Railgun - Knowledge (XXG)

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reach several times the speed of sound faster than a missile; because of this, it can hit a target, such as a cruise missile, much faster and farther away from the ship. Projectiles are also typically much cheaper and smaller, allowing for many more to be carried (they have no guidance systems, and rely on the railgun to supply their kinetic energy, rather than providing it themselves). The speed, cost, and numerical advantages of railgun systems may allow them to replace several different systems in the current layered defense approach. A railgun projectile without the ability to change course can hit fast-moving missiles at a maximum range of 30 nmi (35 mi; 56 km). As is the case with the Phalanx CIWS, unguided railgun rounds will require multiple/many shots to bring down maneuvering supersonic anti-ship missiles, with the odds of hitting the missile improving dramatically the closer it gets. The Navy plans for railguns to be able to intercept

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compared with $ 5,000/kg on the conventional rocket. The McNab railgun could make approximately 2000 launches per year, for a total of maximum 500 tons launched per year. Because the launch track would be 1.6 km long, power will be supplied by a distributed network of 100 rotating machines (compulsator) spread along the track. Each machine would have a 3.3-ton carbon fibre rotor spinning at high speeds. A machine can recharge in a matter of hours using 10 MW power. This machine could be supplied by a dedicated generator. The total launch package would weigh almost 1.4 tons. Payload per launch in these conditions is over 400 kg. There would be a peak operating magnetic field of 5 T—half of this coming from the rails, and the other half from augmenting magnets. This halves the required current through the rails, which reduces the power fourfold.

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Subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee, Chief of Naval Research Admiral Matthew Klunder stated, "Barrel life has increased from tens of shots to over 400, with a program path to achieve 1000 shots." However, the Office of Naval Research (ONR) will not confirm that the 400 shots are full-power shots. Further, there is nothing published to indicate there are any high megajoule-class railguns with the capability of firing hundreds of full-power shots while staying within the strict operational parameters necessary to fire railgun shots accurately and safely. Railguns should be able to fire 6 rounds per minute with a rail life of about 3000 rounds, tolerating launch accelerations of tens of thousands of g's, extreme pressures and megaampere currents, but this is not feasible with current technology.

1169:. As part of the CCEMG program, UT-CEM designed and developed the Cannon-Caliber Electromagnetic Launcher, a rapid-fire railgun launcher, in 1995. Featuring a 30-mm roundbore, the launcher was capable of firing three, five-round salvos of 185-g launch packages at a muzzle velocity of 1850 m/s and a firing rate of 5 Hz. Rapid-fire operation was achieved by driving the launcher with multiple 83544 peak pulses provided by the CCEMG compulsator. The CCEMG railgun included several features: ceramic sidewalls, directional preloading, and liquid cooling. ARL was responsible for assessing the performance of the launcher, which was tested at the ARL Transonic Experimental Facility in 737:, (which achieve up to 10MJ at the muzzle), but with greater range. This decreases ammunition size and weight, allowing more ammunition to be carried and eliminating the hazards of carrying explosives or propellants in a tank or naval weapons platform. Also, by firing more aerodynamically streamlined projectiles at greater velocities, railguns may achieve greater range, less time to target, and at shorter ranges less wind drift, bypassing the physical limitations of conventional firearms: "the limits of gas expansion prohibit launching an unassisted projectile to velocities greater than about 1.5 km/s and ranges of more than 50 miles from a practical conventional gun system." 537:

to erode the rails rapidly. Under high-use conditions, current railguns would require frequent replacement of the rails, or to use a heat-resistant material that would be conductive enough to produce the same effect. At this time it is generally acknowledged that it will take major breakthroughs in materials science and related disciplines to produce high-powered railguns capable of firing more than a few shots from a single set of rails. The barrel must withstand these conditions for up to several rounds per minute for thousands of shots without failure or significant degradation. These parameters are well beyond the state of the art in materials science.

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axes, high electromagnetic fields (E > 5,000 V/m, B > 2 T), and surface temperatures of > 800 deg C. The package should be able to operate in the presence of any plasma that may form in the bore or at the muzzle exit and must also be radiation hardened owing to exo-atmospheric flight. Total power consumption must be less than 8 watts (threshold)/5 watts (objective) and the battery life must be at least 5 minutes (from initial launch) to enable operation during the entire engagement. In order to be affordable, the production cost per projectile must be as low as possible, with a goal of less than $ 1,000 per unit.

1075:(DDG-1000 series); they can generate 78 megawatts of power, more than is necessary to power a railgun. However, the Zumwalt has been canceled and no further units will be built. Engineers are working to derive technologies developed for the DDG-1000 series ships into a battery system so other warships can operate a railgun. As of 2014 most destroyers can spare only nine megawatts of additional electricity, while it would require 25 megawatts to propel a projectile to the desired maximum range (i.e., to launch 32MJ projectiles at a rate of 10 shots per minute). Even if ships, such as the 1184:

electromagnetic gun-launched projectiles using jump tests. In 2004, ARL researchers published papers examining the interaction of high temperature plasmas for the purpose of developing efficient railgun igniters. Early papers describe the plasma-propellant interaction group at ARL and their attempts to understand and distinguish between the chemical, thermal, and radiation effect of plasmas on conventional solid propellants. Using scanning electron microscopy and other diagnostic techniques, they evaluated in detail the influence of plasmas on specific propellant materials.

1122:, head of Naval Air Warfare and Weapons for the ONR, was ten shots per minute at 32 megajoules. A 32 megajoule railgun shot is equivalent to about 23,600,000 foot-pounds, so a single 32 MJ shot has the same muzzle energy as about 200,000 .22 rounds being fired simultaneously. In more conventional power units, a 32 MJ shot every 6 s is a net power of 5.3 MW (or 5300 kW). If the railgun is assumed to be 20% efficient at turning electrical energy into kinetic energy, the ship's electrical supplies will need to provide about 25 MW for as long as firing continues. 586:

that the recoil force acts on the breech closure just as in a chemical firearm. The rails also repel themselves via a sideways force caused by the rails being pushed by the magnetic field, just as the projectile is. The rails need to survive this without bending and must be very securely mounted. Currently published material suggests that major advances in material science must be made before rails can be developed that allow railguns to fire more than a few full-power shots before replacement of the rails is required.

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the quantities of potentially dangerous chemical propellants and explosives employed. Ground combat forces, however, may find that co-locating an additional electrical power supply on the battlefield for every gun system may not be as weight and space efficient, survivable, or convenient a source of immediate projectile-launching energy as conventional propellants, which are manufactured safely behind the lines and delivered to the weapon, pre-packaged, through a robust and dispersed logistics system.

1180:, one of five university and industry laboratories that ARL federated to procure technical support. It housed the two electromagnetic launchers, the Leander OAT and the AugOAT, as well as the Medium Caliber Launcher. The facility also provided a power system that included thirteen 1- MJ capacitor banks, an assortment of electromagnetic launcher devices and diagnostic apparatuses. The focus of the research activity was on designs, interactions and materials required for electromagnetic launchers. 1150:), BRL procured their own railguns for study such as their one-meter railgun and their four-meter rail gun. In 1984, BRL researchers devised a technique to analyze the residue left behind on the bore surface after a shot was fired in order to investigate the cause of the bore's progressive degradation. In 1991, they determined the properties required for developing an effective launch package as well as the design criteria necessary for a railgun to incorporate finned, long rod projectiles. 103:, and it remains to be seen whether they will be deployed as practical military weapons in the foreseeable future. Any trade-off analysis between electromagnetic (EM) propulsion systems and chemical propellants for weapons applications must also factor in its durability, availability and economics, as well as the novelty, bulkiness, high energy demand, and complexity of the pulsed power supplies that are needed for electromagnetic launcher systems. 1042: 302: 906: 701: 6657: 29: 400:. Topics of research included plasma dynamics, electromagnetic fields, telemetry, and current and heat transport. While military research into railgun technology in the United States ensued continuously in the following decades, the direction and focus that it took shifted dramatically with major changes in funding levels and the needs of different government agencies. In 1984, the formation of the 1107:

targets up to 100 miles away that previously needed a missile. The Navy may eventually enhance railgun technology to enable it to fire at a range of 200 nmi (230 mi; 370 km) and impact with 64 megajoules of energy. One shot would require 6 million amps of current, so it will take a long time to develop capacitors that can generate enough energy and strong enough gun materials.

