Radiation protection - Knowledge (XXG)

1851: 98: 1000:(PPE) includes all clothing and accessories which can be worn to prevent severe illness and injury as a result of exposure to radioactive material. These include an SR100 (protection for 1hr), SR200 (protection for 2 hours). Because radiation can affect humans through internal and external contamination, various protection strategies have been developed to protect humans from the harmful effects of radiation exposure from a spectrum of sources. A few of these strategies developed to shield from internal, external, and high energy radiation are outlined below. 348: 459:

not for weakly penetrating radiation such as alpha particles. Traditionally, film badges were used for long-term monitoring, and quartz fibre dosimeters for short-term monitoring. However, these have been mostly superseded by thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badges and electronic dosimeters. Electronic dosimeters can give an alarm warning if a preset dose threshold has been reached, enabling safer working in potentially higher radiation levels, where the received dose must be continually monitored.

521: 1835: 1262: 106: 332: 236:: Sources of radiation can be shielded with solid or liquid material, which absorbs the energy of the radiation. The term 'biological shield' is used for absorbing material placed around a nuclear reactor, or other source of radiation, to reduce the radiation to a level safe for humans. The shielding materials are concrete and lead shield which is 0.25mm thick for secondary radiation and 0.5mm thick for primary radiation 340: 114: 542: 3694: 720:, and to a first approximation is proportional to the total mass of material per unit area interposed along the line of sight between the radiation source and the region to be protected. Hence, shielding strength or "thickness" is conventionally measured in units of g/cm. The radiation that manages to get through falls exponentially with the thickness of the shield. In 533: 1822:

example, active radiation equipment would need a habitable volume size to house it, and magnetic and electrostatic configurations often are not homogeneous in intensity, allowing high-energy particles to penetrate the magnetic and electric fields from low-intensity parts, like cusps in dipolar magnetic field of Earth. As of 2012, NASA is undergoing research in

252: 1199:(HSCT), which is a common treatment for patients with leukemia. This scientific advancement allows for the development of a new class of relatively lightweight protective equipment that shields high concentrations of bone marrow to defer the hematopoietic sub-syndrome of acute radiation syndrome to much higher dosages. 141:– defined as "...where radiological protection can be planned in advance, before exposures occur, and where the magnitude and extent of the exposures can be reasonably predicted." These are such as in occupational exposure situations, where it is necessary for personnel to work in a known radiation environment. 1235:

measure the concentration of radioactive particles in the ambient air to guard against radioactive particles being ingested, or deposited in the lungs of personnel. These instruments will normally give a local alarm, but are often connected to an integrated safety system so that areas of plant can be

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External contamination protection equipment provides a barrier to shield radioactive material from being deposited externally on the body or clothes. The dermal protective equipment described below acts as a barrier to block radioactive material from physically touching the skin, but does not protect

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which says that there is not a threshold at which there is an increase in the rate of occurrence of stochastic effects with increasing dose. At the same time, radiology and other practices that involve use of ionizing radiation bring benefits, so reducing radiation exposure can reduce the efficacy of

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The public information dose chart of the USA Department of Energy, shown here on the right, applies to USA regulation, which is based on ICRP recommendations. Note that examples in lines 1 to 4 have a scale of dose rate (radiation per unit time), whilst 5 and 6 have a scale of total accumulated dose.

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The ICRP's recommendations flow down to national and regional regulators, which have the opportunity to incorporate them into their own law; this process is shown in the accompanying block diagram. In most countries a national regulatory authority works towards ensuring a secure radiation environment

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wrote almost despairingly that his warnings about the dangers involved in careless use of x-rays was not being heeded, either by industry or by his colleagues. By this time Rollins had proved that x-rays could kill experimental animals, could cause a pregnant guinea pig to abort, and that they could

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Practical radiation measurement using calibrated radiation protection instruments is essential in evaluating the effectiveness of protection measures, and in assessing the radiation dose likely to be received by individuals. The measuring instruments for radiation protection are both "installed" (in

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The radiation dosimeter is an important personal dose measuring instrument. It is worn by the person being monitored and is used to estimate the external radiation dose deposited in the individual wearing the device. They are used for gamma, X-ray, beta and other strongly penetrating radiation, but

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The ICRP recommends, develops and maintains the International System of Radiological Protection, based on evaluation of the large body of scientific studies available to equate risk to received dose levels. The system's health objectives are "to manage and control exposures to ionising radiation so

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Active Shielding, that is, using magnets, high voltages, or artificial magnetospheres to slow down or deflect radiation, has been considered to potentially combat radiation in a feasible way. So far, the cost of equipment, power and weight of active shielding equipment outweigh their benefits. For

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makes use of a particle accelerator that produces beams of protons or heavy ions. These ions are typical of those accelerated in cosmic sources and by the Sun. The beams of ions move through a 100 m (328-foot) transport tunnel to the 37 m (400-square-foot) shielded target hall. There, they hit the

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also reported burns. Elihu Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an x-ray tube over a period of time and experienced pain, swelling, and blistering. Other effects, including ultraviolet rays and ozone were sometimes blamed for the damage. Many physicists claimed that there were no effects from

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Fundamental to radiation protection is the avoidance or reduction of dose using the simple protective measures of time, distance and shielding. The duration of exposure should be limited to that necessary, the distance from the source of radiation should be maximised, and the source or the target

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Ionizing radiation is widely used in industry and medicine, and can present a significant health hazard by causing microscopic damage to living tissue. There are two main categories of ionizing radiation health effects. At high exposures, it can cause "tissue" effects, also called "deterministic"

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is used in some applications too. However, when the cost is important, almost any material can be used, but it must be far thicker. Most nuclear reactors use thick concrete shields to create a bioshield with a thin water-cooled layer of lead on the inside to protect the porous concrete from the

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The dangers of radioactivity and radiation were not immediately recognized. The discovery of x‑rays in 1895 led to widespread experimentation by scientists, physicians, and inventors. Many people began recounting stories of burns, hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. In

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is more dangerous and hundreds of times more intense than radiation sources such as medical X-rays or normal cosmic radiation usually experienced on Earth. When the intensely ionizing particles found in space strike human tissue, it can result in cell damage and may eventually lead to cancer.

