Radiation protection - Knowledge (XXG)

1862: 109: 1011:(PPE) includes all clothing and accessories which can be worn to prevent severe illness and injury as a result of exposure to radioactive material. These include an SR100 (protection for 1hr), SR200 (protection for 2 hours). Because radiation can affect humans through internal and external contamination, various protection strategies have been developed to protect humans from the harmful effects of radiation exposure from a spectrum of sources. A few of these strategies developed to shield from internal, external, and high energy radiation are outlined below. 359: 470:

not for weakly penetrating radiation such as alpha particles. Traditionally, film badges were used for long-term monitoring, and quartz fibre dosimeters for short-term monitoring. However, these have been mostly superseded by thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badges and electronic dosimeters. Electronic dosimeters can give an alarm warning if a preset dose threshold has been reached, enabling safer working in potentially higher radiation levels, where the received dose must be continually monitored.

532: 1846: 1273: 117: 343: 247:: Sources of radiation can be shielded with solid or liquid material, which absorbs the energy of the radiation. The term 'biological shield' is used for absorbing material placed around a nuclear reactor, or other source of radiation, to reduce the radiation to a level safe for humans. The shielding materials are concrete and lead shield which is 0.25mm thick for secondary radiation and 0.5mm thick for primary radiation 351: 125: 553: 3705: 731:, and to a first approximation is proportional to the total mass of material per unit area interposed along the line of sight between the radiation source and the region to be protected. Hence, shielding strength or "thickness" is conventionally measured in units of g/cm. The radiation that manages to get through falls exponentially with the thickness of the shield. In 544: 1833:

example, active radiation equipment would need a habitable volume size to house it, and magnetic and electrostatic configurations often are not homogeneous in intensity, allowing high-energy particles to penetrate the magnetic and electric fields from low-intensity parts, like cusps in dipolar magnetic field of Earth. As of 2012, NASA is undergoing research in

263: 1210:(HSCT), which is a common treatment for patients with leukemia. This scientific advancement allows for the development of a new class of relatively lightweight protective equipment that shields high concentrations of bone marrow to defer the hematopoietic sub-syndrome of acute radiation syndrome to much higher dosages. 152:– defined as "...where radiological protection can be planned in advance, before exposures occur, and where the magnitude and extent of the exposures can be reasonably predicted." These are such as in occupational exposure situations, where it is necessary for personnel to work in a known radiation environment. 1246:

measure the concentration of radioactive particles in the ambient air to guard against radioactive particles being ingested, or deposited in the lungs of personnel. These instruments will normally give a local alarm, but are often connected to an integrated safety system so that areas of plant can be

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External contamination protection equipment provides a barrier to shield radioactive material from being deposited externally on the body or clothes. The dermal protective equipment described below acts as a barrier to block radioactive material from physically touching the skin, but does not protect

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which says that there is not a threshold at which there is an increase in the rate of occurrence of stochastic effects with increasing dose. At the same time, radiology and other practices that involve use of ionizing radiation bring benefits, so reducing radiation exposure can reduce the efficacy of

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The public information dose chart of the USA Department of Energy, shown here on the right, applies to USA regulation, which is based on ICRP recommendations. Note that examples in lines 1 to 4 have a scale of dose rate (radiation per unit time), whilst 5 and 6 have a scale of total accumulated dose.

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The ICRP's recommendations flow down to national and regional regulators, which have the opportunity to incorporate them into their own law; this process is shown in the accompanying block diagram. In most countries a national regulatory authority works towards ensuring a secure radiation environment

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wrote almost despairingly that his warnings about the dangers involved in careless use of x-rays was not being heeded, either by industry or by his colleagues. By this time Rollins had proved that x-rays could kill experimental animals, could cause a pregnant guinea pig to abort, and that they could

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Practical radiation measurement using calibrated radiation protection instruments is essential in evaluating the effectiveness of protection measures, and in assessing the radiation dose likely to be received by individuals. The measuring instruments for radiation protection are both "installed" (in

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The radiation dosimeter is an important personal dose measuring instrument. It is worn by the person being monitored and is used to estimate the external radiation dose deposited in the individual wearing the device. They are used for gamma, X-ray, beta and other strongly penetrating radiation, but

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The ICRP recommends, develops and maintains the International System of Radiological Protection, based on evaluation of the large body of scientific studies available to equate risk to received dose levels. The system's health objectives are "to manage and control exposures to ionising radiation so

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Active Shielding, that is, using magnets, high voltages, or artificial magnetospheres to slow down or deflect radiation, has been considered to potentially combat radiation in a feasible way. So far, the cost of equipment, power and weight of active shielding equipment outweigh their benefits. For

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makes use of a particle accelerator that produces beams of protons or heavy ions. These ions are typical of those accelerated in cosmic sources and by the Sun. The beams of ions move through a 100 m (328-foot) transport tunnel to the 37 m (400-square-foot) shielded target hall. There, they hit the

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also reported burns. Elihu Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an x-ray tube over a period of time and experienced pain, swelling, and blistering. Other effects, including ultraviolet rays and ozone were sometimes blamed for the damage. Many physicists claimed that there were no effects from

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Fundamental to radiation protection is the avoidance or reduction of dose using the simple protective measures of time, distance and shielding. The duration of exposure should be limited to that necessary, the distance from the source of radiation should be maximised, and the source or the target

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Ionizing radiation is widely used in industry and medicine, and can present a significant health hazard by causing microscopic damage to living tissue. There are two main categories of ionizing radiation health effects. At high exposures, it can cause "tissue" effects, also called "deterministic"

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is used in some applications too. However, when the cost is important, almost any material can be used, but it must be far thicker. Most nuclear reactors use thick concrete shields to create a bioshield with a thin water-cooled layer of lead on the inside to protect the porous concrete from the

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The dangers of radioactivity and radiation were not immediately recognized. The discovery of x‑rays in 1895 led to widespread experimentation by scientists, physicians, and inventors. Many people began recounting stories of burns, hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. In

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is more dangerous and hundreds of times more intense than radiation sources such as medical X-rays or normal cosmic radiation usually experienced on Earth. When the intensely ionizing particles found in space strike human tissue, it can result in cell damage and may eventually lead to cancer.