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its velocity) at the point of impact. Because of the potentially higher velocity of a railgun-launched projectile, its force may be much greater than conventionally launched projectiles of the same mass. The absence of explosive propellants or warheads to store and handle, as well as the low cost of projectiles compared to conventional weaponry, are also advantageous.

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combat survivable, and lightweight units, then the total system volume and mass needed to accommodate such a power supply and its primary fuel can become less than the required total volume and mass for a mission equivalent quantity of conventional propellants and explosive ammunition. Arguably such technology has been matured with the introduction of the

112: 293:(EMALS) (albeit that railguns require much higher system powers, because roughly similar energies must be delivered in a few milliseconds, as opposed to a few seconds). Such a development would then convey a further military advantage in that the elimination of explosives from any military weapons platform will decrease its vulnerability to enemy fire. 533:

proportional to the square of the magnitude of the current and inversely proportional to the distance between the conductors. It also follows that, for railguns with projectile masses of a few kg and barrel lengths of a few m, very large currents will be required to accelerate projectiles to velocities of the order of 1000 m/s.

357:'s Flak Command to issue a specification, which demanded a muzzle velocity of 2,000 m/s (4,500 mph; 7,200 km/h; 6,600 ft/s) and a projectile containing 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) of explosive. The guns were to be mounted in batteries of six firing twelve rounds per minute, and it was to fit existing 5453:"XユーザーのAcquisition Technology & Logistics Agencyさん: 「#ATLA has accomplished ship-board firing test of railgun first time in the world with the cooperation of the JMSDF. To protect vessels against air-threats and surface-threats by high-speed bullets, ATLA strongly promotes early deployment of railgun technology.」" 950:

as well as provide a greater range. In addition, railgun systems have shown to potentially provide higher velocity of projectiles, which would increase accuracy for anti-tank, artillery, and air defense by decreasing the time it takes for the projectile to reach its target destination. During the early 1990s, the

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On 22 June 2015, General Atomics' Electromagnetic Systems announced that projectiles with on-board electronics survived the whole railgun launch environment and performed their intended functions in four consecutive tests on 9 and 10 June at the U.S. Army's Dugway Proving Ground in Utah. The on-board

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In 2003, Ian McNab outlined a plan to turn this idea into a realized technology. Because of strong acceleration, this system would launch only sturdy materials, such as food, water, and—most importantly—fuel. Under ideal circumstances (equator, mountain, heading east) the system would cost $ 528/kg,

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metal rails (hence the name). At one end, these rails are connected to an electrical power supply, to form the breech end of the gun. Then, if a conductive projectile is inserted between the rails (e.g. by insertion into the breech), it completes the circuit. Electrons flow from the negative terminal

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or 'hybrid' armatures can also be used. A plasma armature is formed by an arc of ionised gas that is used to push a solid, non-conducting payload in a similar manner to the propellant gas pressure in a conventional gun. A hybrid armature uses a pair of plasma contacts to interface a metallic armature

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in which the driving current is channeled through additional pairs of parallel conductors, arranged to increase ('augment') the magnetic field experienced by the moving armature. These arrangements reduce the current required for a given acceleration. In electric motor terminology, augmented railguns

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was necessary for deployment of railguns, and such cooperation would require technological know-how on the Japanese side. Therefore, full-scale development began in that year. From FY2016 to FY2022, research on electromagnetic acceleration systems was conducted and the target was set to increase the

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Though the 23 lb projectiles have no explosives, their Mach 7 velocity gives them 32 megajoules of energy, but impact kinetic energy downrange will typically be 50 percent or less of the muzzle energy. The Navy looked into other uses for railguns, besides land bombardment, such as air defense;

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demonstrated an 8 MJ railgun firing 3.2 kg (7.1 lb) projectiles in October 2006 as a prototype of a 64 MJ weapon to be deployed aboard Navy warships. The main problem the U.S. Navy has had with implementing a railgun cannon system is that the guns wear out because of the immense pressures,

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The United States military have expressed interest in pursuing research in electric gun technology throughout the late 20th century, since electromagnetic guns do not require propellants to fire a shot as conventional gun systems do, significantly increasing crew safety and reducing logistics costs,

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efforts to develop plasma-based projectiles. The first computer simulations occurred in 1990, and its first published experiment appeared on 1 August 1993. As of 1993 the project appeared to be in the early experimental stages. The weapon was able to produce doughnut-shaped rings of plasma and balls

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Assuming that the many technical challenges facing fieldable railguns are overcome, including issues like railgun projectile guidance, rail endurance, and combat survivability and reliability of the electrical power supply, the increased launch velocities of railguns may provide advantages over more

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materials; the rails need to survive the violence of an accelerating projectile, and heating because of the large currents and friction involved. Some erroneous work has suggested that the recoil force in railguns can be redirected or eliminated; careful theoretical and experimental analysis reveals

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research projects, projectiles are 'pre-injected' into railguns, to avoid the need for a standing start, and both two-stage light-gas guns and conventional powder guns have been used for this role. In principle, if railgun power supply technology can be developed to provide safe, compact, reliable,

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A future capability critical to fielding a real railgun weapon is developing a robust guidance package that will allow the railgun to fire at distant targets or to hit incoming missiles. Developing such a package is a significant challenge. The U.S. Navy's RFP Navy SBIR 2012.1 – Topic N121-102 for

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The most promising near-term application for weapons-rated railguns and electromagnetic guns, in general, is probably aboard naval ships with sufficient spare electrical generating capacity and battery storage space. In exchange, ship survivability may be enhanced through a comparable reduction in

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Another test took place in February 2012, at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division. While similar in energy to the aforementioned test, the railgun used was considerably more compact, with a more conventional looking barrel. A General Atomics-built prototype was delivered for testing

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are multi-turn railguns that reduce rail and brush current by a factor equal to the number of turns. Two rails are surrounded by a helical barrel and the projectile or re-usable carrier is also helical. The projectile is energized continuously by two brushes sliding along the rails, and two or more

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A very large power supply, providing on the order of one million amperes of current, will create a tremendous force on the projectile, accelerating it to a speed of many kilometers per second (km/s). Although these speeds are possible, the heat generated from the propulsion of the object is enough

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of more than ≈2 km/s (Mach 5.9), railguns can readily exceed 3 km/s (Mach 8.8). For a similar projectile, the range of railguns may exceed that of conventional guns. The destructive force of a projectile depends upon its kinetic energy (proportional to its mass and the square of

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The package must fit within the mass (< 2 kg), diameter (< 40 mm outer diameter), and volume (200 cm) constraints of the projectile and do so without altering the center of gravity. It should also be able to survive accelerations of at least 20,000 g (threshold) / 40,000 g (objective) in all

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Current railgun technologies necessitate a long and heavy barrel, but a railgun's ballistics far outperform conventional cannons of equal barrel lengths. Railguns can also deliver area of effect damage by detonating a bursting charge in the projectile which unleashes a swarm of smaller projectiles

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In 1923, Russian scientist A. L. Korol'kov detailed his criticisms of Fauchon-Villeplee's design, arguing against some of the claims that Fauchon-Villeplee made about the advantages of his invention. Korol'kov eventually concluded that while the construction of a long-range electric gun was within

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For potential military applications, railguns are usually of interest because they can achieve much greater muzzle velocities than guns powered by conventional chemical propellants. Increased muzzle velocities with better aerodynamically streamlined projectiles can convey the benefits of increased

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To date, public railgun demonstrations have not shown an ability to fire multiple full power shots from the same set of rails. However, the United States Navy has claimed hundreds of shots from the same set of rails. In a March 2014 statement to the Intelligence, Emerging Threats and Capabilities

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anti-ship missile can appear over the horizon 20 miles from a warship, leaving a very short reaction time for a ship to intercept it. Even if conventional defense systems react fast enough, they are expensive and only a limited number of large interceptors can be carried. A railgun projectile can