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wear such as lead aprons can protect patients and clinicians from the potentially harmful radiation effects of day-to-day medical examinations. It is quite feasible to protect large surface areas of the body from radiation in the lower-energy spectrum because very little shielding material is

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Internal contamination protection equipment protects against the inhalation and ingestion of radioactive material. Internal deposition of radioactive material result in direct exposure of radiation to organs and tissues inside the body. The respiratory protective equipment described below are

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Transportable instruments are generally instruments that would have been permanently installed, but are temporarily placed in an area to provide continuous monitoring where it is likely there will be a hazard. Such instruments are often installed on trolleys to allow easy deployment, and are

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The usual method for radiation protection is material shielding by spacecraft and equipment structures (usually aluminium), possibly augmented by polyethylene in human spaceflight where the main concern is high-energy protons and cosmic ray ions. On uncrewed spacecraft in high-electron-dose

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This process is intended for application to those situations that have been deemed to be justified. It means "the likelihood of incurring exposures, the number of people exposed, and the magnitude of their individual doses" should all be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable (or Reasonably

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In some cases, improper shielding can actually make the situation worse, when the radiation interacts with the shielding material and creates secondary radiation that absorbs in the organisms more readily. For example, although high atomic number materials are very effective in shielding

420:(stochastic effects) below an acceptable level, and to eliminate deterministic effects (e.g. skin reddening or cataracts). An acceptable level of incidence of stochastic effects is considered to be equal for a worker to the risk in other radiation work generally considered to be safe. 1242:(PEM) are used to monitor workers who are exiting a "contamination controlled" or potentially contaminated area. These can be in the form of hand monitors, clothing frisk probes, or whole body monitors. These monitor the surface of the workers body and clothing to check if any 1806:

environments such as Jupiter missions, or medium Earth orbit (MEO), additional shielding with materials of a high atomic number can be effective. On long-duration crewed missions, advantage can be taken of the good shielding characteristics of liquid hydrogen fuel and water.

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to check an object or person in detail, or assess an area where no installed instrumentation exists. They can also be used for personnel exit monitoring or personnel contamination checks in the field. These generally measure alpha, beta or gamma, or combinations of these.

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is very difficult to achieve as the large mass of shielding material required to properly protect the entire body would make functional movement nearly impossible. For this, partial body shielding of radio-sensitive internal organs is the most viable protection strategy.

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One technique is to apply selective shielding to protect the high concentration of bone marrow stored in the hips and other radio-sensitive organs in the abdominal area. This allows first responders a safe way to perform necessary missions in radioactive environments.

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Installed instruments are fixed in positions which are known to be important in assessing the general radiation hazard in an area. Examples are installed "area" radiation monitors, Gamma interlock monitors, personnel exit monitors, and airborne particulate monitors.

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The area radiation monitor will measure the ambient radiation, usually X-Ray, Gamma or neutrons; these are radiations that can have significant radiation levels over a range in excess of tens of metres from their source, and thereby cover a wide area.

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performed an experiment involving x-raying Dudley's head that resulted in his hair loss. A report by Dr. H.D. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia College, of his severe hand and chest burns in an x-ray demonstration, was the first of many other reports in

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Gamma radiation "interlock monitors" are used in applications to prevent inadvertent exposure of workers to an excess dose by preventing personnel access to an area when a high radiation level is present. These interlock the process access directly.

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or while completely outside the protective regions of the Earth's magnetosphere. Frequent fliers may be at a slightly higher risk because of the decreased absorption from thinner atmosphere. Cosmic radiation is extremely high energy, and is very

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The total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions by the three effects. Here, the photoelectric effect dominates at low energy. Above 5 MeV, pair production starts to

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The ICRP recommends a number of limits for dose uptake in table 8 of ICRP report 103. These limits are "situational", for planned, emergency and existing situations. Within these situations, limits are given for certain exposed groups;

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teams are required to wear dosimeters so a record of occupational exposure can be made. Such devices are generally termed "legal dosimeters" if they have been approved for use in recording personnel dose for regulatory purposes.

1918:, likely caused by exposure to ionizing radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death of radium treatment enthusiasts, radium-containing medicinal products had been largely removed from the market ( 716:, which are below the detector's energy threshold. Some designs also include an outer layer of aluminium, which may simply be the skin of the satellite. The effectiveness of a material as a biological shield is related to its 1818:, can reduce primary and secondary radiation to a greater extent than metals, such as aluminum. The problem with this "passive shielding" method is that radiation interactions in the material generate secondary radiation. 1194:

found in bone marrow. The regenerative quality of stem cells make it only necessary to protect enough bone marrow to repopulate the body with unaffected stem cells after the exposure: a similar concept which is applied in

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Shielding reduces the intensity of radiation, increasing with thickness. This is an exponential relationship with gradually diminishing effect as equal slices of shielding material are added. A quantity known as the

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Dosimeters can be worn to obtain a whole body dose and there are also specialist types that can be worn on the fingers or clipped to headgear, to measure the localised body irradiation for specific activities.

