8–15 postconception. IQ reduces by 30 IQ points/Sv, which can lead to severe intellectual disability. Malformations begin to occur at a dose threshold of at least 300 mGy. Cancer can also be induced by
557:
The effective dose would then equal dose equivalent (small intestine) + dose equivalent (stomach) = 12mSv + 2.8mSv = 14.8mSv. This risk of harmful effects from this radiation is equal to 14.8mSv received uniformly throughout the whole body.
863:, which generally occurs from day 51-280 of pregnancy. Most X-rays occur during the third trimester of pregnancy. There is sparse information on radiation exposure from the first trimester of pregnancy. However, data suggests that the
634:' or LNT. To see the model, please see dashed line in the graph "Dose response curve of linear-non-threshold model". Because of this uncertainty at low doses, the Commission does not calculate the hypothetical number of cancer cases.
116:, and Gray, or Gy. Dose equivalent calculates the effect of radiation on human tissue. This is done using tissue weighting factor, which takes into account how each tissue in the body has different sensitivity to radiation. The
2712:
Bach, Peter B.; Mirkin, Joshua N.; Oliver, Thomas K.; Azzoli, Christopher G.; Berry, Donald A.; Brawley, Otis W.; Byers, Tim; Colditz, Graham A.; Gould, Michael K.; Jett, James R.; Sabichi, Anita L. (2012-06-13).
458:
and organs is the basis for the measurements for humans. These doses are then calculated into radiation risk by accounting for the type of radiation, as well as the different sensitivity of organs and tissues.
2480:
Sukhotnik I, Nativ O, Ben-Shahar Y, Bejar IN, Pollak Y, Coran AG, Gorenberg M (January 2019). "Antioxidant treatment ameliorates germ cell apoptosis induced by a high-dose ionizing irradiation in rats".
693:
Background radiation is from naturally radioactive materials and cosmic radiation from space. People are exposed to this radiation from the environment continuously, with an annual dose of about 3 mSv.
478:
refers to the radiation risk averaged over the entire body. It is the sum of the equivalent dosage of all exposed organs or tissues. Equivalent dose and effective dose are measured in sieverts (Sv).
593:
In the LSS, 105,427 individuals (out of about 325,000 civilian survivors) were followed from 1958 through 1998. During this time, 17,448 cancers were diagnosed. The baseline predicted cancer
617:
607:(3) residents who were temporarily not in either Hiroshima or Nagasaki or were more than 10 km from the hypocenter in either city (NIC) at the time of the bombings (no-exposure group).
120:
is the risk of radiation averaged over the entire body. Ionizing radiation is known to cause cancer in humans. We know this from the Life Span Study, which followed survivors of the
1107:
3101:"Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC"
642:
In the healthcare field, professionals can be exposed to various forms of ionization if they do not take the appropriate preventive measures. Exposure can take place through
240:
58:
2519:
Consolidated guidance about materials licenses : consolidated guidance, standards for protection against radiation in 10 CFR part 20 : draft report for comment
425:
is how much energy that ionizing radiation deposits in a material. The absorbed dose will depend on the type of matter which absorbs the radiation. For an exposure of 1
681:
was decreased. Thus antioxidant treatment was proposed as a preventative measure before radiation exposure. Also in rats, antioxidant treatment ameliorated germ cell
880:
imaging exams are used to catch cancer early, reducing the risk of death. It also reduces the risk of having serious life-limiting medical conditions, and avoiding
3526:
3511:
1100:
2136:
Linet, Martha S.; Slovis, Thomas L.; Miller, Donald L.; Kleinerman, Ruth; Lee, Choonsik; Rajaraman, Preetha; Berrington de
Gonzalez, Amy (March 2012).
1662:"Radiation detection and measurement 3rd Edition, Glenn F. Knoll; Wiley, New York, 2000, pp. xiv+802; cloth: alk. Paper, $ 112.95, ISBN 0-471-07338-5"
121:
1545:
625:
The
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) describes how deterministic effects, or harmful tissue reactions, occur. There is a
3612:
959:
Below is a table of exposure rate constants for various radionuclides. They give the exposure rate in roentgens per hour for a given activity in
3480:
2386:
1624:
1597:
1570:
1093:
3506:
3475:
3420:
2522:. Division of Industrial and Medical Nuclear Safety, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
3139:
112:
is a term used to describe how much energy that radiation deposits in a material. Common measurements for absorbed dose include rad, or
20:
3455:
896:. Radiation therapy destroys cancer cells, stopping them from growing. Aside from cancer, many types of medical imaging are used to
465:
measures the effective radiation dosage in a specific organ or tissue. The dose equivalent is calculated by the following equation:
3521:
2762:
Niell, Bethany L.; Freer, Phoebe E.; Weinfurtner, Robert Jared; Arleo, Elizabeth Kagan; Drukteinis, Jennifer S. (November 2017).