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which accelerates the projectile along the rails, always out of the loop (regardless of supply polarity) and away from the power supply, toward the muzzle end of the rails. There are also Lorentz forces acting on the rails and attempting to push them apart, but since the rails are mounted firmly,

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In 1999, a collaboration between ARL and IAT led to the development of a radiometric method of measuring the temperature distribution of railgun armatures during a pulsed electrical discharge without disturbing the magnetic field. In 2001, ARL became the first to obtain a set of accuracy data on

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reported that the US navy's proposed 2022 fiscal year budget had no funding for railgun research and development. Technical challenges could not be overcome, such as the massive forces of firing wearing out the barrel after only one or two dozen shots, and a rate of fire too low to be useful for

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The railgun would be part of a Navy fleet that envisions future offensive and defensive capabilities being provided in layers: lasers to provide close range defense, railguns to provide medium range attack and defense, and cruise missiles to provide long-range attack; though railguns will cover

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ballistic missiles, stealthy air threats, supersonic missiles, and swarming surface threats; a prototype system for supporting interception tasks is to be ready by 2018, and operational by 2025. This timeframe suggests the weapons are planned to be installed on the Navy's next-generation surface

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to the gun rails. Solid armatures may also 'transition' into hybrid armatures, typically after a particular velocity threshold is exceeded. The high current required to power a railgun can be provided by various power supply technologies, such as capacitors, pulse generators and disc generators.

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and improve the rail's durability on a single-shot-type 40mm caliber railgun. Test results published later showed that the railgun had a stable initial velocity of over 2000 m/s during 120 rounds of repeated fire, which was the target velocity. The railgun also had presented no significant

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In 2014, the U.S. Navy had plans to integrate a railgun that has a range of over 160 km (100 mi) onto a ship by 2016. This weapon, while having a form factor more typical of a naval gun, was to utilize components largely in common with those developed and demonstrated at Dahlgren. The

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carried out a successful test of a 12 mm square bore electromagnetic railgun. Tests of a 30 mm version are planned to be conducted. India aims to fire a one kilogram projectile at a velocity of more than 2,000 m/s using a capacitor bank of 10 megajoules. Electromagnetic guns and

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bank using solid-state switches and high-energy-density capacitors delivered in 2007 and an older 32-MJ pulse power system from the US Army's Green Farm Electric Gun Research and Development Facility developed in the late 1980s that was previously refurbished by General Atomics Electromagnetic

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A future goal was to develop projectiles that were self-guided – a necessary requirement to hit distant targets or intercept missiles. When the guided rounds are developed, the Navy is projecting each round to cost about $ 25,000, though developing guided projectiles for guns has a history of

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The power supply must be able to deliver large currents, sustained and controlled over a useful amount of time. The most important gauge of power supply effectiveness is the energy it can deliver. As of December 2010, the greatest known energy used to propel a projectile from a railgun was 33

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By definition, if a current of one ampere flows in a pair of ideal infinitely long parallel conductors that are separated by a distance of one meter, then the magnitude of the force on each meter of those conductors will be exactly 0.2 micro-newtons. Furthermore, in general, the force will be

994:, that will deliver 3,000 MJ of energy to a target, such weapons would, in theory, allow the Navy to deliver more granular firepower at a fraction of the cost of a missile, and will be much harder to shoot down versus future defensive systems. For context, another relevant comparison is the 456:

developed a railgun with a 240 kJ, low inductance capacitor bank operating at 5 kV power able to launch projectiles of 3–3.5 g weight to a velocity of more than 2,000 m/s (4,500 mph; 7,200 km/h; 6,600 ft/s). In 1995, the Center for Electromagnetics at the

1085:, can be upgraded with enough electrical power to operate a railgun, the space taken up on the ships by the integration of an additional weapon system may force the removal of existing weapon systems to make room available. The first shipboard tests was to be from a railgun installed on an 932:

China is now one of the major players in electromagnetic launchers; in 2012 it hosted the 16th International Symposium on Electromagnetic Launch Technology (EML 2012) at Beijing. Satellite imagery in late 2010 suggested that tests were being conducted at an armor and artillery range near

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mounts. It was never built. When details were discovered after the war it aroused much interest and a more detailed study was done, culminating with a 1947 report which concluded that it was theoretically feasible, but that each gun would need enough power to illuminate half of Chicago.

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with kinetic energies of nine megajoules (9 MJ) have been developed. Nine megajoules is enough energy to deliver 2 kg (4.4 lb) of projectile at 3 km/s (1.9 mi/s)—at that velocity, a sufficiently long rod of tungsten or another dense metal could easily penetrate a

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report from U.S. intelligence, China's railgun system was first revealed in 2011, and ground testing began in 2014. Between 2015 and 2017, the weapon system gained the ability to strike over extended ranges with increased lethality. The weapon system was successfully mounted on a

657:(spiral) track, or a large ring design whereby a space vehicle would circle the ring numerous times, gradually gaining speed, before being released into a launch corridor leading skyward. Nevertheless, if technically feasible and cost effective to build, imparting hyper-velocity 119:

The railgun in its simplest form differs from a traditional electric motor in that no use is made of additional field windings (or permanent magnets). This basic configuration is formed by a single loop of current and thus requires high currents (on the order of one million

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that armed World War II American battleships has a muzzle speed of 760 m/s (2,490 ft/s), which because of its much greater projectile mass (up to 2,700 pounds) generated a muzzle energy of 360 MJ and a downrange kinetic impact of energy of over 160 MJ (see also

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which, like a projectile railgun, uses two long parallel electrodes to accelerate a "sliding short" armature. However, in a plasma railgun, the armature and ejected projectile consists of plasma, or hot, ionized, gas-like particles, instead of a solid slug of material.

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A test of a railgun took place on 10 December 2010, by the U.S. Navy at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division. During the test, the Office of Naval Research set a world record by conducting a 33 MJ shot from the railgun, which was built by BAE Systems.

665:. In addition, the projectile might still require some form of on-board guidance and control to realize a useful orbital insertion angle that may not be achievable based simply on the launcher's upward elevation angle relative to the surface of the earth, (see 1372:

electronics successfully measured in-bore accelerations and projectile dynamics, for several kilometers downrange, with the integral data link continuing to operate after the projectiles impacted the desert floor, which is essential for precision guidance.

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The armature may be an integral part of the projectile, but it may also be configured to accelerate a separate, electrically isolated or non-conducting projectile. Solid, metallic sliding conductors are often the preferred form of railgun armature but

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In the Preliminary Project Evaluation for fiscal year 2021, published by the MoD in September 2, 2022, it was announced that it will conduct research on railguns from FY2022 to FY2026. The research is aimed at "future railguns capable of firing

4073:"Statement of Read Admiral Matthew L. Klunder, United States Navy Chief of Naval Research Before the Intelligence, Emerging Threats and Capabilities Subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee on the Fiscal Year 2015 Budget Request" 325:, commissioned Fauchon-Villeplee to develop a 30-mm to 50-mm electric cannon on 25 July 1918, after delegates from the Commission des Inventions witnessed test trials of the working model in 1917. However, the project was abandoned once 329:

ended later that year on 11 November 1918. Fauchon-Villeplee filed for a US patent on 1 April 1919, which was issued in July 1922 as patent no. 1,421,435 "Electric Apparatus for Propelling Projectiles". In his device, two parallel

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to establish the Institute for Advanced Technology (IAT), which focused on research involving solid and hybrid armatures, rail-armature interactions, and electromagnetic launcher materials. The facility became the Army's first

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doubling or tripling initial cost estimates. Some high velocity projectiles developed by the Navy have command guidance, but the accuracy of the command guidance is not known, nor even if it can survive a full power shot.

602:. As briefly discussed above, the stresses involved in firing this sort of device require an extremely heat-resistant material. Otherwise the rails, barrel, and all equipment attached would melt or be irreparably damaged. 841:

additional brushes on the projectile serve to energize and commute several windings of the helical barrel direction in front of and/or behind the projectile. The helical railgun is a cross between a railgun and a

408:. As a result, the U.S. military focused on developing small guided projectiles that could withstand the high-G launch from ultra-high velocity plasma armature railguns. But after the publication of an important 1134:

missile defense. Priorities had also changed since railgun development started, with the Navy putting more focus on longer range hypersonic missiles compared to comparatively shorter range railgun projectiles.