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wear such as lead aprons can protect patients and clinicians from the potentially harmful radiation effects of day-to-day medical examinations. It is quite feasible to protect large surface areas of the body from radiation in the lower-energy spectrum because very little shielding material is

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Internal contamination protection equipment protects against the inhalation and ingestion of radioactive material. Internal deposition of radioactive material result in direct exposure of radiation to organs and tissues inside the body. The respiratory protective equipment described below are

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Transportable instruments are generally instruments that would have been permanently installed, but are temporarily placed in an area to provide continuous monitoring where it is likely there will be a hazard. Such instruments are often installed on trolleys to allow easy deployment, and are

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The usual method for radiation protection is material shielding by spacecraft and equipment structures (usually aluminium), possibly augmented by polyethylene in human spaceflight where the main concern is high-energy protons and cosmic ray ions. On uncrewed spacecraft in high-electron-dose

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This process is intended for application to those situations that have been deemed to be justified. It means "the likelihood of incurring exposures, the number of people exposed, and the magnitude of their individual doses" should all be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable (or Reasonably

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In some cases, improper shielding can actually make the situation worse, when the radiation interacts with the shielding material and creates secondary radiation that absorbs in the organisms more readily. For example, although high atomic number materials are very effective in shielding

431:(stochastic effects) below an acceptable level, and to eliminate deterministic effects (e.g. skin reddening or cataracts). An acceptable level of incidence of stochastic effects is considered to be equal for a worker to the risk in other radiation work generally considered to be safe. 1253:(PEM) are used to monitor workers who are exiting a "contamination controlled" or potentially contaminated area. These can be in the form of hand monitors, clothing frisk probes, or whole body monitors. These monitor the surface of the workers body and clothing to check if any 1817:

environments such as Jupiter missions, or medium Earth orbit (MEO), additional shielding with materials of a high atomic number can be effective. On long-duration crewed missions, advantage can be taken of the good shielding characteristics of liquid hydrogen fuel and water.

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to check an object or person in detail, or assess an area where no installed instrumentation exists. They can also be used for personnel exit monitoring or personnel contamination checks in the field. These generally measure alpha, beta or gamma, or combinations of these.

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is very difficult to achieve as the large mass of shielding material required to properly protect the entire body would make functional movement nearly impossible. For this, partial body shielding of radio-sensitive internal organs is the most viable protection strategy.

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One technique is to apply selective shielding to protect the high concentration of bone marrow stored in the hips and other radio-sensitive organs in the abdominal area. This allows first responders a safe way to perform necessary missions in radioactive environments.

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Installed instruments are fixed in positions which are known to be important in assessing the general radiation hazard in an area. Examples are installed "area" radiation monitors, Gamma interlock monitors, personnel exit monitors, and airborne particulate monitors.

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The area radiation monitor will measure the ambient radiation, usually X-Ray, Gamma or neutrons; these are radiations that can have significant radiation levels over a range in excess of tens of metres from their source, and thereby cover a wide area.

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performed an experiment involving x-raying Dudley's head that resulted in his hair loss. A report by Dr. H.D. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia College, of his severe hand and chest burns in an x-ray demonstration, was the first of many other reports in

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Gamma radiation "interlock monitors" are used in applications to prevent inadvertent exposure of workers to an excess dose by preventing personnel access to an area when a high radiation level is present. These interlock the process access directly.

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or while completely outside the protective regions of the Earth's magnetosphere. Frequent fliers may be at a slightly higher risk because of the decreased absorption from thinner atmosphere. Cosmic radiation is extremely high energy, and is very

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The total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions by the three effects. Here, the photoelectric effect dominates at low energy. Above 5 MeV, pair production starts to

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The ICRP recommends a number of limits for dose uptake in table 8 of ICRP report 103. These limits are "situational", for planned, emergency and existing situations. Within these situations, limits are given for certain exposed groups;

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teams are required to wear dosimeters so a record of occupational exposure can be made. Such devices are generally termed "legal dosimeters" if they have been approved for use in recording personnel dose for regulatory purposes.

1929:, likely caused by exposure to ionizing radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death of radium treatment enthusiasts, radium-containing medicinal products had been largely removed from the market ( 727:, which are below the detector's energy threshold. Some designs also include an outer layer of aluminium, which may simply be the skin of the satellite. The effectiveness of a material as a biological shield is related to its 1829:, can reduce primary and secondary radiation to a greater extent than metals, such as aluminum. The problem with this "passive shielding" method is that radiation interactions in the material generate secondary radiation. 1205:

found in bone marrow. The regenerative quality of stem cells make it only necessary to protect enough bone marrow to repopulate the body with unaffected stem cells after the exposure: a similar concept which is applied in

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Shielding reduces the intensity of radiation, increasing with thickness. This is an exponential relationship with gradually diminishing effect as equal slices of shielding material are added. A quantity known as the

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Dosimeters can be worn to obtain a whole body dose and there are also specialist types that can be worn on the fingers or clipped to headgear, to measure the localised body irradiation for specific activities.

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has issued a user guidance note on selecting the correct radiation measurement instrument for the application concerned. This covers all radiation instrument technologies, and is a useful comparative guide.

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can aid the patient by providing doctors and other health care professionals with a medical diagnosis, but the exposure of the patient should be reasonably low enough to keep the statistical probability of

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kill a fetus. He also stressed that "animals vary in susceptibility to the external action of X-light" and warned that these differences be considered when patients were treated by means of x-rays.

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required to provide the necessary protection. Recent studies show that copper shielding is far more effective than lead and is likely to replace it as the standard material for radiation shielding.

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is an acronym for an important principle in exposure to radiation and other occupational health risks and in the UK stands for As Low As Reasonably Practicable. The aim is to minimize the risk of

3444: 438:. It is also based on the principle that the probability of the occurrence of negative effects of radiation exposure increases with cumulative lifetime dose. These ideas are combined to form the 270:

Internal dose, due to the inhalation or ingestion of radioactive substances, can result in stochastic or deterministic effects, depending on the amount of radioactive material ingested and other

97: 100:(ICRU) publish recommendations and data which is used to calculate the biological effects on the human body of certain levels of radiation, and thereby advise acceptable dose uptake limits. 1264:

publishes a good practice guide through its Ionising Radiation Metrology Forum concerning the provision of such equipment and the methodology of calculating the alarm levels to be used.