674:
892:, and more. Radiation is also used as therapy for many different types of cancer. About 50% of all cancer patients receive
3587:
1134:
663:
199:
822:
The embryo and fetus are considered highly sensitive to radiation exposure. The highest risk of lethality is during the
83:
3343:
823:
678:
3575:
3430:
3403:
1442:
475:
117:
75:
2565:
3460:
3313:
631:
3100:
2541:
461:
To measure the biological effects of radiation on human tissues, effective dose or dose equivalent is used. The
3398:
3172:
3083:
2928:
Moore, Alastair; Goerne, Harold; Rajiah, Prabhakar; Tanabe, Yuki; Saboo, Sachin; Abbara, Suhny (January 2019).
2407:
594:
571:
3308:
2042:
Preston, D. L.; Ron, E.; Tokuoka, S.; Funamoto, S.; Nishi, N.; Soda, M.; Mabuchi, K.; Kodama, K. (July 2007).
3338:
3132:
1490:
1413:
889:
2592:
1966:"The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP publication 103"
1719:"The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP publication 103"
601:(1) atomic bomb survivors who were within 2.5 km of the hypocenter at the time of the bombings (ATB),
3579:
3490:
3164:
3583:
3318:
3051:
901:
885:
856:
2433:"Novel nanotech antioxidant cocktail prevents medical diagnostic procedures ionizing radiation effects"
3440:
3328:
3285:
3235:
2055:
877:
604:(2) survivors who were between 2.5 and 10 km of the hypocenter ATB (low- or no-dose group), and
579:
3557:
3516:
3435:
3348:
655:
3607:
3552:
3353:
3333:
3217:
3125:
2965:
2257:
2087:
2003:
1756:
905:
611:
42:
924:
per hour). For a point source, the exposure rate will be linearly proportional to the source's
3445:
3323:
3260:
3225:
3022:
3004:
2957:
2949:
2910:
2892:
2853:
2835:
2791:
2783:
2744:
2687:
2679:
2637:
2523:
2498:
2462:
2382:
2314:
2249:
2241:
2175:
2157:
2079:
2071:
1995:
1987:
1895:
1813:
1795:
1748:
1740:
1681:
1630:
1620:
1603:
1593:
1576:
1566:
1200:
1142:
893:
651:
91:
79:
26:
3450:
3012:
2996:
2941:
2900:
2884:
2843:
2827:
2775:
2734:
2726:
2671:
2629:
2490:
2452:
2444:
2374:
2233:
2165:
2149:
2063:
1977:
1803:
1787:
1730:
1673:
1548:
required that their use for "public health ... purposes" be phased out by 31 December 1985.
446:
2617:
3562:
3547:
3363:
3275:
3265:
1374:
1261:
921:
920:
The gamma ray field can be characterized by the exposure rate (in units of, for instance,
816:
462:
426:
211:
166:
50:
2059:
481:
3410:
3368:
3358:
3280:
3270:
3240:
3017:
2984:
2905:
2872:
2848:
2815:
2739:
2714:
2457:
2432:
2170:
2137:
1808:
1775:
1542:
1004:
851:
626:
598:
selected to include three major groups of registered
Hiroshima and Nagasaki residents:
203:
153:
2237:
1677:
1560:
1529:
Although the United States
Nuclear Regulatory Commission permits the use of the units
471:
Tissue weighting factor reflects the relative sensitivity of each organ to radiation.
3601:
3485:
3245:
3230:
1297:
1015:
994:
925:
864:
831:
450:
422:
416:
113:
109:
3052:
Stanford
University Environmental Health and Safety, radionuclide safety data sheets
2969:
2261:
2138:"Cancer risks associated with external radiation from diagnostic imaging procedures"
2007:
1760:
3465:
3425:
3290:
2221:
2091:
1661:
1530:
1171:
960:
953:
174:
95:
3000:
2888:
2431:
Gorenberg M, Agbarya A, Groshar D, Volovik I, Avitan O, Sukhotnik I (March 2021).
2337:
3117:
2378:
3207:
1307:
1269:
1058:
1037:
1026:
860:
670:
87:
71:
2448:
2366:
2306:
1982:
1965:
1887:
1735:
1718:
3255:
3202:
2945:
2779:
2675:
2494:
1607:
1580:
1538:
1534:
1355:
1069:
1047:
964:
835:
434:
3008:
2953:
2896:
2839:
2787:
2683:
2641:
2245:
2161:
2075:
1991:
1799:
1744:
1685:
3542:
3415:
3250:
3197:
3187:
3148:
2527:
1634:
1152:
984:
909:
897:
827:
682:
575:
454:
247:
See table for effective doses from common medical diagnostic imaging exams.
103:
3026:
2961:
2929:
2914:
2857:
2795:
2763:
2748:
2730:
2691:
2659:
2502:
2466:
2318:
2253:
2179:
2083:
2043:
1999:
1899:
1817:
1752:
222:; an exposure of one coulomb per kilogram is equivalent to 3876 roentgens.
2814:
Baskar, Rajamanickam; Lee, Kuo Ann; Yeo, Richard; Yeoh, Kheng-Wei (2012).