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The inductance and resistance of the rails and power supply limit the efficiency of a railgun design. Currently different rail shapes and railgun configurations are being tested, most notably by the U.S. Navy

3387: 170:, so a typical railgun power supply might be designed to deliver a launch current of 5 MA for a few milliseconds. As the magnetic field strengths required for such launches will typically be approximately 10 353:, Joachim Hänsler of Germany's Ordnance Office proposed the first theoretically viable railgun. By late 1944, the theory behind his electric anti-aircraft gun had been worked out sufficiently to allow the 280:; however, the latter are generally only considered to be suitable for laboratory use, while railguns are judged to offer some potential prospects for development as military weapons. A light gas gun, the 691:

involved with direct railgun ground-launch to space may restrict the usage to only the sturdiest of payloads. Alternatively, very long rail systems may be used to reduce the required launch acceleration.

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For space launches from Earth, relatively short acceleration distances (less than a few km) would require very strong acceleration forces, higher than humans can tolerate. Other designs include a longer

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On 31 January 2008, the U.S. Navy tested a railgun that fired a projectile at 10.64 MJ with a muzzle velocity of 2,520 m/s (8,270 ft/s). The power was provided by a new 9-megajoule prototype

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of lightning that exploded with devastating effects when hitting their target. The project's initial success led to it becoming classified, and only a few references to MARAUDER appeared after 1993.

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Price, J.H.; Yun, H.D.; Kajs, J.P.; Kitzmiller, J.R.; Pratap, S.B.; Werst, M.D. (January 1995). "Discarding armature and barrel optimization for a cannon caliber electromagnetic launcher system".

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damage on the rail near the starting position of the projectile, whereas previous studies have shown significant erosion, confirming the reduction in rail damage. The test utilized a single 20-ft

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Railguns are being researched as weapons with projectiles that do not contain explosives or propellants, but are given extremely high velocities: 2,500 m/s (8,200 ft/s) (approximately

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Powell, John; Walbert, David; Zielinski, Alexander (February 1993). Two-Dimensional Model for Current and Heat Transport in Solid-Armature Railguns (Report). The U.S. Army Research Laboratory.

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inch (3.2 mm) thick steel plate. The company hopes to have an integrated demo of the system by 2016 followed by production by 2019, pending funding. Thus far, the project is self-funded.

917:. Rail and insulator wear problems still need to be solved before railguns can start to replace conventional weapons. Probably the oldest consistently successful system was built by the UK's 182:

such as iron to enhance the magnetic flux. However, if the barrel is made of a magnetically permeable material, the magnetic field strength increases because of the increase in permeability (

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for "I, speed, eradicate"—or in the vernacular, "Speed Kills". An earlier railgun of the same design (32-megajoules) resides at the Dundrennan Weapons Testing Centre in the United Kingdom.

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is accelerated by the electromagnetic effects of a current that flows down one rail, into the armature and then back along the other rail. It is based on principles similar to those of the

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stresses and heat that are generated by the millions of amperes of current necessary to fire projectiles with megajoules of energy. While not nearly as powerful as a cruise missile like a

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develops, which causes rapid vaporization and extensive damage to the rail surfaces and the insulator surfaces. This limited some early research railguns to one shot per service interval.

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The rails need to withstand enormous repulsive forces during shooting, and these forces will tend to push them apart and away from the projectile. As rail/projectile clearances increase,

3445: 4317: 154:. Therefore, typical military railgun designs aim for muzzle velocities in the range of 2,000–3,500 m/s (4,500–7,800 mph; 7,200–12,600 km/h) with muzzle energies of 5–50 3348: 5061: 5029: 4475: 1213:. Media suggests that the system is or soon will be ready for testing. In March 2018, it was reported that China confirmed it had begun testing its electromagnetic rail gun at sea. 4072: 1869: 1298:". Specifically, research on mechanism for continuous fires, flight stability outside the barrel, fire control and damage of the railgun had been mentioned as points of interests. 5491: 150:

firing ranges while, in terms of target effects, increased terminal velocities can allow the use of kinetic energy rounds incorporating hit-to-kill guidance, as replacements for

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In October 2013, General Atomics unveiled a land based version of the Blitzer railgun. A company official claimed the gun could be ready for production in "two to three years".

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Hammon, H. G.; Dempsey, J.; Strachan, D.; Raos, R.; Haugh, D.; Whitby, F. P.; Holland, M. M.; Eggers, P. (1 January 1993). "The Kirkcudbright Electromagnetic Launch Facility".

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weighing 5 metric tons, traveling at 509 km/h (316 mph; 141 m/s). For single loop railguns, these mission requirements require launch currents of a few million

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of the projectile leaving the device. This causes three main problems: melting of equipment, decreased safety of personnel, and detection by enemy forces owing to increased

5424:

Defense Programs and Budget of Japan Overview of FY2022 Budget ~Defense-Strengthening Acceleration Package~ Overview of FY2022 Budget (Including FY2021 Supplementary Budget)

3223: 1146:

throughout the 1980s. In addition to analyzing the performance and electrodynamic and thermodynamic properties of railguns at other institutions (like Maxwell Laboratories'

4223: 856:). It was about 3 meters long, consisting of 2 meters of accelerating coil and 1 meter of decelerating coil. It was able to launch a glider or projectile about 500 meters. 3551: 1469: 1246:

started its survey on railgun-related technology domestically and internationally by 2015, while conducting basic research using a small caliber railgun with a 16mm bore.

271: 4389: 3638: 434: 309:

The concept of the railgun was first introduced by French inventor André Louis Octave Fauchon-Villeplée, who created a small working model in 1917 with the help of the

6352: 3477: 3781: 3071: 1118:

reported that the Navy wished to push the Office of Naval Research's prototype railgun from a science experiment into useful weapon territory. The goal, according to

617:

Railguns have a number of potential practical applications, primarily for the military. However, there are other theoretical applications currently being researched.

5644: 3495: 3383: 1176:

The U.S. Army Research Laboratory also monitored electromagnetic and electrothermal gun technology development at the Institute for Advanced Technology (IAT) at the

6695: 2721: 2511: 1282:

in mind, and an integrated projectile (一体弾), which was simplifed from the separated projectile to reduce cost.The gun is about 6 meters long and has the mass of 8

453: 4340: 3287: 4420: 986: 33: 4157: 1752: 516:, the magnetic field circulates around each conductor. Since the current is in the opposite direction along each rail, the net magnetic field between the rails ( 1222: 1302: 4913:

Schroeder, M.A.; Beyer, R.A.; Pesce-Rodriguez, R.A. (2004). "Scanning electron microscope examination of JA2 propellant samples exposed to plasma radiation".

4188: 1086: 4443: 745:

conventional guns for a variety of offensive and defensive scenarios. Railguns have limited potential to be used against both surface and airborne targets.

5952: 5696: 5139: 1158: 889: 458: 5391: 4044: 605:

In practice, the rails used with most railgun designs are subject to erosion from each launch. Additionally, projectiles can be subject to some degree of

480:

MJ of kinetic energy. It was the first time in history that such levels of performance were reached. They gave the project the motto "Velocitas Eradico",

5668: 5087: 3762: 3611: 1985: 1960: 733:). By firing smaller projectiles at extremely high velocities, railguns may yield kinetic energy impacts equal or superior to the destructive energy of 3409: 1204:

In early February 2018, pictures of what is claimed to be a Chinese railgun were published online. In the pictures the gun is mounted on the bow of a

4264: 3170: 2406: 401: 4011: 3565: 1166: 5322: 4997: 1153:

Research into railguns continued after the Ballistic Research Laboratory was consolidated with six other independent Army laboratories to form the

5216: 3858: 1099:

with the right targeting systems, projectiles could intercept aircraft, cruise missiles, and even ballistic missiles. The Navy is also developing

5289: 4248: 2000: 5109: 4363: 2380: 6819: 4290: 3435: 1154: 487:

Low power, small scale railguns have also made popular college and amateur projects. Several amateurs actively carry out research on railguns.