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has issued a user guidance note on selecting the correct radiation measurement instrument for the application concerned. This covers all radiation instrument technologies, and is a useful comparative guide.

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can aid the patient by providing doctors and other health care professionals with a medical diagnosis, but the exposure of the patient should be reasonably low enough to keep the statistical probability of

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kill a fetus. He also stressed that "animals vary in susceptibility to the external action of X-light" and warned that these differences be considered when patients were treated by means of x-rays.

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required to provide the necessary protection. Recent studies show that copper shielding is far more effective than lead and is likely to replace it as the standard material for radiation shielding.

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is an acronym for an important principle in exposure to radiation and other occupational health risks and in the UK stands for As Low As Reasonably Practicable. The aim is to minimize the risk of

3433: 427:. It is also based on the principle that the probability of the occurrence of negative effects of radiation exposure increases with cumulative lifetime dose. These ideas are combined to form the 259:

Internal dose, due to the inhalation or ingestion of radioactive substances, can result in stochastic or deterministic effects, depending on the amount of radioactive material ingested and other

86: 89:(ICRU) publish recommendations and data which is used to calculate the biological effects on the human body of certain levels of radiation, and thereby advise acceptable dose uptake limits. 1253:

publishes a good practice guide through its Ionising Radiation Metrology Forum concerning the provision of such equipment and the methodology of calculating the alarm levels to be used.

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proportionally. An example of reducing radiation doses by reducing the time of exposures might be improving operator training to reduce the time they take to handle a radioactive source.

1854: 1366: 3116:- "The confusing world of radiation dosimetry" - M.A. Boyd, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. An account of chronological differences between USA and ICRP dosimetry systems. 3438: 444:. Age is a significant factor in risk associated with CT scans, and in procedures involving children and systems that do not require extensive imaging, lower doses are used. 2748: 708:. Each subsequent layer absorbs the X-ray fluorescence of the previous material, eventually reducing the energy to a suitable level. Each decrease in energy produces 205:

There are three factors that control the amount, or dose, of radiation received from a source. Radiation exposure can be managed by a combination of these factors:

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target, which may be a biological sample or shielding material. In a 2002 NASA study, it was determined that materials that have high hydrogen contents, such as

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This policy is based on the principle that any amount of radiation exposure, no matter how small, can increase the chance of negative biological effects such as

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For ingested radioactive materials in food and drink, specialist laboratory radiometric assay methods are used to measure the concentration of such materials.

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Operational Monitoring Good Practice Guide "The Selection of Alarm Levels for Personnel Exit Monitors" Dec 2009 - National Physical Laboratory, Teddington UK

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International policy relationships in radiological protection.The ICRP is generally recognised by regulators as the International authority on good practice

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designed to minimize the possibility of such material being inhaled or ingested as emergency workers are exposed to potentially radioactive environments.

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Hand-held ion chamber survey meter in use for surface dose rate on one of three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) for the Cassini spacecraft.

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shielding has been shown to reduce electron penetration over 60%. It is commonly used in satellite-based particle detectors, offering several benefits:

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a medical practice. The economic cost, for example of adding a barrier against radiation, must also be considered when applying the ALARP principle.

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The occupational hazards from airborne radioactive particles in nuclear and radio-chemical applications are greatly reduced by the extensive use of

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protested against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died from

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or CAT scans have made an enormous contribution to medicine, however not without some risk. The ionizing radiation used in CT scans can lead to

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Worn when entering environments immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) or when information is inadequate to rule out IDLH atmosphere

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to shield neutrons will result in the shielding material itself becoming radioactive and hence more dangerous than if it were not present.

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SCBA type escape respirators have an attached source of breathing air and a hood that provides a barrier against contaminated outside air

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Seco, Joao; Clasie, Ben; Partridge, Mike (Oct 2014). "Review on the characteristics of radiation detectors for dosimetry and imaging".

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of packed dirt, which is roughly 115 cm (3 ft 9 in), reduces gamma rays to 1/1024 of their original intensity (i.e. 2).

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per year, averaged over defined periods of 5 years, with no single year exceeding 50 mSv. The public exposure limit is 1 mSv in a year.

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Planned exposure – limits given for occupational, medical and public exposure. The occupational exposure limit of effective dose is 20

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or other hazard while keeping in mind that some exposure may be acceptable in order to further the task at hand. The equivalent term

147:– defined as "...unexpected situations that may require urgent protective actions". This would be such as an emergency nuclear event. 3729: 3559: 1793:

Spacecraft, both robotic and crewed, must cope with the high radiation environment of outer space. Radiation emitted by the Sun and

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This is the wording used by the national regulatory authority that coined the term, in turn derived from its enabling legislation:

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Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicists and corporations began marketing radioactive substances as

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Each individual must be protected against risks that are too great, through the application of individual radiation dose limits.

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that deterministic effects are prevented, and the risks of stochastic effects are reduced to the extent reasonably achievable".

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Can be designed as an air-purifying escape respirator (APER) or a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) type respirator

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A number of commonly used detection instrument types are listed below, and are used for both fixed and survey monitoring.

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consists of a stream of charged or neutral particles, both charged ions and subatomic elementary particles. This includes

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rather than fingers. For example, if a problem arise during fluoroscopic procedure step away from the patient if feasible.