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proportionally. An example of reducing radiation doses by reducing the time of exposures might be improving operator training to reduce the time they take to handle a radioactive source.

1865: 1377: 3127:- "The confusing world of radiation dosimetry" - M.A. Boyd, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. An account of chronological differences between USA and ICRP dosimetry systems. 3449: 455:. Age is a significant factor in risk associated with CT scans, and in procedures involving children and systems that do not require extensive imaging, lower doses are used. 2759: 719:. Each subsequent layer absorbs the X-ray fluorescence of the previous material, eventually reducing the energy to a suitable level. Each decrease in energy produces 216:

There are three factors that control the amount, or dose, of radiation received from a source. Radiation exposure can be managed by a combination of these factors:

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target, which may be a biological sample or shielding material. In a 2002 NASA study, it was determined that materials that have high hydrogen contents, such as

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This policy is based on the principle that any amount of radiation exposure, no matter how small, can increase the chance of negative biological effects such as

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For ingested radioactive materials in food and drink, specialist laboratory radiometric assay methods are used to measure the concentration of such materials.

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Operational Monitoring Good Practice Guide "The Selection of Alarm Levels for Personnel Exit Monitors" Dec 2009 - National Physical Laboratory, Teddington UK

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International policy relationships in radiological protection.The ICRP is generally recognised by regulators as the International authority on good practice

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designed to minimize the possibility of such material being inhaled or ingested as emergency workers are exposed to potentially radioactive environments.

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Hand-held ion chamber survey meter in use for surface dose rate on one of three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) for the Cassini spacecraft.

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shielding has been shown to reduce electron penetration over 60%. It is commonly used in satellite-based particle detectors, offering several benefits:

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a medical practice. The economic cost, for example of adding a barrier against radiation, must also be considered when applying the ALARP principle.

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The occupational hazards from airborne radioactive particles in nuclear and radio-chemical applications are greatly reduced by the extensive use of

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protested against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died from

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or CAT scans have made an enormous contribution to medicine, however not without some risk. The ionizing radiation used in CT scans can lead to

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Worn when entering environments immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) or when information is inadequate to rule out IDLH atmosphere

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to shield neutrons will result in the shielding material itself becoming radioactive and hence more dangerous than if it were not present.

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SCBA type escape respirators have an attached source of breathing air and a hood that provides a barrier against contaminated outside air

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Seco, Joao; Clasie, Ben; Partridge, Mike (Oct 2014). "Review on the characteristics of radiation detectors for dosimetry and imaging".

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of packed dirt, which is roughly 115 cm (3 ft 9 in), reduces gamma rays to 1/1024 of their original intensity (i.e. 2).

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per year, averaged over defined periods of 5 years, with no single year exceeding 50 mSv. The public exposure limit is 1 mSv in a year.

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Planned exposure – limits given for occupational, medical and public exposure. The occupational exposure limit of effective dose is 20

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or other hazard while keeping in mind that some exposure may be acceptable in order to further the task at hand. The equivalent term

158:– defined as "...unexpected situations that may require urgent protective actions". This would be such as an emergency nuclear event. 3740: 3570: 1804:

Spacecraft, both robotic and crewed, must cope with the high radiation environment of outer space. Radiation emitted by the Sun and

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This is the wording used by the national regulatory authority that coined the term, in turn derived from its enabling legislation:

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Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicists and corporations began marketing radioactive substances as

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Each individual must be protected against risks that are too great, through the application of individual radiation dose limits.

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that deterministic effects are prevented, and the risks of stochastic effects are reduced to the extent reasonably achievable".

3480: 2372: 1821: 108: 45:, and the means for achieving this". Exposure can be from a source of radiation external to the human body or due to internal 3262: 1967: 2756: 2445: 1861: 1071:

Can be designed as an air-purifying escape respirator (APER) or a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) type respirator

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A number of commonly used detection instrument types are listed below, and are used for both fixed and survey monitoring.

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consists of a stream of charged or neutral particles, both charged ions and subatomic elementary particles. This includes

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rather than fingers. For example, if a problem arise during fluoroscopic procedure step away from the patient if feasible.

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shielded wherever possible. To measure personal dose uptake in occupational or emergency exposure, for external radiation

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is not as readily absorbed as charged particle radiation, which makes this type highly penetrating. In a process called

164:– defined as "...being those that already exist when a decision on control has to be taken". These can be such as from 3615: 3106: 2376: 2337: 1303: 520: 2924: 2726: 3605: 3533: 3272: 1712: 282: 2265:"Prevention of nuclear damage caused by iodine and cesium radionuclides to the thyroid, pancreas and other organs" 3709: 3219: 1254: 907: 834: 439: 50: 1158:

Designed for environments that are immediate health risks but contain no substances that can be absorbed by skin

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in society by setting dose limitation requirements that are generally based on the recommendations of the ICRP.

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are used, and for internal dose due to ingestion of radioactive contamination, bioassay techniques are applied.

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No unnecessary use of radiation is permitted, which means that the advantages must outweigh the disadvantages.

2491:"Imaging strategies to reduce the risk of radiation in CT studies, including selective substitution with MRI" 1168:

Designed for environments that are immediate health risks and contain substances that can be absorbed by skin

3307: 1906: 1760: 1683: 1202: 997: 728: 2825: 2238: 1975:– (IRPA). The International body concerned with promoting the science and practice of radiation protection. 358: 3537: 3434: 3367: 1983: 1334: 510: 3735: 3541: 3350: 2309: 2211: 2179: 2147: 2115: 2083: 1874: 1339: 2776:"Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in a Radiation Emergency - Radiation Emergency Medical Management" 878: 2897: 531: 3362: 3355: 3194: 3010:"Ronald L. Kathern and Paul L. Ziemer, he First Fifty Years of Radiation Protection, physics.isu.edu" 2865: 2812:

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)

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to optimise tube emissions, the other has his head close to the tube. No precautions are being taken.

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Portable instruments are hand-held or transportable. The hand-held instrument is generally used as a

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interact in different ways with shielding material. The effectiveness of shielding is dependent on

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x-rays, and hence low atomic number materials are recommended. Also, using a material with a high

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Contains filters, cartridges, and canisters to provide increased protection and better filtration

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to contain such material. To protect against breathing in radioactive particles in ambient air,

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has been deposited. These generally measure alpha or beta or gamma, or combinations of these.