462: 389: 290: 5244: 4142: 2682: 520:) is directed at right angles to the plane formed by the central axes of the rails and the armature. In combination to all with the current ( 4930: 4889: 4313: 4119: 3725: 3264: 1601: 5051: 5021: 4472: 6345: 5623: 5460: 3518: 2905: 1873: 913:

Full-scale models have been built and fired, including a 90 mm (3.5 in) bore, 9 megajoule kinetic energy gun developed by the US

5521: 4083: 637:

Electrodynamic assistance to launch rockets has been studied. Space applications of this technology would likely involve specially formed

512:, creating a magnetic field inside the loop formed by the length of the rails up to the position of the armature. In accordance with the 338:. By passing current through busbars and projectile, a force is induced which propels the projectile along the bus-bars and into flight. 6996: 6908: 6688: 5483: 3703: 661:

to a projectile launching at sea level, where the atmosphere is the most dense, may result in much of the launch velocity being lost to

5179: 3981: 5427: 2959: 1397: 405: 381:. This machine was operational from 1962 and was later used to power a large-scale railgun that was used as a scientific experiment. 5514:"Commander in Chief of the Self Defense Fleet inspected Shimokita Test Center, Acquisition, Technology & Logistics Agency (ATLA)" 3586: 3362: 3147: 760:. During one of the tests, the projectile was able to travel an additional 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) downrange after penetrating a 4286: 3907: 3302: 3124: 2019: 1899: 1316: 69: 4607: 4574: 4506: 3958: 3890: 3806: 3326: 2440: 2344: 2211: 2178: 2145: 2112: 3927: 3231: 752:

Blitzer system, began full system testing in September 2010. The weapon launches a streamlined discarding sabot round designed by

6132: 4213: 3541: 938: 476:

velocities of approximately 3,390 m/s (7,600 mph; 12,200 km/h; 11,100 ft/s), or about Mach 10, with 18.4

3196: 3086: 1617:

Fiske, D.; Ciesar, J.A.; Wehrli, H.A.; Riemersma, H.; et al. (January 1991). "The HART 1 Augmented Electric Gun Facility".

1459: 472:

tested a BAE Systems-designed compact-sized railgun for ship emplacement that accelerated a 3.2 kg (7 pound) projectile to

6661: 6338: 5689: 4385: 3626: 1275:(total length about 160 mm, mass about 320 g): a separated projectile (分離弾), which would be similar to actual use and has 392:) began a long-term program of theoretical and experimental research on railguns. The work was conducted predominantly at the 7006: 6681: 6081: 2991: 2853: 2828: 2737: 2055: 2011: 1619: 1205: 397: 374: 318: 4915:

Scanning electron microscope examination of JA2 propellant samples exposed to plasma radiation - IEEE Conference Publication

4820: 4755: 3467: 1931: 3778: 3061: 2633: 1065:

In 2014, the only U.S. Navy ships that could produce enough electrical power to get the desired performance were the three

6969: 6935: 5866: 5640: 4243: 3491: 3307: 2711: 1774: 1521:

Rashleigh, C. S. & Marshall, R. A. (April 1978). "Electromagnetic Acceleration of Macroparticles to High Velocities".

1177: 1143: 1076: 955: 725: 570: 429: 385: 2603: 2575: 2501: 2077:

Powell, John; Batteh, Jad (14 August 1998). "Plasma dynamics of an arc-driven, electromagnetic, projectile accelerator".

1008:(muzzle energy) to the U.S. Navy. The same amount of energy is released by the detonation of 4.8 kg (11 lb) of 734: 6396: 6214: 5600: 3737: 3279: 2913:. Proceedings of the 43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit (10–13 January 2005). Reno, Nevada. Archived from 1092: 124:) to produce sufficient accelerations (and muzzle velocities). A relatively common variant of this configuration is the 4412: 1499: 594:

In current designs massive amounts of heat are created by the electricity flowing through the rails, as well as by the

505:

of the power supply up the negative rail, across the projectile, and down the positive rail, back to the power supply.

6224: 5937: 5910: 5569: 5174: 4165: 3034: 1742: 1243: 343: 36:

in January 2008. The fireball is a result of pieces of the projectile shearing off during launch and igniting mid-air.

5282:[MoD budgetary request shows Japan to develop domestic railgun to neutralize Chinese and Russian missiles.]. 3985: 3798:

Eaton, Alvin; Thiele, Gary; Grum, Allen; Gourdine, Meredith; Weinberger, Peter; Hubbard, William (10 December 1990).

3227: 1791:

Damse, R.S.; Singh, Amarjit (2003). "Advanced Concepts of the Propulsion System for the Futuristic Gun Ammunition".

6991: 6940: 6876: 6234: 6229: 5682: 2258:

Fair, Harry (January 2005). "Electromagnetic Launch Science and Technology in the United States Enters a New Era".

1523: 1279: 1161:, which took place at the Center for Electromechanics at the University of Texas (UT-CEM) and was sponsored by the 756:

Phantom Works at 1,600 m/s (5,200 ft/s) (approximately Mach 5) with accelerations exceeding 60,000 g

417: 221: 3831: 2882: 6923: 6883: 6309: 5927: 5905: 2859: 566: 4667:

Zielinski, A.E. (January 1991). "Design limitations for small caliber electromagnetic saboted rod projectiles".

3344: 342:

the realm of possibility, the practical application of Fauchon-Villeplee's railgun was hindered by its enormous

6424: 6178: 6032: 5380: 5191: 4632:

Zielinski, A.E.; Garner, J.M. (January 1991). "Mass stabilized projectile designs for electromagnetic launch".

4016: 3800:

Final Report of the Army Science Board (ASB) Panel on Electromagnetic/Electrothermal Gun Technology Development

893: 281: 20: 6279: 5083: 1125:

As of 2020, the Navy had spent $ 500m on rail gun development over 17 years. The Navy was focusing on firing

3720:

LIST OF PAPERS, 16th International Symposium on Electromagnetic Launch Technology (EML 2012) Beijing, China,

2937: 2301:

Parker, J.V.; Berry, D.T.; Snowden, P.T. (January 1997). "The IAT Electromagnetic Launch Research Facility".

91:) rather than using conventional propellants. While explosive-powered military guns cannot readily achieve a 6888: 6861: 6599: 6484: 6219: 5770: 5669:

Watch the Navy's Railgun Fire From Every Angle The railgun takes the first shot of its commissioning series.

1170: 1100: 1066: 918: 798: 393: 179: 79:

As of 2020, railguns have been researched as weapons utilizing electromagnetic forces to impart a very high

5110:"China Says it is Testing World's First Railgun at Sea, Confirming Leaked Photos of Electromagnetic Weapon" 2790:

Cavalleri, G.; Tonni, E. & Spavieri, G. (May 2001). "Reply to "Electrodynamic force law controversy"".

2402: 64:

projectiles. The projectile normally does not contain explosives, instead relying on the projectile's high

6898: 6893: 6866: 6742: 6625: 6615: 6543: 6361: 6042: 5947: 5876: 4954:

Fair, H.D. (2005). "Electromagnetic launch science and technology in the United States enters a new era".

4261: 3008: 1392: 1227: 998: 876: 642: 425: 4842:

Zielinski, Alexander (February 2001). Accuracy and Railguns (Report). The U.S. Army Research Laboratory.

2735:

Weldon, Wm. F.; Driga, M. D. & Woodson, H. H. (November 1986). "Recoil in electromagnetic railguns".

284:

in a 155 mm prototype form was projected to achieve 2500 m/s with a 70 caliber barrel. In some

6824: 6704: 6648: 6173: 6037: 5775: 5755: 5735: 5311: 2506: 409: 3850: 3660:

Dengan, J. H.; et al. (1 August 1993). "Compact toroid formation, compression, and acceleration".

2834: 2683:"It looks like China will beat the US Navy in the railgun race — here's why it may not actually matter" 1357:

developing such a package gives a good overview of just how challenging railgun projectile guidance is:

5279: 4238: 2033: 1768:"Combustion Light Gas Gun Technology Demonstration: Final Report For Contract Number N00014-02-C-0419" 6871: 6834: 6814: 6757: 6168: 6061: 5810: 5785: 5205: 4963: 4786: 4777:

Parker, J.V.; Berry, D.T.; Snowden, P.T. (1997). "The IAT electromagnetic launch research facility".