1791:
585:
62:
exposure. Common medical tests and treatments involving radiation include
3192:
3177:
2715:"Benefits and harms of CT screening for lung cancer: a systematic review"
2633:
1242:
847:
843:
839:
207:
189:
99:
57:
of that air. As of 2007, "medical radiation exposure" was defined by the
3470:
2153:
1499:
1461:
1452:
1422:
1393:
1384:
1238:
1085:
The following table shows radiation quantities in SI and non-SI units:
881:
876:
There are multiple benefits from using radiation from medical imaging.
647:
442:
148:
67:
2831:
2816:"Cancer and radiation therapy: current advances and future directions"
2338:"Radiation in Healthcare: Imaging Procedures | Radiation | NCEH | CDC"
570:
in humans. Our understanding of this comes from observation of cancer
2067:
567:
185:
181:
46:
2517:
1562:
An Introduction to the Passage of Energetic Particles through Matter
952:
is the exposure rate constant, which is dependent on the particular
511:
Pancreas, Prostate, Small intestine, Spleen, Thymus, Uterus/cervix.
53:
freed by such radiation in a specified volume of air divided by the
3072:. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 358.
819:
was used as a reference, ignoring female and developing organisms.
3295:
3182:
2222:"Biological effects after prenatal irradiation (embryo and fetus)"
1315:
695:
643:
480:
438:
63:
2410:. Stanford Environmental Health & Safety, Stanford University
971:
Exposure rate constants for various radionuclides R•cm / hr•mCi
562:
Risk of cancer, life-span study, linear-non-threshold hypothesis
54:
3121:
1329:
430:
38:
2373:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 169–192,
2658:
Sistrom, Christopher L.; Garvan, Cynthia W. (January 2004).
2044:"Solid cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors: 1958-1998"
468:
Dose equivalent = Absorbed dosage x Tissue weighting factor
239:
As of 2007, "medical radiation exposure" was defined by the
928:
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance,
566:
Ionizing radiation is known to cause the development of
261:
Number of chest X-rays resulting in same effective dose
3099:
The Council of the European Communities (1979-12-21).
508:
Heart, Kidneys, Lymphatic nodes, Muscle, Oral mucosa,
872:
Benefits of radiation in medical imaging and therapy
3535:
3499:
3386:
3216:
3163:
3156:
834:. This is the phase of development where the three
505:Adrenals, Extrathoracic (ET) region, Gall bladder,
241:
International Commission on Radiological Protection
172:
160:
147:
135:
130:
59:
International Commission on Radiological Protection
2408:"Radiation Protection Guidance For Hospital Staff"
2277:
621:Dose response curve of linear-non-threshold model.
411:Absorbed dose, dose equivalent, and effective dose
16:Measure of ionization of air by ionizing radiation
2365:Domenech, Haydee (2017), Domenech, Haydee (ed.),
610:Overall, individuals were exposed to a wide dose
503:Bone-marrow (red), Colon, Lung, Stomach, Breast,
2616:Gilbert, S. F.; Barresi, M. J. F. (2017-03-20).
2426:
2424:
2313:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
1894:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
3133:
1101:
8:
1886:Akram, Salman; Chowdhury, Yuvraj S. (2022),
485:Dose quantities used in radiation protection
445:will be 0.877 rad, and the dose in averaged
102:disease in their offspring from mutation of
2985:"Community-acquired pneumonia: An overview"
2622:American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A
685:induced by high-dose ionizing irradiation.
638:Radiation exposure prevention in healthcare
545:The dose equivalent of small intestine is:
536:Bone surface, Brain, Salivary glands, Skin
3160:
3140:
3126:
3118:
2618:"Developmental Biology, 11th Edition 2016"
1615:Holmes-Siedle, Andrew; Adams, Len (2002).
1108:
1094:
1087:
548:Dose equivalent = 100 mSv x 0.12 = 12 mSv
3088:. US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2009.
3016:
2904:
2847:
2820:International Journal of Medical Sciences
2738:
2456:
2371:Radiation Safety: Management and Programs
2305:Frane, Nicholas; Bitterman, Adam (2023),
2169:
1981:
1807:
1734:
1619:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
554:Dose equivalent = 70mSv x 0.04 = 2.8 mSv
1546:European units of measurement directives
969:
701:
616:
584:
492:
249:
25:
1888:"Radiation Exposure Of Medical Imaging"
1649:
343:Diagnostic fluoroscopy: barium swallow
210:(C/kg), which has largely replaced the
3481:Wireless electronic devices and health
2809:
2807:
2805:
2707:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2360:
2358:
2292:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1089:Ionizing radiation related quantities
830:. Malformations generally occur after
662:These training also covers the use of
127:
3063:
3061:
3059:
3039:
2653:
2651:
2587:
2585:
2288:
2286:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2037:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1776:"Radiation risk from medical imaging"
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1695:
673:treatment before radiation exposure,
7:
3507:List of civilian radiation accidents
3476:Wireless device radiation and health
3471:Biological dose units and quantities
3421:Electromagnetic radiation and health
2273:
2271:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1655:
1653:
677:measured as double-strand breaks in
528:Bladder, Oesophagus, Liver, Thyroid
76:lung ventilation and perfusion scans
2934:Radiologic Clinics of North America
2768:Radiologic Clinics of North America
2367:"Occupational Radiation Protection"
2142:CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians
1590:Radiation Detection and Measurement
900:life-threatening diseases, such as
551:The dose equivalent of stomach is:
21:Radiation exposure (disambiguation)
3456:Radioactivity in the life sciences
2983:Mandell, Lionel A. (August 2015).