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Porous overall suit—Dermal protection from aerosols, dry particles, and non hazardous liquids.

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The effectiveness of a shielding material in general increases with its atomic number, called

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The ICRP recognises planned, emergency, and existing exposure situations, as described below;

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layer effectively scatters protons and electrons. It also absorbs gamma rays, which produces

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External dose quantities used in radiation protection and dosimetry - based on ICRU report 57

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There are many solutions to shielding against low-energy radiation exposure like low-energy

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USA Dept of Energy 2010 dose chart in sieverts for a variety of situations and applications.

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Large scale glovebox in the nuclear industry used to contain airborne radioactive particles.

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evacuated and personnel are prevented from entering an air of high airborne contamination.

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The ICRP uses the following overall principles for all controllable exposure situations.

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erected 1936 at St. Georg hospital in Hamburg, commemorating 359 early radiology workers.

3134:. The Compass DeRose Guide to Emergency Preparedness - Hardened Shelters. Archived from 2696: 2653: 2618: 2563: 2538: 342: 73:

effects" due to the uncertainty of them happening, conventionally indicated by the unit

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effects due to the certainty of them happening, conventionally indicated by the unit

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Tara Ahmadi, Use of Semi-Dipole Magnetic Field for Spacecraft Radiation Protection.

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Graphic showing relationships between radioactivity and detected ionizing radiation

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Providing radiation guidance to Harvard University and affiliated institutions.

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Hrabak, M.; Padovan, R. S.; Kralik, M.; Ozretic, D.; Potocki, K. (July 2008).

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Level A equivalent: Totally encapsulating chemical- and vapour-protective suit

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The risk from a low level internal source is represented by the dose quantity

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facilities, walls surrounding the room with the x-ray generator may contain

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The following table shows the main radiation-related quantities and units.

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The immediate danger of intense exposure to high-energy gamma radiation is

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Selection, use and maintenance of portable monitoring instruments. UK HSE

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Battery powered blower forces contamination through air purifying filters

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coolant inside. The concrete is also made with heavy aggregates, such as

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instruments measure the concentration or presence of airborne materials.

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Provides very pure, dry compressed air to full facepiece mask via a hose

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Various doses of radiation in sieverts, ranging from trivial to lethal.

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Pia, Maria Grazia; et al. (2009). "PIXE Simulation with Geant4".

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United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

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Protects wearer from breathing harmful gases, vapours, fumes, and dust

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Emergency exposure – limits given for occupational and public exposure

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Visual comparison of radiological exposure from daily life activities.

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To monitor the concentration of radioactive particles in ambient air,

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screen, or if they must remain in the same room as the target, wear

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Common types of wearable dosimeters for ionizing radiation include:

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The intake of radioactive material can occur through four pathways:

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magnetic architecture for potential active shielding applications.

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Compressed air delivered from a stationary source to the face piece

2407:"Computed tomography – an increasing source of radiation exposure" 1918: 1860: 1844: 1585: 1178: 922: 826: 732: 685: 612: 551: 542: 530: 395: 357: 349: 341: 293: 261: 198: 2805:"Occupational Radiation Protection in Severe Accident Management" 650:. Compared to single-material shielding, the same mass of graded- 1921:

treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics.

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is used to calculate this. For example, a practical shield in a

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in the form of glow-in-the-dark pigments. Examples were radium

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built to shield a radioactive sample in a lab, being a form of

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Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry by Hill et al in

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Radiography and Radiology for Dental Care Professionals E-Book

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or ALARP. It takes into account economic and societal factors.

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a fixed position) and portable (hand-held or transportable).

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may cause higher radiation exposure due to the production of

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Smith, D.M.; et al. (2002). "The RHESSI Spectrometer".

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X-Ray apparatus in 1896. One man is viewing his hand with a

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Personal shielding against more energetic radiation such as

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Purified air delivered under positive pressure to face piece

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shielding is a laminate of several materials with different

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or x-rays if used in sufficient amounts. Different types of

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Existing exposure – reference levels for all persons exposed

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International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements

2951:"Early victims of X-rays: a tribute and current perception" 2336:

ICRP, International Commission on Radiological Protection.

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Non-porous overall suit to provide dermal protection from:

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February of that year, Professor Daniel and Dr. Dudley of

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acts as a shield, but it poses a significant problem for

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Designs vary, but typically involve a gradient from high-

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ingestion of radioactive contamination in food or liquids

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Taming the Rays - A history of Radiation and Protection.

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Mild liquid chemical splashes from toxics and corrosives

2858:"Behind the scenes - NASA's Space Radiation Laboratory" 2393:'ALARP' is short for 'as low as reasonably practicable' 1866:

Monument to the X-ray and Radium Martyrs of All Nations

1103:

against externally penetrating high energy radiation.

237:. Distance can be as simple as handling a source with 3693: 2539:

http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9155/59/6/R183/article

2852: 2850: 1153:

Level B equivalent: Non-gas-tight encapsulating suit

3660: 3629: 3593: 3504: 3473: 3422: 3386: 3321: 3238: 3187: 3004: 3002: 2489:Semelka RC, Armao DM, Elias J, Huda W (May 2007). 2009:Radiation protection reports of the European Union 1295:associated with temporary operational situations. 1124:Chemical splashes and inorganic acid/base aerosols 792:) are the least penetrating. Even very energetic 739:such as lead sheets, or the plaster may contain 664:lower mass compared to single-material shielding 94:International Commission on Radiation Protection 2949:Sansare, K.; Khanna, V.; Karjodkar, F. (2011). 1029:Elastic face piece worn over the mouth and nose 223:: Reducing the time of an exposure reduces the 3107:Harvard University Radiation Protection Office 1973:International Radiation Protection Association 233:: Increasing distance reduces dose due to the 3571: 3165: 1371: 1345:airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring 568:Almost any material can act as a shield from 8: 292:inhalation of airborne contaminants such as 3331:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring 2243:United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission 2053:IAEA Safety Glossary - draft 2016 revision. 1098:External contamination protective equipment 1015:Internal contamination protective equipment 729:cross-section for scattering and absorption 696:. Sometimes even lighter materials such as 661:reduction of background noise for detectors 309:injection of medical radioisotopes such as 3578: 3564: 3556: 3172: 3158: 3150: 3036:"Nikola Tesla and the Discovery of X-rays" 1378: 1364: 1357: 796:can be stopped by a single sheet of paper. 3132:"Halving-thickness for various materials" 3051: 2982: 2506: 2304:ICRP. "Report 103": Table 8, section 6.5. 2280: 877:is not a common concern on Earth, as the 166:naturally occurring radioactive materials 2468:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 25. 1271: 1130:Toxic industrial chemicals and materials 1024:Reusable air purifying respirators (APR) 914:, the properties of which depend on the 841:X-rays. In the case of beta+ radiation ( 123: 115: 107: 3700: 2368:Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 2046: 1959:radioprotectant drug under development. 1208:hematopoietic stem cell transplantation 893:, especially while passing through the 414:This compromise is well illustrated in 2318: 2307: 2220: 2209: 2188: 2177: 2156: 2145: 2124: 2113: 2092: 2081: 1359:Ionizing radiation related quantities 743:. Operators view the target through a 473:Workers exposed to radiation, such as 3496:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 2405:Brenner DJ, Hall EJ (November 2007). 2004:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 1121:Blood-borne pathogens and bio-hazards 7: 2896:. NASA. October 2002. Archived from 2757:Historical Use of Thorium at Hanford 2727:"No Such Site | U-M WP Hosting" 2685:IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 2607:IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 2373:"Risk management: ALARP at a glance" 3647:Radiation-induced cognitive decline 2029:Society for Radiological Protection 2019:Radiological protection of patients 1957:United States Department of Defense 1148:Helmet, gloves, foot gear, and hood 837:). This is to reduce generation of 324:with particulate filters are worn. 1080:Self-contained breathing apparatus 849:reaction poses additional concern. 329:radioactive particulate monitoring 39:International Atomic Energy Agency 25: 2206:ICRP. "Report 103": Introduction. 535:Diagram showing various forms of 338:Recommended limits on dose uptake 3703: 3113:Journal of Solid State Phenomena 2451:from the original on 2016-03-04. 2282:10.32415/jscientia_2022_8_2_5-14 1218:Radiation protection instruments 1038:Powered air-purifying respirator 845:), the gamma radiation from the 658:protection from radiation damage 2887:"Understanding Space Radiation" 2601:Fan, W.C.; et al. (1996). 2552:Physics in Medicine and Biology 1822:NASA Space Radiation Laboratory 1800:Spacecraft radiation challenges 1244:Airborne contamination monitors 1142:Firefighter protective clothing 1137:Level C equivalent: Bunker gear 206:Factors in external dose uptake 168:which exist in the environment. 3263:Computed tomography dose index 2894:Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center 2078:ICRP. "Report 103": Section 6. 1968:Health threat from cosmic rays 1173:External penetrating radiation 847:electron–positron annihilation 646:) designed to protect against 485:, those in laboratories using 302:absorption of vapours such as 1: 3683:Radiation dose reconstruction 3652:Radiation-induced lung injury 2174:ICRP. "Report 103": para 284. 2142:ICRP. "Report 103": para 274. 2110:ICRP. "Report 103": para 253. 1885:Many experimenters including 1107:Chemical-resistant inner suit 1090:Air is exhaled to environment 1053:Supplied-air respirator (SAR) 1009:Personal protective equipment 1004:Personal protective equipment 949:is much more common; several 676:) through successively lower- 516:Electronic personal dosimeter 459:Personal radiation dosimeters 296:gas and radioactive particles 88:For radiation protection and 2955:Dentomaxillofacial Radiology 2572:10.1088/0031-9155/59/20/R303 2462:Whaites, Eric (2008-10-10). 1351:Radiation related quantities 1262:National Physical Laboratory 2377:Health and Safety Executive 2263:Venturi Sebastiano (2022). 