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shielded wherever possible. To measure personal dose uptake in occupational or emergency exposure, for external radiation

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is not as readily absorbed as charged particle radiation, which makes this type highly penetrating. In a process called

153:– defined as "...being those that already exist when a decision on control has to be taken". These can be such as from 3604: 3095: 2365: 2326: 1292: 509: 2913: 2715: 3594: 3522: 3261: 1701: 271: 2254:"Prevention of nuclear damage caused by iodine and cesium radionuclides to the thyroid, pancreas and other organs" 3698: 3208: 1243: 896: 823: 428: 39: 1147:

Designed for environments that are immediate health risks but contain no substances that can be absorbed by skin

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in society by setting dose limitation requirements that are generally based on the recommendations of the ICRP.

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are used, and for internal dose due to ingestion of radioactive contamination, bioassay techniques are applied.

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No unnecessary use of radiation is permitted, which means that the advantages must outweigh the disadvantages.

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Designed for environments that are immediate health risks and contain substances that can be absorbed by skin

3296: 1895: 1749: 1672: 1191: 986: 717: 2814: 2227: 1964:– (IRPA). The International body concerned with promoting the science and practice of radiation protection. 347: 3526: 3423: 3356: 1972: 1323: 499: 3724: 3530: 3339: 2298: 2200: 2168: 2136: 2104: 2072: 1863: 1328: 2765:"Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in a Radiation Emergency - Radiation Emergency Medical Management" 867: 2886: 520: 3351: 3344: 3183: 2999:"Ronald L. Kathern and Paul L. Ziemer, he First Fifty Years of Radiation Protection, physics.isu.edu" 2854: 2801:

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)

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to optimise tube emissions, the other has his head close to the tube. No precautions are being taken.

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Portable instruments are hand-held or transportable. The hand-held instrument is generally used as a

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interact in different ways with shielding material. The effectiveness of shielding is dependent on

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x-rays, and hence low atomic number materials are recommended. Also, using a material with a high

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Contains filters, cartridges, and canisters to provide increased protection and better filtration

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to contain such material. To protect against breathing in radioactive particles in ambient air,

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has been deposited. These generally measure alpha or beta or gamma, or combinations of these.

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Porous overall suit—Dermal protection from aerosols, dry particles, and non hazardous liquids.

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The effectiveness of a shielding material in general increases with its atomic number, called

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The ICRP recognises planned, emergency, and existing exposure situations, as described below;

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layer effectively scatters protons and electrons. It also absorbs gamma rays, which produces

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External dose quantities used in radiation protection and dosimetry - based on ICRU report 57

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There are many solutions to shielding against low-energy radiation exposure like low-energy

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USA Dept of Energy 2010 dose chart in sieverts for a variety of situations and applications.

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Large scale glovebox in the nuclear industry used to contain airborne radioactive particles.

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evacuated and personnel are prevented from entering an air of high airborne contamination.

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The ICRP uses the following overall principles for all controllable exposure situations.

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erected 1936 at St. Georg hospital in Hamburg, commemorating 359 early radiology workers.

3123:. The Compass DeRose Guide to Emergency Preparedness - Hardened Shelters. Archived from 2685: 2642: 2607: 2552: 2527: 331: 62:

effects" due to the uncertainty of them happening, conventionally indicated by the unit

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effects due to the certainty of them happening, conventionally indicated by the unit

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Tara Ahmadi, Use of Semi-Dipole Magnetic Field for Spacecraft Radiation Protection.

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Graphic showing relationships between radioactivity and detected ionizing radiation

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Providing radiation guidance to Harvard University and affiliated institutions.

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Hrabak, M.; Padovan, R. S.; Kralik, M.; Ozretic, D.; Potocki, K. (July 2008).

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Level A equivalent: Totally encapsulating chemical- and vapour-protective suit

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The risk from a low level internal source is represented by the dose quantity

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facilities, walls surrounding the room with the x-ray generator may contain

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The following table shows the main radiation-related quantities and units.

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The immediate danger of intense exposure to high-energy gamma radiation is

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Selection, use and maintenance of portable monitoring instruments. UK HSE

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Battery powered blower forces contamination through air purifying filters

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coolant inside. The concrete is also made with heavy aggregates, such as

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instruments measure the concentration or presence of airborne materials.

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Provides very pure, dry compressed air to full facepiece mask via a hose

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Various doses of radiation in sieverts, ranging from trivial to lethal.

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Pia, Maria Grazia; et al. (2009). "PIXE Simulation with Geant4".

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United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

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Protects wearer from breathing harmful gases, vapours, fumes, and dust

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Emergency exposure – limits given for occupational and public exposure

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Visual comparison of radiological exposure from daily life activities.

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To monitor the concentration of radioactive particles in ambient air,

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screen, or if they must remain in the same room as the target, wear

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Common types of wearable dosimeters for ionizing radiation include:

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The intake of radioactive material can occur through four pathways:

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magnetic architecture for potential active shielding applications.

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Compressed air delivered from a stationary source to the face piece

2396:"Computed tomography – an increasing source of radiation exposure" 1907: 1849: 1833: 1574: 1167: 911: 815: 721: 674: 601: 540: 531: 519: 384: 346: 338: 330: 282: 250: 187: 2794:"Occupational Radiation Protection in Severe Accident Management" 639:. Compared to single-material shielding, the same mass of graded- 1910:

treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics.