429:by gamma rays with an energy of 1
37:is a measure of the ionization of
30:Types of electromagnetic radiation
14:
2307:"Radiation Safety and Protection"
1660:Hubbell, John H. (January 2001).
3070:The Physics of Radiation Therapy
1774:Lin, Eugene C. (December 2010).
1081:Radiation measurement quantities
449:will be 1 rad. "rad" stands for
433:, the dose in air will be 0.877
321:Screening mammography (4 views)
1666:Radiation Physics and Chemistry
669:When patients were provided an
441:will be 0.975 rad, the dose in
3613:Occupational safety and health
2278:Holmes-Siedle & Adams 2002
956:used as the gamma ray source.
705:Natural Radioactivity in Food
1:
3001:10.1080/00325481.2015.1074030
2889:10.7861/clinmedicine.19-3-247
2764:"Screening for Breast Cancer"
2660:"Proportions, odds, and risk"
2238:10.1016/s0146-6453(03)00021-6
1678:10.1016/s0969-806x(00)00323-6
1617:Handbook of Radiation Effects
664:personal protective equipment
235:Medical exposure to radiation
2542:"Natural Background Sources"
2379:10.1007/978-3-319-42671-6_12
948:is the source activity, and
679:peripheral blood lymphocytes
3344:Cosmic background radiation
2220:Valentin, J. (March 2003).
3629:
3573:
3431:Lasers and aviation safety
2930:"Acute Myocardial Infarct"
2873:"Acute pulmonary embolism"
2593:"Doses in Our Daily Lives"
2449:10.1038/s41598-021-84596-w
1983:10.1016/j.icrp.2007.10.003
1736:10.1016/j.icrp.2007.10.003
414:
266:Skull radiography (X-ray)
18:
3571:
3461:Radioactive contamination
3314:Electromagnetic radiation
3304:
2946:10.1016/j.rcl.2018.08.006
2871:Howard, Luke (May 2019).
2780:10.1016/j.rcl.2017.06.004
2676:10.1148/radiol.2301031028
2495:10.1007/s00383-018-4385-3
1786:(12): 1142–6, quiz 1146.
1441:
1373:
1296:
1227:
1141:
704:
498:Tissue weighting factors
497:
332:Dental X-ray (intraoral)
214:(R). One roentgen equals
104:reproductive (germ) cells
3574:See also the categories
3512:1996 Costa Rica accident
3173:Acoustic radiation force
1588:Knoll, Glenn F. (2010).
1541:alongside SI units, the
811:Risk to embryo and fetus
658:are safe and protected.
202:unit of exposure is the
3486:Radiation heat-transfer
3339:Gravitational radiation
1780:Mayo Clinic Proceedings
1592:(4th ed.). Wiley.
979:Exposure rate constant
890:breast cancer screening
826:. This is up to day 10
451:radiation absorbed dose
122:atomic bombing in Japan
114:radiation absorbed dose
49:. It is defined as the
3527:1990 Zaragoza accident
3522:1984 Moroccan accident
3491:Linear energy transfer
3165:Non-ionizing radiation
2731:10.1001/jama.2012.5521
1565:. Taylor and Francis.
1491:röntgen equivalent man
1414:röntgen equivalent man
940:is the exposure rate,
916:Exposure rate constant
884:. These tests include
824:preimplantation period
622:
590:
486:
84:cardiac perfusion scan
31:
3517:1987 Goiânia accident
3319:Synchrotron radiation
3309:Earth's energy budget
3291:Radioactive materials
3286:Particle accelerators
2989:Postgraduate Medicine
1792:10.4065/mcp.2010.0260
1559:Carron, N.J. (2007).
886:lung cancer screening
857:intelligence quotient
620:
588:
576:atomic bomb survivors
484:
258:Effective dose (mSv)
29:
3588:Radiation protection
3441:Radiation protection
3329:Black-body radiation
3236:Background radiation
3151:(physics and health)
2634:10.1002/ajmg.a.38166
2516:Zelac, R.E. (2000).
1976:(2–4): 1–332. 2007.
1729:(2–4): 1–332. 2007.
689:Background radiation
632:linear-non-threshold
453:. This is a special
354:Cardiac angiography
255:Type of examination
19:For other uses, see
3558:Radiation hardening
3500:Radiation incidents
3436:Medical radiography
3395:Radiation syndrome
3349:Cherenkov radiation
3068:Khan, Faiz (2015).