1063:Auxiliary escape respirator 521:Thermoluminescent dosimeter 49:caused by the ingestion of 3757: 3527: 1279: 462: 393: 255: 209: 3525: 3220:Radioactive contamination 2929:NASA Johnson Space Center 1711: 1643: 1566: 1497: 1411: 1255:radioactive contamination 910:consists of emissions of 908:Electromagnetic radiation 903:Electromagnetic radiation 440:linear no-threshold model 173:Regulation of dose uptake 51:radioactive contamination 3741:Radiation health effects 3642:Radiation-induced cancer 3528:See also the categories 3517:Radiation-induced cancer 3512:Acute radiation syndrome 2705:10.1109/TNS.2009.2033993 1203:hematopoietic stem cells 1199:acute radiation syndrome 453:radiation-induced cancer 67:radiation-induced cancer 63:acute radiation syndrome 27:Range of safety measures 2931:. Shayne Westover. 2012 2662:10.1023/A:1022400716414 1907:William Herbert Rollins 1902:x-ray exposure at all. 1841:Early radiation dangers 1340:scintillation detectors 1335:semiconductor detectors 1251:Personnel exit monitors 985:, using them to shield 481:workers, doctors using 35:radiological protection 3368:Semiconductor detector 3324:measurement techniques 3075:Geoff Meggitt (2008), 2864:. 2003. Archived from 2344:. ICRP. Archived from 2317:Cite journal requires 2219:Cite journal requires 2187:Cite journal requires 2155:Cite journal requires 2123:Cite journal requires 2091:Cite journal requires 1984:Non-ionizing radiation 1869: 1858: 1806:other galactic sources 1761:röntgen equivalent man 1684:röntgen equivalent man 1277: 1118:Dry powders and solids 692:, usually ending with 565: 549: 540: 511:Quartz fibre dosimeter 363: 355: 347: 306:oxide through the skin 267: 197:Practicable) known as 129: 121: 113: 3387:Protection techniques 3351:Scintillation counter 2967:10.1259/dmfr/73488299 1875:Vanderbilt University 1864: 1848: 1325:proportional counters 1275: 1227:Installed instruments 1145:Flame/water resistant 929:are best absorbed by 912:electromagnetic waves 611:such as compounds of 555: 546: 534: 418:. The application of 361: 353: 345: 265: 127: 119: 111: 3726:Radiation protection 3678:Radiation protection 3546:Radiation protection 3363:Radiation monitoring 3356:Proportional counter 3241:quantities and units 3195:Background radiation 3181:Radiation protection 3053:10.1148/rg.284075206 2495:J Magn Reson Imaging 2426:10.1056/NEJMra072149 1999:Radiation monitoring 1979:Juno Radiation Vault 1931:radioactive quackery 1268:Portable instruments 953:are often required. 707:In a typical graded- 527:Radiation protection 506:Film badge dosimeter 405:radioactive exposure 252:Internal dose uptake 37:, is defined by the 31:Radiation protection 3621:Biological timeline 3587:Radiation poisoning 3378:Whole-body counting 3288:Mean glandular dose 3225:Radioactive sources 2697:2009ITNS...56.3614P 2654:2002SoPh..210...33S 2619:1996ITNS...43.2790F 2564:2014PMB....59R.303S 2239:"Biological shield" 2067:. pp. para 29. 1385: 1320:ionization chambers 881:absorbs it and the 594:halving-thicknesses 586:halving-thicknesses 479:nuclear power plant 445:Computed tomography 141:Exposure situations 83:personal dosimeters 3710:Nuclear technology 3668:Dose fractionation 3215:Internal dosimetry 3210:Ionizing radiation 2912:FS-2002-10-080-JSC 2840:2018-07-30 at the 2762:2013-05-12 at the 2508:10.1002/jmri.20895 2383:on 3 February 2011 1870: 1859: 1358: 1278: 995:neutron activation 879:Earth's atmosphere 857:neutron activation 760:Particle radiation 755:Particle radiation 717:X-ray fluorescence 648:ionizing radiation 574:ionizing radiation 566: 550: 541: 537:ionizing radiation 447:, better known as 364: 356: 348: 268: 235:inverse square law 156:Emergency exposure 130: 122: 114: 43:ionizing radiation 3691: 3690: 3553: 3552: 3534:Radiation effects 3505:Radiation effects 3268:Counts per minute 3090:978-1-4092-4667-1 2627:10.1109/23.556868 2558:(20): R303–R347. 2475:978-0-7020-4799-2 2348:on 1 October 2018 1905:As early as 1902 1895:William J. Morton 1880:Electrical Review 1810:radiation "belts" 1808:, and trapped in 1797: 1796: 1768:100 erg⋅g × 1691:100 erg⋅g × 853:Neutron radiation 711:shield, the high- 680:elements such as 605:neutron absorbers 390:ALARP & ALARA 162:Existing exposure 61:and resulting in 16:(Redirected from 3748: 3708: 3707: 3706: 3699: 3580: 3573: 3566: 3557: 3409:Radon mitigation 3404:Potassium iodide 3322:Instruments and 3174: 3167: 3160: 3151: 3146: 3144: 3143: 3094: 3093: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3055: 3031: 3025: 3024: 3022: 3021: 3012:. Archived from 3006: 2997: 2996: 2986: 2946: 2940: 2939: 2937: 2936: 2921: 2915: 2914: 2909: 2908: 2902: 2891: 2883: 2877: 2876: 2874: 2873: 2854: 2845: 2833: 2827: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2809: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2792: 2791: 2782:. Archived from 2780:www.remm.nlm.gov 2772: 2766: 2754: 2748: 2747: 2745: 2744: 2738: 2732:. Archived from 2731: 2723: 2717: 2716: 2691:(6): 3614–3649. 2680: 2674: 2673: 2637: 2631: 2630: 2613:(6): 2790–2796. 2598: 2592: 2591: 2547: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2510: 2486: 2480: 2479: 2459: 2453: 2452: 2450: 2411: 2402: 2396: 2395: 2390: 2388: 2379:. Archived from 2364: 2358: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2333: 2327: 2326: 2320: 2315: 2313: 2305: 2301: 2295: 2294: 2284: 2269:Juvenis Scientia 2260: 2254: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2235: 2229: 2228: 2222: 2217: 2215: 2207: 2203: 2197: 2196: 2190: 2185: 2183: 2175: 2171: 2165: 2164: 2158: 2153: 2151: 2143: 2139: 2133: 2132: 2126: 2121: 2119: 2111: 2107: 2101: 2100: 2094: 2089: 2087: 2079: 2075: 2069: 2068: 2060: 2054: 2051: 1994:Potassium iodide 1927:aplastic anaemia 1620: 1618: 1562: 1560: 1549: 1547: 1492: 1491: 1488: 1464: 1455: 1453: 1386: 1380: 1373: 1366: 1311:Instrument types 939:depleted uranium 875:Cosmic radiation 869:nuclear reaction 863:are absorbed by 776:nuclear reactors 768:cosmic radiation 150:Planned