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is used to calculate this. For example, a practical shield in a

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in the form of glow-in-the-dark pigments. Examples were radium

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built to shield a radioactive sample in a lab, being a form of

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Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry by Hill et al in

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Radiography and Radiology for Dental Care Professionals E-Book

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or ALARP. It takes into account economic and societal factors.

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a fixed position) and portable (hand-held or transportable).

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may cause higher radiation exposure due to the production of

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Smith, D.M.; et al. (2002). "The RHESSI Spectrometer".

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X-Ray apparatus in 1896. One man is viewing his hand with a

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Personal shielding against more energetic radiation such as

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Purified air delivered under positive pressure to face piece

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shielding is a laminate of several materials with different

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or x-rays if used in sufficient amounts. Different types of

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Existing exposure – reference levels for all persons exposed

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International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements

2940:"Early victims of X-rays: a tribute and current perception" 2325:

ICRP, International Commission on Radiological Protection.

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Non-porous overall suit to provide dermal protection from:

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February of that year, Professor Daniel and Dr. Dudley of

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acts as a shield, but it poses a significant problem for

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Designs vary, but typically involve a gradient from high-

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ingestion of radioactive contamination in food or liquids

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Taming the Rays - A history of Radiation and Protection.

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Mild liquid chemical splashes from toxics and corrosives

2847:"Behind the scenes - NASA's Space Radiation Laboratory" 2382:'ALARP' is short for 'as low as reasonably practicable' 1855:

Monument to the X-ray and Radium Martyrs of All Nations

1092:

against externally penetrating high energy radiation.

226:. Distance can be as simple as handling a source with 3682: 2528:

http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9155/59/6/R183/article

2841: 2839: 1142:

Level B equivalent: Non-gas-tight encapsulating suit

3649: 3618: 3582: 3493: 3462: 3411: 3375: 3310: 3227: 3176: 2993: 2991: 2478:Semelka RC, Armao DM, Elias J, Huda W (May 2007). 1998:Radiation protection reports of the European Union 1284:associated with temporary operational situations. 1113:Chemical splashes and inorganic acid/base aerosols 781:) are the least penetrating. Even very energetic 728:such as lead sheets, or the plaster may contain 653:lower mass compared to single-material shielding 83:International Commission on Radiation Protection 2938:Sansare, K.; Khanna, V.; Karjodkar, F. (2011). 1018:Elastic face piece worn over the mouth and nose 212:: Reducing the time of an exposure reduces the 3096:Harvard University Radiation Protection Office 1962:International Radiation Protection Association 222:: Increasing distance reduces dose due to the 3560: 3154: 1360: 1334:airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring 557:Almost any material can act as a shield from 8: 281:inhalation of airborne contaminants such as 3320:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring 2232:United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission 2042:IAEA Safety Glossary - draft 2016 revision. 1087:External contamination protective equipment 1004:Internal contamination protective equipment 718:cross-section for scattering and absorption 685:. Sometimes even lighter materials such as 650:reduction of background noise for detectors 298:injection of medical radioisotopes such as 3567: 3553: 3545: 3161: 3147: 3139: 3025:"Nikola Tesla and the Discovery of X-rays" 1367: 1353: 1346: 785:can be stopped by a single sheet of paper. 3121:"Halving-thickness for various materials" 3040: 2971: 2495: 2293:ICRP. "Report 103": Table 8, section 6.5. 2269: 866:is not a common concern on Earth, as the 155:naturally occurring radioactive materials 2457:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 25. 1260: 1119:Toxic industrial chemicals and materials 1013:Reusable air purifying respirators (APR) 903:, the properties of which depend on the 830:X-rays. In the case of beta+ radiation ( 112: 104: 96: 3689: 2357:Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 2035: 1948:radioprotectant drug under development. 1197:hematopoietic stem cell transplantation 882:, especially while passing through the 403:This compromise is well illustrated in 2307: 2296: 2209: 2198: 2177: 2166: 2145: 2134: 2113: 2102: 2081: 2070: 1348:Ionizing radiation related quantities 732:. Operators view the target through a 462:Workers exposed to radiation, such as 3485:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 2394:Brenner DJ, Hall EJ (November 2007). 1993:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 1110:Blood-borne pathogens and bio-hazards 7: 2885:. NASA. October 2002. Archived from 2746:Historical Use of Thorium at Hanford 2716:"No Such Site | U-M WP Hosting" 2674:IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 2596:IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 2362:"Risk management: ALARP at a glance" 3636:Radiation-induced cognitive decline 2018:Society for Radiological Protection 2008:Radiological protection of patients 1946:United States Department of Defense 1137:Helmet, gloves, foot gear, and hood 826:). This is to reduce generation of 313:with particulate filters are worn. 1069:Self-contained breathing apparatus 838:reaction poses additional concern. 318:radioactive particulate monitoring 28:International Atomic Energy Agency 14: 2195:ICRP. "Report 103": Introduction. 524:Diagram showing various forms of 327:Recommended limits on dose uptake 3692: 3102:Journal of Solid State Phenomena 2440:from the original on 2016-03-04. 2271:10.32415/jscientia_2022_8_2_5-14 1207:Radiation protection instruments 1027:Powered air-purifying respirator 834:), the gamma radiation from the 647:protection from radiation damage 2876:"Understanding Space Radiation" 2590:Fan, W.C.; et al. (1996). 2541:Physics in Medicine and Biology 1811:NASA Space Radiation Laboratory 1789:Spacecraft radiation challenges 1233:Airborne contamination monitors 1131:Firefighter protective clothing 1126:Level C equivalent: Bunker gear 195:Factors in external dose uptake 157:which exist in the environment. 3252:Computed tomography dose index 2883:Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center 2067:ICRP. "Report 103": Section 6. 1957:Health threat from cosmic rays 1162:External penetrating radiation 836:electron–positron annihilation 635:) designed to protect against 474:, those in laboratories using 291:absorption of vapours such as 1: 3672:Radiation dose reconstruction 3641:Radiation-induced lung injury 2163:ICRP. "Report 103": para 284. 2131:ICRP. "Report 103": para 274. 2099:ICRP. "Report 103": para 253. 1874:Many experimenters including 1096:Chemical-resistant inner suit 1079:Air is exhaled to environment 1042:Supplied-air respirator (SAR) 998:Personal protective equipment 993:Personal protective equipment 938:is much more common; several 665:) through successively lower- 505:Electronic personal dosimeter 448:Personal radiation dosimeters 285:gas and radioactive particles 77:For radiation protection and 2944:Dentomaxillofacial Radiology 2561:10.1088/0031-9155/59/20/R303 2451:Whaites, Eric (2008-10-10). 1340:Radiation related quantities 1251:National Physical Laboratory 2366:Health and Safety Executive 2252:Venturi Sebastiano (2022). 1052:Auxiliary escape respirator 510:Thermoluminescent dosimeter 38:caused by the ingestion of 3748: 3516: 1268: 451: 382: 244: 198: 3514: 3209:Radioactive contamination 2918:NASA Johnson Space Center 1700: 1632: 1555: 1486: 1400: 1244:radioactive contamination 899:consists of emissions of 897:Electromagnetic radiation 892:Electromagnetic radiation 429:linear no-threshold model 162:Regulation of dose uptake 40:radioactive contamination 3730:Radiation health effects 3631:Radiation-induced cancer 3517:See also the categories 3506:Radiation-induced cancer 3501:Acute radiation syndrome 2694:10.1109/TNS.2009.2033993 1192:hematopoietic stem cells 1188:acute radiation syndrome 442:radiation-induced cancer 56:radiation-induced cancer 52:acute radiation syndrome 16:Range of safety measures 2920:. Shayne Westover. 2012 2651:10.1023/A:1022400716414 1896:William Herbert Rollins 1891:x-ray exposure at all. 1830:Early radiation dangers 1329:scintillation detectors 1324:semiconductor detectors 1240:Personnel exit monitors 974:, using them to shield 470:workers, doctors using 24:radiological protection 3357:Semiconductor detector 3313:measurement techniques 3064:Geoff Meggitt (2008), 2853:. 