2060:2007RadR..168....1P
1115:
972:
494:
288:Lumbar spine X-ray
251:
3553:Radioactive source
3374:Radiation exposure
3354:Askaryan radiation
3334:Particle radiation
3218:Ionizing radiation
2566:"Man-Made Sources"
2226:Annals of the ICRP
2154:10.3322/caac.21132
2048:Radiation Research
1970:Annals of the ICRP
1723:Annals of the ICRP
1088:
970:
906:pulmonary embolism
656:healthcare workers
623:
591:
493:
487:
250:
176:SI base units
131:Radiation exposure
43:ionizing radiation
35:Radiation exposure
32:
3595:
3594:
3576:Radiation effects
3446:Radiation therapy
3382:
3381:
3324:Thermal radiation
3261:Neutron radiation
3226:Radioactive decay
2877:Clinical Medicine
2832:10.7150/ijms.3635
2388:978-3-319-42671-6
1626:978-0-19-850733-8
1599:978-1-119-11299-0
1572:978-1-4200-1237-8
1527:
1526:
1498:100 erg⋅g ×
1421:100 erg⋅g ×
1078:
1077:
963:at a distance in
944:is the distance,
894:radiation therapy
808:
807:
754:Lima Beans (raw)
580:natural radiation
543:
542:
408:
407:
195:
194:
92:radiation therapy
3620:
3536:Related articles
3451:Radiation damage
3276:Nuclear reactors
3161:
3142:
3135:
3128:
3119:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3080:
3074:
3073:
3065:
3054:
3049:
3043:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3020:
2980:
2974:
2973:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2908:
2868:
2862:
2861:
2851:
2811:
2800:
2799:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2742:
2709:
2696:
2695:
2655:
2646:
2645:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2603:
2589:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2576:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2483:Pediatr Surg Int
2477:
2471:
2470:
2460:
2428:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2404:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2362:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2302:
2296:
2290:
2281:
2275:
2266:
2265:
2217:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2133:
2096:
2095:
2068:10.1667/RR0763.1
2039:
2012:
2011:
1985:
1962:
1909:
1908:
1907:
1906:
1883:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1771:
1765:
1764:
1738:
1715:
1690:
1689:
1657:
1638:
1611:
1584:
1350:
1348:
1292:
1290:
1279:
1277:
1222:
1221:
1218:
1194:
1185:
1183:
1116:
1110:
1103:
1096:
973:
702:
495:
252:
221:
219:
177:
128:
3628:
3627:
3623:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3617:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3590:
3567:
3563:Havana syndrome
3548:Nuclear physics
3531:
3495:
3388:
3378:
3364:Unruh radiation
3300:
3281:Nuclear weapons
3266:Nuclear fission
3212:
3152:
3146:
3116:
3115:
3105:
3103:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3082:
3081:
3077:
3067:
3066:
3057:
3050:
3046:
3038:
3034:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2927:
2926:
2922:
2870:
2869:
2865:
2813:
2812:
2803:
2761:
2760:
2756:
2725:(22): 2418–29.
2711:
2710:
2699:
2657:
2656:
2649:
2615:
2614:
2610:
2601:
2599:
2591:
2590:
2583:
2574:
2572:
2564:
2563:
2559:
2550:
2548:
2540:
2539:
2535:
2515:
2514:
2510:
2479:
2478:
2474:
2430:
2429:
2422:
2413:
2411:
2406:
2405:
2401:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2364:
2363:
2356:
2347:
2345:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2323:
2321:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2291:
2284:
2276:
2269:
2219:
2218:
2187:
2135:
2134:
2099:
2041:
2040:
2015:
1964:
1963:
1912:
1904:
1902:
1885:
1884:
1825:
1773:
1772:
1768:
1717:
1716:
1693:
1659:
1658:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1627:
1614:
1600:
1587:
1573:
1558:
1554:
1516:
1507:
1478:
1469:
1430:
1401:
1375:Equivalent dose
1363:100 erg⋅g
1346:
1344:
1288:
1286:
1275:
1273:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1192:
1181:
1179:
1114:
1083:
918:
874:
852:internal organs
813:
798:Drinking Water
743:White Potatoes
716:226Ra (pCi/kg)
691:
640:
564:
463:dose equivalent
419:
413:
237:
228:
217:
215:
175:
163:
138:
51:electric charge
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3626:
3624:
3616:
3615:
3610:
3600:
3599:
3593:
3592:
3572:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3539:
3537:
3533:
3532:
3530:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3503:
3501:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3411:Health physics
3408:
3407:
3406:
3401:
3392:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3380:
3379:
3377:
3376:
3371:
3369:Dark radiation
3366:
3361:
3359:Bremsstrahlung
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3271:Nuclear fusion
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3241:Alpha particle
3238:
3233:
3228:
3222:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3169:
3167:
3158:
3154:
3153:
3147:
3145:
3144:
3137:
3130:
3122:
3114:
3113:
3091:
3085:10 CFR 20.1004
3075:
3055:
3044:
3032:
2995:(6): 607–615.