exposure 33:, also known as 21: 18:Radiation safety 3756: 3755: 3751: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3746: 3745: 3731:Nuclear physics 3716: 3715: 3714: 3704: 3702: 3694: 3692: 3687: 3673:Radioresistance 3656: 3625: 3589: 3584: 3554: 3549: 3548: 3530:Medical physics 3521: 3500: 3469: 3418: 3382: 3323: 3317: 3278:Equivalent dose 3240: 3234: 3183: 3178: 3141: 3139: 3130: 3122: 3103: 3098: 3097: 3091: 3074: 3073: 3069: 3033: 3032: 3028: 3019: 3017: 3008: 3007: 3000: 2948: 2947: 2943: 2934: 2932: 2923: 2922: 2918: 2906: 2904: 2900: 2889: 2885: 2884: 2880: 2871: 2869: 2856: 2855: 2848: 2842:Wayback Machine 2834: 2830: 2823: 2819: 2807: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2789: 2787: 2774: 2773: 2769: 2764:Wayback Machine 2755: 2751: 2742: 2740: 2736: 2729: 2725: 2724: 2720: 2682: 2681: 2677: 2639: 2638: 2634: 2600: 2599: 2595: 2549: 2548: 2544: 2536: 2532: 2488: 2487: 2483: 2476: 2461: 2460: 2456: 2448: 2420:(22): 2277–84. 2414:N. Engl. J. Med 2409: 2404: 2403: 2399: 2386: 2384: 2371: 2365: 2361: 2351: 2349: 2335: 2334: 2330: 2316: 2306: 2303: 2302: 2298: 2262: 2261: 2257: 2247: 2245: 2237: 2236: 2232: 2218: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2200: 2186: 2176: 2173: 2172: 2168: 2154: 2144: 2141: 2140: 2136: 2122: 2112: 2109: 2108: 2104: 2090: 2080: 2077: 2076: 2072: 2062: 2061: 2057: 2052: 2048: 2043: 2024:Radioresistance 1939: 1915:patent medicine 1843: 1835:superconducting 1802: 1786: 1777: 1748: 1739: 1700: 1671: 1645:Equivalent dose 1633:100 erg⋅g 1616: 1614: 1558: 1556: 1545: 1543: 1489: 1486: 1484: 1462: 1451: 1449: 1384: 1353: 1330:Geiger counters 1313: 1284: 1270: 1229: 1220: 1191:gamma radiation 1175: 1100: 1017: 1006: 927:gamma radiation 905: 794:alpha particles 783:Alpha particles 757: 725:Auger electrons 590:fallout shelter 529: 467: 461: 398: 392: 340: 260: 254: 214: 208: 175: 143: 106: 92:assessment the 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3754: 3752: 3744: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3712: 3689: 3688: 3686: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3664: 3662: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3637:Radiation burn 3633: 3631: 3627: 3626: 3624: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3597: 3595: 3591: 3590: 3585: 3583: 3582: 3575: 3568: 3560: 3551: 3550: 3526: 3523: 3522: 3520: 3519: 3514: 3508: 3506: 3502: 3501: 3499: 3498: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3470: 3468: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3426: 3424: 3420: 3419: 3417: 3416: 3411: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3394:Lead shielding 3390: 3388: 3384: 3383: 3381: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3359: 3358: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3341:Geiger counter 3338: 3333: 3327: 3325: 3319: 3318: 3316: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3280: 3275: 3273:Effective dose 3270: 3265: 3260: 3258:Committed dose 3255: 3250: 3244: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3233: 3232: 3227: 3222: 3217: 3212: 3207: 3205:Health physics 3202: 3197: 3191: 3189: 3185: 3184: 3179: 3177: 3176: 3169: 3162: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3128: 3121: 3120:External links 3118: 3117: 3116: 3110: 3102: 3099: 3096: 3095: 3089: 3067: 3046:(4): 1189–92. 3026: 2998: 2961:(2): 123–125. 2941: 2916: 2878: 2846: 2828: 2817: 2796: 2767: 2749: 2718: 2675: 2632: 2593: 2542: 2530: 2481: 2474: 2454: 2397: 2359: 2328: 2319:|journal= 2296: 2255: 2230: 2221:|journal= 2198: 2189:|journal= 2166: 2157:|journal= 2134: 2125:|journal= 2102: 2093:|journal= 2070: 2055: 2045: 2044: 2042: 2039: 2038: 2037: 2032: 2026: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1989:Nuclear safety 1986: 1981: 1976: 1970: 1965: 1963:Health physics 1960: 1950: 1938: 1935: 1842: 1839: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1794: 1793:0.010 Sv 1791: 1788: 1782: 1773: 1766: 1763: 1757: 1756: 1753: 1750: 1744: 1735: 1728: 1725: 1720: 1713:Effective dose 1709: 1708: 1707:0.010 Sv 1705: 1702: 1696: 1689: 1686: 1680: 1679: 1676: 1673: 1667: 1660: 1657: 1652: 1641: 1640: 1639:0.010 Gy 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1622: 1621: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1596: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1583: 1580: 1575: 1564: 1563: 1554: 1551: 1537: 1534: 1528: 1527: 1524: 1521: 1518: 1515: 1506: 1495: 1494: 1482: 1479: 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388: 383: 382: 379: 376: 339: 336: 314: 313: 311:technetium-99m 307: 300: 297: 283:effective dose 279:committed dose 258:committed dose 256:Main article: 253: 250: 249: 248: 242: 228: 225:effective dose 210:Main article: 207: 204: 203: 202: 191: 185: 182:Justification: 174: 171: 170: 169: 159: 153: 142: 139: 105: 102: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3753: 3742: 3739: 3737: 3734: 3732: 3729: 3727: 3724: 3723: 3721: 3711: 3701: 3697: 3684: 3681: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3634: 3632: 3628: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3598: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3576: 3574: 3569: 3567: 3562: 3561: 3558: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3538:Radioactivity 3535: 3531: 3524: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3510: 3509: 3507: 3503: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3476: 3472: 3466: 3463: 3461: 3458: 3456: 3453: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3427: 3425: 3423:Organisations 3421: 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2899: 2895: 2888: 2882: 2879: 2868:on 2004-10-30 2867: 2863: 2859: 2853: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2832: 