4711: 4676: 4641: 4540: 4282: 3669: 3171:"General Atomics' Railgun Travels 4 Miles, Even After Blasting Through a Steel Plate [Video]" 3000: 2801: 2746: 2542: 2474: 2372: 2310: 2267: 1842: 1706: 1671: 1628: 1532: 1309:

account that that they had "accomplished ship-board firing test of railgun first time in the world" (

638: 513: 5543: 3013: 1054:

hyper-velocity rounds weigh 10 kg (23 lb), are 18 in (460 mm), and are fired at

6928: 6903: 6732: 6719: 6419: 6274: 5977: 5972: 5717: 5252: 4134: 1766:

Kruczynski, D.; Massey, D.; Milligan, R.; Vigil, E.; Landers, B.; Meneguzzi, M. (23 January 2007).

1412: 646: 501: 378: 4109: 3254: 254: 6945: 6784: 6774: 6643: 6620: 6299: 6193: 6148: 6086: 6056: 6010: 5833: 5820: 5544:"Everything You Need To Know About Railguns In 2023: The Weapon Powered By Electromagnetic Force" 4979: 4936: 4895: 4851: 3885: 2283: 2237: 1808: 1320: 1295: 1119: 1115: 951: 869: 599: 469: 413: 322: 130: 68:

to inflict damage. The railgun uses a pair of parallel conductors (rails), along which a sliding

5621: 5452: 3510: 2914: 396:, and much of the early research drew inspiration from the railgun experiments performed by the 5513: 1440:

which involved utilising projectiles accelerated to high velocities via electrostatic repulsion

437:

and housed a few of the Army's electromagnetic launchers, such as the Medium Caliber Launcher.

7001: 6727: 6259: 6209: 6163: 6091: 5883: 5871: 5861: 4926: 4885: 4872:

Beyer, R.A.; Pesce-Rodriguez, R.A. (2004). "The response of propellants to plasma radiation".

3756: 3721: 3685: 3605: 3026: 2904:

Uranga, Alejandra; Kirk, Daniel R.; Gutierrez, Hector; Meinke, Rainer B.; et al. (2005).

2792: 2772: 2059: 2025: 2015: 1979: 1905: 1895: 1644: 1597: 1342:

Major technological and operational hurdles must be overcome before railguns can be deployed:

1162: 781: 457:

University of Texas at Austin designed and developed a rapid-fire railgun launcher called the

440:

Since 1993 the British and American governments have collaborated on a railgun project at the

404:

caused research goals to shift toward establishing a constellation of satellites to intercept

3707: 852:

in 1980 and was powered by several banks of, for the time, large capacitors (approximately 4

6913: 6829: 6594: 6314: 6304: 6249: 6244: 6188: 6158: 6106: 6002: 5992: 5982: 5932: 5795: 5765: 5705: 5169: 5140:"China's Railgun Confirmed: Military 'Award' Reveals Electromagnetic Supergun Tested at Sea" 5002: 4971: 4918: 4877: 4843: 4794: 4749:

An Investigation of the Ballistic Performance for an Electromagnetic Gun-Launched Projectile

4727: 4719: 4684: 4649: 4548: 4114: 3989: 3677: 3440: 3094: 3018: 2809: 2762: 2754: 2716: 2550: 2482: 2318: 2275: 2086: 1850: 1800: 1722: 1714: 1679: 1636: 1540: 1291: 991: 662: 441: 142: 134: 5416: 5350: 4332: 3200: 2953: 6789: 6548: 6289: 6239: 6101: 5922: 5900: 5888: 5856: 5760: 5627: 4998:"China's aims to arm warships with railguns that may not matter in war - Business Insider" 4479: 4268: 4218: 3911: 3785: 3579: 3472: 3384:"India Successfully Tests Futuristic Electromagnetic Railguns Capable of Firing at Mach 6" 3120: 2963: 2941: 1464: 1387: 1382: 1260: 1129:

projectiles from existing conventional guns already available in numbers. On 1 June 2021,

1009: 837: 832: 790: 749: 666: 658: 358: 314: 151: 137:

with the field perpendicular to the current flow to increase the force on the projectile.

92: 73: 6264: 5597:"Survivable Electronics for Control of Hypersonic Projectiles under Extreme Acceleration" 3903: 3347:. ieee.org (IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News). 24 November 2014. 4967: 4790: 4715: 4680: 4645: 4600: 4567: 4544: 4499: 3950: 3880: 3799: 3673: 3566:"Japan Signs Railgun Cooperation Pact with France, Germany | Aviation Week Network" 3004: 2805: 2750: 2546: 2478: 2465:

Zielinski, A.E.; Werst, M.D. (January 1997). "Cannon-caliber electromagnetic launcher".

2432: 2337: 2314: 2271: 2204: 2171: 2138: 2105: 1846: 1710: 1675: 1632: 1536: 1157:

in 1992. One of the major projects in railgun research that ARL was involved in was the

301: 6918: 6469: 6438: 6284: 6183: 6153: 6015: 5967: 5915: 5843: 5780: 5723: 5284: 3923: 3066: 1402: 1249:

By 2016, the government of Japan had concluded that technological cooperation with the

962: 865: 335: 80: 65: 905: 700: 178:), most contemporary railgun designs are effectively air-cored, i.e., they do not use 6985: 6950: 6769: 6294: 5962: 4855: 3103: 2629: 2241: 1747: 1565: 1250: 922: 892:

project concerning the development of a coaxial plasma railgun. It is one of several

873: 777: 525: 509: 366: 285: 277: 57: 4983: 4940: 4899: 4599:

Jamison, Keith; Burden, Henry; Marquez-Reines, Miguel; Niiler, Andrus (March 1984).

4531:

Powell, John (January 1989). "Plasma analysis of a large-bore, arc-driven railgun".

2287: 1812: 1103:

for air defense use, but it will be years or decades before they will be effective.

424:

were assigned to develop anti-armor, electromagnetic launch technologies for mobile

346:

and its need for a special electric generator of considerable capacity to power it.

334:

are connected by the wings of a projectile, and the whole apparatus surrounded by a

276:

Railgun velocities generally fall within the range of those achievable by two-stage

6854: 6762: 6474: 6319: 6254: 5942: 4484: 4193: 4049: 3546: 3259: 1437: 1423: 1208: 1198: 1055: 785: 730: 350: 171: 53: 28: 5390:(in Japanese). Japanese Ministry of Defense, Japanese Self Defense Force 防衛省・自衛隊. 4814:

Thermophysical Behavior of Armature Materials During a Pulsed Electrical Discharge

2863: 2838: 2052:

The Acceleration of Macroparticles and a Hypervelocity Electromagnetic Accelerator

1315:) with video footage of a railgun firing rounds into the ocean from a vessel. The 4813: 4748: 4444:"The Navy's Railgun Looks Like It's Finally Facing The Axe In New Budget Request" 3436:"7 powerful new weapons that China's military just showed off - Business Insider" 1924: 886:

Magnetically Accelerated Ring to Achieve Ultra-high Directed Energy and Radiation

6849: 6844: 6512: 6479: 6391: 6370: 6096: 6027: 2625: 1231: 995: 929:. This system was established in 1993 and has been operated for over 10 years. 717: 626: 551: 445: 326: 5052:"What is a hypersonic railgun? How the superweapon China may be building works" 2813: 2656: 1767: 683:" to high altitude at Mach 10, where it would then launch a small payload into 448:

fired a 3.2 kg (7 pound) projectile at 18.4-megajoules . In 1994, India's

377:, initiated the design and construction of the world's largest (500 megajoule) 6809: 6589: 6584: 6564: 6454: 5987: 5957: 5828: 5790: 4568:

A Laboratory Railgun for Terminal Ballistics and Arc Armature Research Studies

4364:"Navy's Magnetic Super Gun To Make Mach 7 Shots At Sea In 2016: Adm. Greenert" 2758: 2597: 2569: 1417: 1272: 1126: 1045: 582: 473: 163: 84: 5596: 4975: 4922: 4881: 4874:

The response of propellants to plasma radiation - IEEE Conference Publication

3730: 3030: 3022: 2776: 2279: 2063: 1909: 1648: 6839: 6538: 6269: 6022: 5800: 2029: 1491: 1433: 1268: 1264: 1082: 1072: 1017: 1005: 721: 632: 547: 354: 175: 155: 4012:"Navy Evaluating Second Electromagnetic Railgun Innovative Naval Prototype" 2983: 3303:"Navy Wants Rail Guns to Fight Ballistic and Supersonic Missiles Says RFI" 1021:

Systems (EMS) Division. It is expected to be ready between 2020 and 2025.