2975:
2920:
2863:
2801:
2774:(6): 1145–62.
2754:
2697:
2647:
2608:
2581:
2557:
2533:
2508:
2489:(1): 137–143.
2472:
2420:
2399:
2387:
2354:
2329:
2297:
2282:
2267:
2232:(1–2): 1–206.
2185:
2097:
2013:
1910:
1823:
1766:
1691:
1672:(1–2): 33–34.
1648:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1639:
1625:
1612:
1598:
1585:
1571:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1543:European Union
1525:
1524:
1523:0.010 Sv
1521:
1518:
1512:
1503:
1496:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1474:
1465:
1458:
1455:
1450:
1443:Effective dose
1439:
1438:
1437:0.010 Sv
1435:
1432:
1426:
1419:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1397:
1390:
1387:
1382:
1371:
1370:
1369:0.010 Gy
1367:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1313:
1310:
1305:
1294:
1293:
1284:
1281:
1267:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1236:
1225:
1224:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1189:
1186:
1177:
1174:
1168:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1150:
1139:
1138:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1113:
1112:
1105:
1098:
1090:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1062:
1055:
1054:
1051:
1044:
1043:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1030:
1023:
1022:
1019:
1012:
1011:
1008:
1005:technetium-99m
1001:
1000:
997:
991:
990:
987:
981:
980:
977:
934:
933:
917:
914:
873:
870:
828:postconception
812:
809:
806:
805:
802:
799:
795:
794:
791:
788:
784:
783:
782:1,000 – 7,000
780:
777:
773:
772:
769:
766:
762:
761:
758:
755:
751:
750:
747:
744:
740:
739:
736:
733:
729:
728:
725:
722:
718:
717:
714:
711:
707:
706:
690:
687:
639:
636:
627:threshold dose
563:
560:
541:
540:
537:
533:
532:
529:
525:
524:
521:
517:
516:
513:
500:
499:
476:effective dose
437:, the dose in
415:Main article:
412:
409:
406:
405:
402:
399:
395:
394:
391:
388:
384:
383:
380:
377:
373:
372:
369:
366:
362:
361:
358:
355:
351:
350:
347:
344:
340:
339:
336:
333:
329:
328:
325:
322:
318:
317:
314:
311:
307:
306:
303:
300:
299:Abdomen X-ray
296:
295:
292:
289:
285:
284:
281:
278:
274:
273:
270:
267:
263:
262:
259:
256:
236:
233:
227:
224:
193:
192:
179:
170:
169:
164:
161:
158:
157:
151:
145:
144:
139:
137:Common symbols
136:
133:
132:
118:effective dose
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3625:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3603:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3580:Radioactivity
3577:
3570:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3538:
3534:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3385:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3306:
3303:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3246:Beta particle
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3231:Cluster decay
3229:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3219:
3215:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3166:
3162:
3159:
3157:Main articles
3155:
3150:
3143:
3138:
3136:
3131:
3129:
3124:
3123:
3120:
3102:
3095:
3092:
3087:
3086:
3079:
3076:
3071:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3053:
3048:
3045:
3041:
3036:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2979:
2976:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2924:
2921:
2916:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2867:
2864:
2859:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2758:
2755:
2750:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2609:
2598:
2594:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2571:
2567:
2561:
2558:
2547:
2543:
2537:
2534:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2520:
2512:
2509:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2476:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2409:
2403:
2400:
2390:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2343:
2339:
2333:
2330:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2301:
2298:
2295:, p. 141
2294:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2148:(2): 75–100.
2147:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1770:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1654:
1650:
1643:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1557:
1556:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1299:
1298:Absorbed dose
1295:
1285:
1282:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1190:
1187:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1117:
1111:
1106:
1104:
1099:
1097:
1092:
1091:
1086:
1080:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1061:(unfiltered)
1060:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1050:(unfiltered)
1049:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1020:
1018:(unfiltered)
1017:
1016:palladium-103
1014:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1003:
1002:
998:
996:
995:molybdenum-99
993:
992:
988:
986:
983:
982:
978:
976:Radionuclide
975:
974:
968:
966:
962:
957:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
931:
930:
929:
927:
926:radioactivity
923:
915:
913:
911:
907:
903:
902:heart attacks
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
871:
869:
866:
865:relative risk
862:
858:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
832:organogenesis
829:
825:
820:
818:
815:For decades,
810:
803:
800:
797:
796:
792:
789:
786:
785:
781:
778:
775:
774:
770:
767:
764:
763:
759:
756:
753:
752:
748:
745:
742:
741:
737:
734:
731:
730:
726:
723:
720:
719:
715:
713:40K (pCi/kg)
712:
709:
708:
703:
700:
697:
688:
686:
684:
680:
676:
672:
667:
665:
659:
657:
653:
649:
645:
637:
635:
633:
628:
619:
615:
613:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
587:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
561:
559:
555:
552:
549:
546:
538:
535:
534:
530:
527:
526:
522:
519:
518:
514:
512:
509:
506:
502:
501:
496:
491:
483:
479:
477:
472:
469:
466:
464:
459:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
423:absorbed dose
418:
417:Absorbed dose
410:
403:
400:
397:
396:
392:
389:
386:
385:
381:
378:
375:
374:
370:
367:
364:
363:
359:
356:
353:
352:
348:
345:
342:
341:
337:
334:
331:
330:
326:
323:
320:
319:
315:
312:
310:Pelvis X-ray
309:
308:
304:
301:
298:
297:
293:
290:
287:
286:
282:
279:
276:
275:
271:
268:
265:
264:
260:
257:
254:
253:
248:
245:
242:
234:
232:
225:
223:
213:
209:
205:
201:
191:
187:
183:
180:
178:
171:
168:
165:
159:
155:
152:
150:
146:
143:
140:
134:
129:
126:
123:
119:
115:
111:
110:Absorbed dose
107:
105:
101:
97:
96:somatic cells
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
28:
22:
3584:Radiobiology
3466:Radiobiology
3426:Laser safety
3373:
3104:. Retrieved
3094:
3084:
3078:
3069:
3047:
3042:, p. 57
3035:
2992:
2988:
2978:
2940:(1): 45–55.