2003. Archived from 2333:. ICRP. Archived from 2306:Cite journal requires 2208:Cite journal requires 2176:Cite journal requires 2144:Cite journal requires 2112:Cite journal requires 2080:Cite journal requires 1973:Non-ionizing radiation 1858: 1847: 1795:other galactic sources 1750:röntgen equivalent man 1673:röntgen equivalent man 1266: 1107:Dry powders and solids 681:, usually ending with 554: 538: 529: 500:Quartz fibre dosimeter 352: 344: 336: 295:oxide through the skin 256: 186:Practicable) known as 118: 110: 102: 3376:Protection techniques 3340:Scintillation counter 2956:10.1259/dmfr/73488299 1864:Vanderbilt University 1853: 1837: 1314:proportional counters 1264: 1216:Installed instruments 1134:Flame/water resistant 918:are best absorbed by 901:electromagnetic waves 600:such as compounds of 544: 535: 523: 407:. The application of 350: 342: 334: 254: 116: 108: 100: 3715:Radiation protection 3667:Radiation protection 3535:Radiation protection 3352:Radiation monitoring 3345:Proportional counter 3230:quantities and units 3184:Background radiation 3170:Radiation protection 3042:10.1148/rg.284075206 2484:J Magn Reson Imaging 2415:10.1056/NEJMra072149 1988:Radiation monitoring 1968:Juno Radiation Vault 1920:radioactive quackery 1257:Portable instruments 942:are often required. 696:In a typical graded- 516:Radiation protection 495:Film badge dosimeter 394:radioactive exposure 241:Internal dose uptake 26:, is defined by the 20:Radiation protection 3610:Biological timeline 3576:Radiation poisoning 3367:Whole-body counting 3277:Mean glandular dose 3214:Radioactive sources 2686:2009ITNS...56.3614P 2643:2002SoPh..210...33S 2608:1996ITNS...43.2790F 2553:2014PMB....59R.303S 2228:"Biological shield" 2056:. pp. para 29. 1374: 1309:ionization chambers 870:absorbs it and the 583:halving-thicknesses 575:halving-thicknesses 468:nuclear power plant 434:Computed tomography 130:Exposure situations 72:personal dosimeters 3699:Nuclear technology 3657:Dose fractionation 3204:Internal dosimetry 3199:Ionizing radiation 2901:FS-2002-10-080-JSC 2829:2018-07-30 at the 2751:2013-05-12 at the 2497:10.1002/jmri.20895 2372:on 3 February 2011 1859: 1848: 1347: 1267: 984:neutron activation 868:Earth's atmosphere 846:neutron activation 749:Particle radiation 744:Particle radiation 706:X-ray fluorescence 637:ionizing radiation 563:ionizing radiation 555: 539: 530: 526:ionizing radiation 436:, better known as 353: 345: 337: 257: 224:inverse square law 145:Emergency exposure 119: 111: 103: 32:ionizing radiation 3680: 3679: 3542: 3541: 3523:Radiation effects 3494:Radiation effects 3257:Counts per minute 3079:978-1-4092-4667-1 2616:10.1109/23.556868 2547:(20): R303–R347. 2464:978-0-7020-4799-2 2337:on 1 October 2018 1894:As early as 1902 1884:William J. Morton 1869:Electrical Review 1799:radiation "belts" 1797:, and trapped in 1786: 1785: 1757:100 erg⋅g × 1680:100 erg⋅g × 842:Neutron radiation 700:shield, the high- 669:elements such as 594:neutron absorbers 379:ALARP & ALARA 151:Existing exposure 50:and resulting in 3737: 3697: 3696: 3695: 3688: 3569: 3562: 3555: 3546: 3398:Radon mitigation 3393:Potassium iodide 3311:Instruments and 3163: 3156: 3149: 3140: 3135: 3133: 3132: 3083: 3082: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3044: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3011: 3010: 3001:. Archived from 2995: 2986: 2985: 2975: 2935: 2929: 2928: 2926: 2925: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2898: 2897: 2891: 2880: 2872: 2866: 2865: 2863: 2862: 2843: 2834: 2822: 2816: 2811: 2805: 2804: 2798: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2781: 2780: 2771:. Archived from 2769:www.remm.nlm.gov 2761: 2755: 2743: 2737: 2736: 2734: 2733: 2727: 2721:. Archived from 2720: 2712: 2706: 2705: 2680:(6): 3614–3649. 2669: 2663: 2662: 2626: 2620: 2619: 2602:(6): 2790–2796. 2587: 2581: 2580: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2517: 2499: 2475: 2469: 2468: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2439: 2400: 2391: 2385: 2384: 2379: 2377: 2368:. Archived from 2353: 2347: 2346: 2344: 2342: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2309: 2304: 2302: 2294: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2273: 2258:Juvenis Scientia 2249: 2243: 2242: 2240: 2238: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2211: 2206: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2186: 2185: 2179: 2174: 2172: 2164: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2147: 2142: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2122: 2121: 2115: 2110: 2108: 2100: 2096: 2090: 2089: 2083: 2078: 2076: 2068: 2064: 2058: 2057: 2049: 2043: 2040: 1983:Potassium iodide 1916:aplastic anaemia 1609: 1607: 1551: 1549: 1538: 1536: 1481: 1480: 1477: 1453: 1444: 1442: 1375: 1369: 1362: 1355: 1300:Instrument types 928:depleted uranium 864:Cosmic radiation 858:nuclear reaction 852:are absorbed by 765:nuclear reactors 757:cosmic radiation 139:Planned exposure 22:, also known as 3747: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3738: 3736: 3735: 3734: 3720:Nuclear physics 3705: 3704: 3703: 3693: 3691: 3683: 3681: 3676: 3662:Radioresistance 3645: 3614: 3578: 3573: 3543: 3538: 3537: 3519:Medical physics 3510: 3489: 3458: 3407: 3371: 3312: 3306: 3267:Equivalent dose 3229: 3223: 3172: 3167: 3130: 3128: 3119: 3111: 3092: 3087: 3086: 3080: 3063: 3062: 3058: 3022: 3021: 3017: 3008: 3006: 2997: 2996: 2989: 2937: 2936: 2932: 2923: 2921: 2912: 2911: 2907: 2895: 2893: 2889: 2878: 2874: 2873: 2869: 2860: 2858: 2845: 2844: 2837: 2831:Wayback Machine 2823: 2819: 2812: 2808: 2796: 2792: 2791: 2787: 2778: 2776: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2753:Wayback Machine 2744: 2740: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2718: 2714: 2713: 2709: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2628: 2627: 2623: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2538: 2537: 2533: 2525: 2521: 2477: 2476: 2472: 2465: 2450: 2449: 2445: 2437: 2409:(22): 2277–84. 