6522: 6330: 6051: 5895: 5851: 5056: 2008:

Fire in the Belly: The first fifty years of the pioneer School at the ANU

1804: 1697:

Gully, John (January 1991). "Power Supply Technology for Electric Guns".

1325: 1255: 1147: 959: 926: 881: 688: 680: 606: 595: 546:

megajoules. The most common forms of power supplies used in railguns are

61: 6673: 3410:"A farewell to traditional arms: Russia develops weapons for the future" 2210:(Report). 10th U.S. Army Gun Dynamics Symposium Proceedings. ADA404787. 797:

BAE Systems was at one point interested in installing railguns on their

6737: 6507: 6122: 5366: 4847: 4747:

Zielinski, David; Weinacht, Paul; Webb; Soencksen, Keith (March 1997).

4214:"The Navy Wants To Fire Its Ridiculously Strong Railgun From The Ocean" 3951:"Navy Sets New World Record with Electromagnetic Railgun Demonstration" 3835: 2878: 1407: 1306: 842: 817: 121: 5355:防衛装備庁技術シンポジウム2023〜防衛技術指針2023と防衛力の抜本的強化につながる研究開発について〜極超音速レールガン連続射撃への挑戦 4798: 4732: 4723: 4688: 4653: 3689: 3468:"An Electromagnetic Arms Race Has Begun: China Is Making Railguns Too" 3148:"Railguns: The Next Big Pentagon Boondoggle? Michael Fredenburg, 2014" 2855:

An Experimental Study of Electromagnetic Lorentz Force and Rail Recoil

2767: 2554: 2486: 2433:"Rapid Fire Railgun For The Cannon Caliber Electromagnetic Gun System" 2322: 1854: 1727: 1718: 1683: 1640: 1142:

Research on railgun technology served as a major area of focus at the

571:

Institute for Advanced Technology at the University of Texas at Austin

111: 5805: 5729: 5641:"NAVSEA Details At Sea 2016 Railgun Test on JHSV Trenton – USNI News" 4552: 3681: 2090: 1870:"US Patent 1,421,435 "Electric Apparatus for Propelling Projectiles"" 1544: 1276: 974: 965: 958:

Center for Electromechanics, military railguns capable of delivering

954:

dedicated more than $ 150 million into electric gun research. At the

934: 813: 805: 753: 558: 331: 167: 88: 5674: 679:

has proposed to use a railgun to launch "wedge-shaped aircraft with

100: 99:

Railguns are still very much at the research stage after decades of

3542:"Russia unveils new weapon that can fire bullets at 3km per second" 2830:

Recoil Considerations for Railguns: Technical Report ARCCB-TR-00016

712:

Electromagnetic railgun located at the Naval Surface Warfare Center

6752: 6747: 5459:. X (Formerly known as Twitter) @alta_kouhou_en. 17 October 2023. 2931: 1001:

used on main battle tanks, which generates 9 MJ of muzzle energy.

914: 853: 809: 707: 699: 684: 654: 481: 421: 300: 5321:(in Japanese). Japanese Ministry of Defense 防衛省. pp. 10–12. 3363:"Army Tries Again to Replace or Upgrade Bradley Fighting Vehicle" 1925:

Long-Range Electrical Gun, Equipment and Supplies of the Red Army

823:

Germany, France and Japan will jointly develop a railgun weapon.

1271:

consisting of three 20-ft cargo containers to fire two types of

1193: 970: 676: 449: 273:, so the increased field increases the force on the projectile. 6677: 6334: 5678: 5251:(in Japanese). Japanese Ministry of Defense 防衛省. Archived from 4606:(Report). U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory. AD-A140303. 4573:(Report). U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory. AD-A187225. 4505:(Report). U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory. AD-A131153. 3904:"General Atomics Team Powers Navy Rail Gun to New World Record" 3255:"'Blitzer' railgun already 'tactically relevant', boasts maker" 3224:"AUSA 2013: General Atomics unveils Blitzer land-based railgun" 2111:(Report). U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory. AD-A114043. 1662:

Batteh, Jad. H. (January 1991). "Review of Armature Research".

554:

which are slowly charged from other continuous energy sources.

5022:"China Could Have the World's Most Powerful Naval Gun by 2025" 4566:

Vrable, D.L.; Rosenwasser, S.N.; Cheverton, K.J. (June 1987).

3924:"The Navy shows off its insane magnetic railgun of the future" 2907:

Rocket Performance Analysis Using Electrodynamic Launch Assist

2203:

Levinson, L.; Burke, L.; Erengil, M.; Faust, J. (April 2001).

1311: 1283: 1167:

U.S. Army Armament Research Development and Engineering Center

849: 724:

has a muzzle speed of 930 m/s (3,050 ft/s), and the

4158:"Naval Guns: Can They Deliver 'Affordable' Precision Strike?" 1294:

projectiles with a high fire rate to counter threats such as

465:, where it demonstrated a breech efficiency over 50 percent. 4473:

US Navy ditches futuristic railgun, eyes hypersonic missiles

3881:"U.S. Navy Demonstrates World's Most Powerful EMRG at 10 MJ" 2431:

Zielinski, A.E.; Werst, M.D.; Kitzmiller, J.R. (July 1997).

2144:(Report). U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory. AD20046. 3327:"BAE Proposes Rail Guns for Army's Future Fighting Vehicle" 2403:"Armament Research and Development Establishment, Pune-411" 2172:

Prediction of Electromagnetic Fields generated by Rail Guns

1323:

had later hinted in a press release the involvement of the

1192:

China is developing its own railgun system. According to a

845:. They do not currently exist in a practical, usable form. 609:, and this can limit railgun life, in some cases severely. 4314:"How To Waste $ 100 Billion: Weapons That Didn't Work Out" 2338:

Commissioning Tests of the Medium Caliber Railgun Launcher

1833:

McNab, Ian (January 1999). "Early Electric Gun Research".

909:

Diagram showing the cross-section of a linear motor cannon

5484:"Japan Performs First Ever Railgun Test From Ship At Sea" 3774: 3772: 2662:(Report). Defense Technical Information Center. p. 1 2205:

Investigating UHF Telemetry for Electromagnetic Launchers

1095:(EPF), but this was later changed to land based testing. 748:

The first weaponized railgun planned for production, the

4819:(Report). Institute for Advanced Technology. ADA362542. 4754:(Report). The U.S. Army Research Laboratory. ADA326880. 1201:

ship in December 2017, with sea trials happening later.

251:). The field 'felt' by the armature is proportional to 5570:"Putting the "Science" in "Science Fiction" - Railguns" 4812:

Zielinski, A.E.; Niles, S.; Powell, J.D. (April 1999).

5351:"防衛装備庁技術シンポジウム2023〜防衛技術指針2023と防衛力の抜本的強化につながる研究開発について〜" 3062:"NASA Considering Rail Gun Launch System to the Stars" 2139:

Two-Dimensional Model for Arc Dynamics in the Rail Gun

1930:(Report). Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. ADA134254. 1234:

aims to acquire in its modernisation plan up to 2030.

820: and Yeteknoloji are also developing railguns. 4413:"The U.S. Navy's Railgun Is Nearly Dead in the Water" 3511:"Covert Shores Guide: World Navy's Rail Gun Projects" 2177:(Report). U.S. Army Research Laboratory. ARL-CR-148. 257: 224: 5953:

Dual-rotor permanent magnet induction motor (DRPMIM)

4110:"Navy's New Railgun Can Hurl a Shell Over 5,000 MPH" 4045:"Future Destroyers Likely to Fire Lasers, Rail Guns" 3345:"BAE Wants to Equip Future Army Tanks with Railguns" 3280:"47 Seconds From Hell: A Challenge To Navy Doctrine" 794:

combatants, expected to start construction by 2028.