2937:
2933:
2923:
2883:(3): 243–7.
2880:
2876:
2866:
2826:(3): 193–9.
2823:
2819:
2771:
2767:
2757:
2722:
2718:
2670:(1): 12–19.
2667:
2663:
2625:
2621:
2611:
2600:. Retrieved
2596:
2573:. Retrieved
2569:
2560:
2549:. Retrieved
2545:
2536:
2518:
2511:
2486:
2482:
2475:
2440:
2436:
2412:. Retrieved
2402:
2392:, retrieved
2370:
2346:. Retrieved
2344:. 2021-12-28
2341:
2332:
2322:, retrieved
2310:
2300:
2229:
2225:
2145:
2141:
2051:
2047:
1973:
1969:
1903:, retrieved
1891:
1783:
1779:
1769:
1726:
1722:
1669:
1665:
1616:
1589:
1561:
1528:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1446:
1427:
1423:
1398:
1394:
1378:
1301:
1291:10 C/kg
1250:C⋅kg of air
1232:
1228:
1146:
1084:
958:
954:radionuclide
949:
945:
941:
937:
935:
919:
875:
821:
817:standard man
814:
776:Brazil Nuts
692:
668:
660:
652:radiotherapy
641:
624:
609:
606:
603:
600:
592:
589:Linear graph
565:
556:
553:
550:
547:
544:
510:
507:
504:
488:
473:
470:
467:
460:
447:human tissue
420:
277:Chest X-ray
246:
238:
229:
196:
149:SI unit
141:
108:
34:
33:
3208:Ultraviolet
3203:Radio waves
2628:(5): 1430.
2443:(1): 5315.
2342:www.cdc.gov
2293:Carron 2007
2280:, p. 4
2054:(1): 1–64.
1195:10 Bq
1137:equivalent
1128:Derivation
1059:iridium-192
1038:caesium-137
1027:silver-110m
965:centimeters
961:millicuries
932:F = Γ×α / r
861:irradiation
850:) form the
836:germ layers
671:antioxidant
387:Abdomen CT
162:Other units
88:angiography
72:mammography
3602:Categories
3389:and health
3387:Radiation
3256:Cosmic ray
3040:Knoll 2010
2602:2022-03-21
2575:2022-03-21
2551:2022-03-21
2414:2023-12-04
2394:2023-12-04
2348:2023-12-04
2324:2023-12-04
2311:StatPearls
1905:2022-03-08
1892:StatPearls
1608:1240256028
1581:1302588143
1552:References
1349:10 Gy
1208:10 s
1201:rutherford
1070:radium-226
1048:iodine-125
1029:(250 day)
675:DNA damage
455:dosimetric
398:Pelvis CT
220: C/kg
80:bone scans
3608:Radiation
3543:Half-life
3416:Dosimetry
3251:Gamma ray
3198:Microwave
3188:Starlight
3149:Radiation
3009:1941-9260
2954:1557-8275
2897:1473-4893
2840:1449-1907
2788:1557-8275
2684:0033-8419
2664:Radiology
2642:1552-4825
2246:0146-6453
2162:1542-4863
2076:0033-7587
1992:0146-6453
1800:1942-5546
1745:0146-6453
1686:0969-806X
1332:per gram
1223: Bq
1184:10 s
1153:becquerel
1119:Quantity
1007:(6 hour)
985:cobalt-60
910:pneumonia
878:Screening
804:0 – 0.17
765:Red Meat
683:apoptosis
595:incidence
572:incidence
376:Chest CT
226:Radiation
100:heritable
3193:Sunlight
3178:Infrared
3027:26224210
2970:53873137
2962:30454816
2915:31092519
2858:22408567
2796:28991557
2749:22610500
2692:14695382
2528:46348990
2503:30386894
2467:33674660
2319:32491431
2262:73220024
2254:14531414
2180:22307864
2084:17722996
2008:73326646
2000:18082557
1900:33351446
1818:21123642
1761:73326646
1753:18082557
1635:50011117
1485:SI unit
1408:SI unit
1324:SI unit
1256:SI unit
1243:kilogram
1229:Exposure
1166:SI unit
1143:Activity
922:roentgen
898:diagnose