2403:N. Engl. J. Med 2398: 2393: 2392: 2388: 2375: 2373: 2360: 2354: 2350: 2340: 2338: 2324: 2323: 2319: 2305: 2295: 2292: 2291: 2287: 2251: 2250: 2246: 2236: 2234: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2207: 2197: 2194: 2193: 2189: 2175: 2165: 2162: 2161: 2157: 2143: 2133: 2130: 2129: 2125: 2111: 2101: 2098: 2097: 2093: 2079: 2069: 2066: 2065: 2061: 2051: 2050: 2046: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2013:Radioresistance 1928: 1904:patent medicine 1832: 1824:superconducting 1791: 1775: 1766: 1737: 1728: 1689: 1660: 1634:Equivalent dose 1622:100 erg⋅g 1605: 1603: 1547: 1545: 1534: 1532: 1478: 1475: 1473: 1451: 1440: 1438: 1373: 1342: 1319:Geiger counters 1302: 1273: 1259: 1218: 1209: 1180:gamma radiation 1164: 1089: 1006: 995: 916:gamma radiation 894: 783:alpha particles 772:Alpha particles 746: 714:Auger electrons 579:fallout shelter 518: 456: 450: 387: 381: 329: 249: 243: 203: 197: 164: 132: 95: 81:assessment the 17: 12: 11: 5: 3745: 3744: 3741: 3733: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3707: 3706: 3702: 3701: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3653: 3651: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3626:Radiation burn 3622: 3620: 3616: 3615: 3613: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3586: 3584: 3580: 3579: 3574: 3572: 3571: 3564: 3557: 3549: 3540: 3539: 3515: 3512: 3511: 3509: 3508: 3503: 3497: 3495: 3491: 3490: 3488: 3487: 3482: 3477: 3472: 3466: 3464: 3460: 3459: 3457: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3436: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3415: 3413: 3409: 3408: 3406: 3405: 3400: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3383:Lead shielding 3379: 3377: 3373: 3372: 3370: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3330:Geiger counter 3327: 3322: 3316: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3305: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3279: 3274: 3269: 3264: 3262:Effective dose 3259: 3254: 3249: 3247:Committed dose 3244: 3239: 3233: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3222: 3221: 3216: 3211: 3206: 3201: 3196: 3194:Health physics 3191: 3186: 3180: 3178: 3174: 3173: 3168: 3166: 3165: 3158: 3151: 3143: 3137: 3136: 3117: 3110: 3109:External links 3107: 3106: 3105: 3099: 3091: 3088: 3085: 3084: 3078: 3056: 3035:(4): 1189–92. 3015: 2987: 2950:(2): 123–125. 2930: 2905: 2867: 2835: 2817: 2806: 2785: 2756: 2738: 2707: 2664: 2621: 2582: 2531: 2519: 2470: 2463: 2443: 2386: 2348: 2317: 2308:|journal= 2285: 2244: 2219: 2210:|journal= 2187: 2178:|journal= 2155: 2146:|journal= 2123: 2114:|journal= 2091: 2082:|journal= 2059: 2044: 2034: 2033: 2031: 2028: 2027: 2026: 2021: 2015: 2010: 2005: 2000: 1995: 1990: 1985: 1980: 1978:Nuclear safety 1975: 1970: 1965: 1959: 1954: 1952:Health physics 1949: 1939: 1927: 1924: 1831: 1828: 1790: 1787: 1784: 1783: 1782:0.010 Sv 1780: 1777: 1771: 1762: 1755: 1752: 1746: 1745: 1742: 1739: 1733: 1724: 1717: 1714: 1709: 1702:Effective dose 1698: 1697: 1696:0.010 Sv 1694: 1691: 1685: 1678: 1675: 1669: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1656: 1649: 1646: 1641: 1630: 1629: 1628:0.010 Gy 1626: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1611: 1610: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1585: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1572: 1569: 1564: 1553: 1552: 1543: 1540: 1526: 1523: 1517: 1516: 1513: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1495: 1484: 1483: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1456: 1455: 1448: 1445: 1436: 1433: 1427: 1426: 1423: 1420: 1417: 1414: 1409: 1398: 1397: 1391: 1388: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1372: 1371: 1364: 1357: 1349: 1341: 1338: 1337: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1301: 1298: 1289:United Kingdom 1269:Main article: 1258: 1255: 1217: 1214: 1208: 1205: 1172:Lead shielding 1163: 1160: 1159: 1158: 1149: 1148: 1139: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1123: 1122: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1102: 1088: 1085: 1084: 1083: 1080: 1077: 1065: 1064: 1061: 1058: 1049: 1048: 1039: 1038: 1035: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1005: 1002: 994: 991: 980:Bremsstrahlung 976:beta particles 967: 966: 956: 944:Barium sulfate 934:are used, but 893: 890: 889: 888: 884:Van Allen Belt 861: 856:of atoms in a 839: 828:Bremsstrahlung 789:Beta particles 786: 745: 742: 730:barium sulfate 726:lead shielding 710:Bremsstrahlung 655: 654: 651: 648: 633:atomic numbers 567:stopping power 551:lead shielding 517: 514: 513: 512: 507: 502: 497: 452:Main article: 449: 446: 383:Main article: 380: 377: 372: 371: 368: 365: 328: 325: 303: 302: 300:technetium-99m 296: 289: 286: 272:effective dose 268:committed dose 247:committed dose 245:Main article: 242: 239: 238: 237: 231: 217: 214:effective dose 199:Main article: 196: 193: 192: 191: 180: 174: 171:Justification: 163: 160: 159: 158: 148: 142: 131: 128: 94: 91: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3743: 3742: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3712: 3710: 3700: 3690: 3686: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3623: 3621: 3617: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3587: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3565: 3563: 3558: 3556: 3551: 3550: 3547: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3527:Radioactivity 3524: 3520: 3513: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3498: 3496: 3492: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3471: 3468: 3467: 3465: 3461: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3430: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3420: 3417: 3416: 3414: 3412:Organisations 3410: 3404: 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2884: 2877: 2871: 2868: 2857:on 2004-10-30 2856: 2852: 2848: 2842: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2825: 2821: 2818: 2815: 2810: 2807: 2802: 2795: 2789: 2786: 2775:on 2018-06-21 2774: 2770: 2766: 2760: 2757: 2754: 2750: 2747: 2742: 2739: 2728:on 2006-02-20 2724: 2717: 2711: 2708: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2668: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2631:Solar Physics 2625: 2622: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2586: 2583: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2535: 2532: 2529: 2523: 2520: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2474: 2471: 2466: 2460: 2456: 2455: 2447: 2444: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2397: 2390: 2387: 2383: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2358: 2352: 2349: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2327:"Dose limits" 2321: 2318: 2313: 2300: 2289: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2248: 2245: 2233: 2229: 2223: 2220: 2215: 2202: 2191: 2188: 2183: 2170: 2159: 2156: 2151: 2138: 2127: 2124: 2119: 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