2829: 2826: 2821: 2818: 2813: 2806: 2800: 2797: 2786:on 2018-06-21 2785: 2781: 2777: 2771: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2758: 2753: 2750: 2739:on 2006-02-20 2735: 2728: 2722: 2719: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2679: 2676: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2642:Solar Physics 2636: 2633: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2597: 2594: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2546: 2543: 2540: 2534: 2531: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2482: 2477: 2471: 2467: 2466: 2458: 2455: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2408: 2401: 2398: 2394: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2369: 2363: 2360: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2338:"Dose limits" 2332: 2329: 2324: 2311: 2300: 2297: 2292: 2288: 2283: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2259: 2256: 2244: 2240: 2234: 2231: 2226: 2213: 2202: 2199: 2194: 2181: 2170: 2167: 2162: 2149: 2138: 2135: 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London: 2352:2 November 2065:Report 103 2041:References 1619:10 Gy 1478:10 s 1471:rutherford 916:wavelength 891:astronauts 887:satellites 764:solar wind 704:are used. 617:boric acid 609:moderators 318:gloveboxes 272:biokinetic 104:Principles 71:stochastic 69:, called " 3611:Accidents 3486:NRC (USA) 3435:HPS (USA) 3336:Dosimeter 3253:Becquerel 3200:Dosimetry 2975:0250-832X 2670:122624882 2291:250392484 2248:13 August 1602:per gram 1493: Bq 1454:10 s 1423:becquerel 1389:Quantity 974:sunscreen 964:Magnetite 843:positrons 812:aluminium 804:electrons 694:aluminium 672:(usually 592:with ten 548:dominate. 465:Dosimeter 420:radiation 416:radiology 274:factors. 245:Shielding 90:dosimetry 3491:ONR (UK) 3481:IRR (UK) 3460:SRP (UK) 3399:Glovebox 3303:Roentgen 3081:Lulu.com 3062:18635636 2993:21239576 2838:Archived 2760:Archived 2713:41649806 2580:25229250 2517:17457809 2446:Archived 2434:18046031 2342:ICRPedia 1937:See also 1893:'s lab, 1755:SI unit 1678:SI unit 1594:SI unit 1526:SI unit 1513:kilogram 1499:Exposure 1436:SI unit 1413:Activity 861:neutrons 674:tantalum 642:values ( 629:hydrogen 449:CT scans 429:sarcomas 231:Distance 3606:Chronic 3594:General 3465:UNSCEAR 3430:Euratom 3313:Sievert 2984:3520298 2693:Bibcode 2650:Bibcode 2615:Bibcode 2588:4393848 2560:Bibcode 2525:5788891 2442:2760372 1943:CBLB502 1730:J⋅kg × 1723:sievert 1662:J⋅kg × 1655:sievert 1550:of air 1548: g 1532:röntgen 1509:coulomb 1395:Symbol 1298:In the 1260:The UK 983:photons 943:thorium 819:plastic 634:Graded- 621:cadmium 425:cancers 304:tritium 239:forceps 212:sievert 75:sievert 3696:Portal 3544:, and 3087: 3060: 2991: 2981: 2973: 2711: 2668: 2586: 2578: 2523: 2515: 2472: 2440: 2432: 2289: 2063:ICRP. 1953:Ex-Rad 1897:, and 1608:erg⋅g 1605:erg/g 1179:X-rays 1082:(SCBA) 1040:(PAPR) 960:Baryte 935:nuclei 865:nuclei 835:Lucite 790:nuclei 787:helium 770:, and 690:copper 688:, and 625:carbon 491:HAZMAT 489:, and 436:cancer 3601:Acute 3101:Notes 2901:(PDF) 2890:(PDF) 2808:(PDF) 2737:(PDF) 2730:(PDF) 2709:S2CID 2666:S2CID 2584:S2CID 2521:S2CID 2449:(PDF) 2438:S2CID 2410:(PDF) 2287:S2CID 1919:enema 1790:1971 1752:1977 1704:1971 1675:1977 1636:1953 1611:1950 1591:1974 1553:1928 1544:0.001 1523:1974 1517:C/kg 1481:1946 1458:1953 1442:curie 1433:1974 1401:Year 1392:Unit 931:atoms 923:X-ray 829:, or 827:water 733:x-ray 686:steel 615:e.g. 613:boron 570:gamma 409:ALARA 401:ALARP 396:ALARA 294:radon 199:ALARA 3455:IRPA 3450:ICRP 3445:ICRU 3440:IAEA 3283:Gray 3085:ISBN 3058:PMID 2989:PMID 2971:ISSN 2862:NASA 2576:PMID 2513:PMID 2470:ISBN 2430:PMID 2389:2011 2354:2017 2323:help 2250:2010 2225:help 2193:help 2161:help 2129:help 2097:help 1955:, a 1820:The 1765:rem 1688:rem 1630:rad 1588:⋅kg 1578:gray 1557:2.58 1511:per 1379:edit 1372:talk 1365:view 1302:the 947:lead 925:and 889:and 823:wood 816:e.g. 723:and 627:and 607:and 221:Time 59:gray 3308:Rem 3298:Rad 3048:doi 2979:PMC 2963:doi 2701:doi 2658:doi 2646:210 2623:doi 2568:doi 2503:doi 2422:doi 2418:357 2277:doi 1933:). 1889:at 1727:Sv 1659:Sv 1626:rad 1615:1.0 1600:erg 1582:Gy 1546:293 1540:esu 1490:000 1487:000 1475:Rd 1461:3.7 1450:3.7 1446:Ci 1427:Bq 1304:HSE 962:or 941:or 810:of 774:in 700:or 682:tin 427:or 373:mSv 3722:: 3540:, 3536:, 3532:, 3083:, 3079:, 3056:. 3044:28 3042:. 3038:. 3001:^ 2987:. 2977:. 2969:. 2959:40 2957:. 2953:. 2927:. 2910:. 2892:. 2860:. 2849:^ 2810:. 2778:. 2707:. 2699:. 2689:56 2687:. 2664:. 2656:. 2644:. 2621:. 2611:43 2609:. 2605:. 2582:. 2574:. 2566:. 2556:59 2554:. 2519:. 2511:. 2499:25 2497:. 2493:. 2444:. 2436:. 2428:. 2416:. 2412:. 2391:. 2370:: 2340:. 2314:: 2312:}} 2308:{{ 2285:. 2271:. 2267:. 2241:. 2216:: 2214:}} 2210:{{ 2184:: 2182:}} 2178:{{ 2152:: 2150:}} 2146:{{ 2120:: 2118:}} 2114:{{ 2088:: 2086:}} 2082:{{ 1882:. 1778:× 1740:× 1719:) 1651:) 1574:) 1542:/ 1536:R 1505:) 1430:s 1419:) 1405:SI 1181:. 951:cm 918:. 859:, 825:, 821:, 778:. 766:, 751:. 684:, 631:. 623:, 619:, 556:A 477:, 285:. 77:. 53:. 3698:: 3579:e 3572:t 3565:v 3173:e 3166:t 3159:v 3145:. 3064:. 3050:: 3023:. 2995:. 2965:: 2938:. 2875:. 2814:. 2793:. 2746:. 2715:. 2703:: 2695:: 2672:. 2660:: 2652:: 2629:. 2625:: 2617:: 2590:. 2570:: 2562:: 2527:. 2505:: 2478:. 2424:: 2356:. 2325:) 2321:( 2293:. 2279:: 2273:8 2252:. 2227:) 2223:( 2195:) 2191:( 2163:) 2159:( 2131:) 2127:( 2099:) 2095:( 1949:. 1784:T 1780:W 1775:R 1771:W 1746:T 1742:W 1737:R 1733:W 1717:E 1715:( 1698:R 1694:W 1669:R 1665:W 1649:H 1647:( 1617:× 1586:J 1572:D 1570:( 1559:× 1503:X 1501:( 1485:1 1463:× 1452:× 1417:A 1415:( 802:( 785:( 713:Z 709:Z 678:Z 670:Z 652:Z 640:Z 636:Z 601:Z 564:. 20:)

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