848:mesoderm
844:endoderm
840:ectoderm
749:1 – 2.5
738:0.6 – 2
732:Carrots
721:Bananas
648:CT scans
427:roentgen
365:Head CT
212:roentgen
208:kilogram
68:CT scans
3404:chronic
3018:7103686
2906:6542219
2849:3298009
2740:3709596
2597:NRC Web
2570:NRC Web
2546:NRC Web
2458:7935885
2437:Sci Rep
2171:3548988
2092:7398164
2056:Bibcode
1809:2996147
1460:J⋅kg ×
1453:sievert
1392:J⋅kg ×
1385:sievert
1280:of air
1278: g
1262:röntgen
1239:coulomb
1125:Symbol
989:12.838
882:surgery
520:Gonads
443:silicon
204:coulomb
167:röntgen
47:photons
41:due to
3586:, and
3106:19 May
3025:
3015:
3007:
2968:
2960:
2952:
2913:
2903:
2895:
2856:
2846:
2838:
2794:
2786:
2747:
2737:
2690:
2682:
2640:
2526:
2501:
2465:
2455:
2385:
2317:
2260:
2252:
2244:
2178:
2168:
2160:
2090:
2082:
2074:
2006:
1998:
1990:
1898:
1816:
1806:
1798:
1759:
1751:
1743:
1684:
1633:
1623:
1606:
1596:
1579:
1569:
1537:, and
1338:erg⋅g
1335:erg/g
1042:3.400
1010:0.720
936:where
908:, and
846:, and
779:5,600
768:3,000
760:2 – 5
757:4,640
746:3,400
735:3,400
724:3,520
650:, and
644:X-rays
568:cancer
335:0.013
280:0.013
269:0.015
64:X-rays
3399:acute
3296:X-ray
3183:Light
2966:S2CID
2258:S2CID
2088:S2CID
2004:S2CID
1757:S2CID
1644:Notes
1531:curie
1520:1971
1482:1977
1434:1971
1405:1977
1366:1953
1341:1950
1321:1974
1283:1928
1274:0.001
1253:1974
1247:C/kg
1211:1946
1188:1953
1172:curie
1163:1974
1131:Year
1122:Unit
1074:8.25
1064:4.69
1053:1.46
1032:14.9
1021:1.48
999:1.03
838:(the
787:Beer
710:Food
696:Radon
612:range
539:0.01
531:0.04
523:0.08
515:0.12
439:water
313:0.48
302:0.46
291:0.44
216:0.000
98:, or
45:from
3108:2012
3023:PMID
3005:ISSN
2958:PMID
2950:ISSN
2911:PMID
2893:ISSN
2854:PMID
2836:ISSN
2792:PMID
2784:ISSN
2745:PMID
2719:JAMA
2688:PMID
2680:ISSN
2638:ISSN
2524:OCLC
2499:PMID
2463:PMID
2383:ISBN
2315:PMID
2250:PMID
2242:ISSN
2176:PMID
2158:ISSN
2080:PMID
2072:ISSN
1996:PMID
1988:ISSN
1896:PMID
1814:PMID
1796:ISSN
1749:PMID
1741:ISSN
1682:ISSN
1631:OCLC
1621:ISBN
1604:OCLC
1594:ISBN
1577:OCLC
1567:ISBN
1495:rem
1418:rem
1360:rad
1318:⋅kg
1308:gray
1287:2.58
1241:per
1109:edit
1102:talk
1095:view
801:---
793:---
790:390
771:0.5
474:The
421:The
404:500
393:750
382:750
371:150
360:500
324:0.2
206:per
55:mass
3013:PMC
2997:doi
2993:127
2942:doi
2901:PMC
2885:doi
2844:PMC
2828:doi
2776:doi
2735:PMC
2727:doi
2723:307
2672:doi
2668:230
2630:doi
2626:173
2491:doi
2453:PMC
2445:doi
2375:doi
2234:doi
2166:PMC
2150:doi
2064:doi
2052:168
1978:doi
1804:PMC
1788:doi
1731:doi
1674:doi
1539:rem
1535:rad
1457:Sv
1389:Sv
1356:rad
1345:1.0
1330:erg
1312:Gy
1276:293
1270:esu
1220:000
1217:000
1205:Rd
1191:3.7
1180:3.7
1176:Ci
1157:Bq
574:in
435:rad
431:MeV
390:10
379:10
349:70
327:15
316:35
305:35
294:30
218:258
173:In
156:/kg
39:air
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186:s
184:⋅
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154:C
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