581:

The rails and projectiles must be built from strong

369:, an Australian physicist and first director of the 6802: 6718: 6711: 6608: 6577: 6557: 6531: 6500: 6493: 6462: 6433: 6412: 6405: 6384: 6377: 6202: 6141: 6115: 6070: 6001: 5842: 5819: 5744: 5245:"防衛装備庁技術シンポジウム2020 研究紹介資料レールガン研究の最前線〜弾丸の高初速化の実現〜" 1034: 319:

Director of Inventions at the Ministry of Armaments

5215:. Indian Navy - Department of Defence Production. 3851:"World's Most Powerful Rail Gun Delivered to Navy" 2705: 2703: 1558: 1159:Cannon-Caliber Electromagnetic Gun (CCEMG) program 687:using conventional rocket propulsion. The extreme 265: 243: 56:device, typically designed as a weapon, that uses 4831:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 4766:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 4621:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 4588:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 4520:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 4333:"Laser Weapons Not Yet Ready for Missile Defense" 3820:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 3779:Five Futuristic Weapons That Could Change Warfare 2984:"Launch to space with an electromagnetic railgun" 2712:"Video: Navy's Mach 8 Railgun Obliterates Record" 2358:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 2225:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 2192:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 2159:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 2126:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 1942:– via Defense Technical Information Center. 804:India has successfully tested their own railgun. 461:. The launcher prototype was later tested at the 5426:. Japanese Ministry of Defense 防衛省. p. 29. 4082:. House Armed Services Committee. Archived from 3199:. General Atomics. 25 April 2012. Archived from 784:, in addition to land bombardment. A supersonic 435:Federally Funded Research and Development Center 218:is the relative permeability of the barrel, and 5280:"超速射・レールガン(電磁加速砲)を日本独自で開発へ中露ミサイルを無力化防衛省が概算要求" 3982:"Electromagnetic railgun sets new world record" 3631:IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science 780:weapons to intercept air threats, particularly 454:Armament Research and Development Establishment 428:. In 1990, the U.S. Army collaborated with the 5206:"Indian Naval Indigenisation Plan (2015-2030)" 1868:Fauchon-Villeplee, André Louis Octave (1922). 1303:Acquisition, Technology & Logistics Agency 987:Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division 981:Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division 133:configurations. Some railguns also use strong 34:Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division 6689: 6346: 5690: 3278:Freedberg Jr., Sydney J. (21 November 2014). 2343:(Report). Institute for Advanced Technology. 1223:Defence Research and Development Organisation 720:7 at sea level) or more. For comparison, the 244:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} =\mu \mathbf {H} } 8: 5213:DIRECTORATE OF INDIGENISATION IHQ MOD (NAVY) 4189:"US Navy Ready to Deploy Laser for 1st Time" 3050:Proton is estimated at $ 5000/kg as of 2015. 508:This current makes the railgun behave as an 162:MJ is equivalent to the kinetic energy of a 5671:includes a YouTube video from November 2016 5084:"Is China Getting Ready to Test a Railgun?" 4498:Jamison, Keith; Burden, Henry (June 1983). 4283:"Navy's new laser weapon: Hype or reality?" 890:United States Air Force Research Laboratory 667:practical considerations of escape velocity 649:would likely be used for this application. 6964: 6715: 6696: 6682: 6674: 6497: 6409: 6381: 6353: 6339: 6331: 5697: 5683: 5675: 5288:(in Japanese). 22 August 2016. p. 1. 4066: 4064: 3805:(Report). Army Science Board. AD-A236493. 1594:Electrical Machines and their Applications 4731: 4362:Freedberg Jr., Sydney J. (7 April 2014). 3222:Fisher Jr, Richard D. 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United States Navy SBIR/STTR Program. 3627:"Phase 1b MARAUDER computer simulations" 3146:Fredenburg, Michael (18 December 2014). 2977: 2975: 2973: 2971: 1460:"Navy Tests 32-Megajoule Railgun |" 973:, and potentially pass through it, (see 904: 110: 27: 3893:from the original on 17 September 2008. 3788:– Nationalinterest.org, 1 November 2014 2596:Doityourself Gadgets (3 October 2013), 1885: 1883: 1450: 776:Railguns are being examined for use as 444:that culminated in the 2010 test where 311:Société anonyme des accumulateurs Tudor 6820:Differential technological development 5345: 5343: 5274: 5272: 5270: 5239: 5237: 5182:from the original on 23 September 2021 5010:from the original on 12 February 2019. 4867: 4865: 4388:. popularmechanics.com. 24 July 2017. 4293:from the original on 15 September 2017 4251:from the original on 28 February 2014. 4201:from the original on 22 February 2014. 3761:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3754: 3610:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3603: 3492:"IDEF 2017: Turkey joins railgun club" 3369:from the original on 14 November 2016. 3351:from the original on 23 December 2016. 3290:from the original on 23 November 2014. 3177:from the original on 12 September 2013 3158:from the original on 27 December 2014. 2710:Ackerman, Spencer (10 December 2010). 2367: 2365: 1984:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 1977: 1596:. 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Archived from 3743:from the original on 21 February 2015 3448:from the original on 15 December 2019 3416:from the original on 9 September 2017 3390:from the original on 23 December 2020 3378: 3376: 3127:from the original on 12 February 2015 3060:Atkinson, Nancy (14 September 2010). 3040:from the original on 28 January 2012. 2885:from the original on 10 February 2014 2724:from the original on 11 January 2014. 2514:from the original on 11 November 2020 2460: 2458: 2426: 2424: 2409:from the original on 11 November 2017 2350:from the original on 21 February 2020 2253: 2251: 2151:from the original on 21 February 2020 2118:from the original on 21 February 2020 1828: 1826: 1824: 1822: 621:Launch or launch assist of spacecraft 7: 5463:from the original on 24 October 2023 5397:from the original on 21 October 2023 5292:from the original on 21 October 2023 5222:from the original on 31 October 2020 5090:from the original on 3 February 2018 5064:from the original on 3 February 2018 4392:from the original on 17 October 2017 4320:from the original on 7 January 2012. 4212:Atherton, Kelsey D. (8 April 2014). 4024:from the original on 12 October 2012 3329:. defensetech.org. 23 October 2014. 3315:from the original on 9 January 2015. 3267:from the original on 10 August 2017. 3085:Adams, David Allan (February 2003). 2852:Putnam, Michael J. (December 2009). 2578:from the original on 7 February 2018 2502:"Electromagnetic Railgun Blasts Off" 2500:Borrell, Brendan (6 February 2008). 2437:8th Electromagnetic Launch Symposium 2383:from the original on 27 January 2018 704:Drawings of electric gun projectiles 371:Research School of Physical Sciences 6909:Future-oriented technology analysis 5433:from the original on 30 August 2023 4312:Loren Thompson (19 December 2011). 4262:Navy Railgun Ramps Up in Test Shots 4226:from the original on 12 April 2014. 3554:from the original on 20 April 2017. 3333:from the original on 23 March 2017. 3087:"Naval Rail Guns Are Revolutionary" 2624:Harris, William (11 October 2005). 2606:from the original on 11 August 2016 1755:from the original on 29 April 2014. 1155:U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) 1144:Ballistic Research Laboratory (BRL) 524:) in the armature, this produces a 406:intercontinental ballistic missiles 16:Electromagnetic projectile launcher 5150:from the original on 19 March 2018 5120:from the original on 20 March 2018 4823:from the original on 25 April 2022 4758:from the original on 25 April 2022 4580:from the original on 26 March 2020 4512:from the original on 13 March 2020 4442:Trevithick, Joseph (1 June 2021). 4423:from the original on 14 April 2021 4374:from the original on 8 April 2014. 4271:– Breakingdefense.com, 19 May 2017 4122:from the original on 1 April 2017. 3812:from the original on 13 March 2020 3592:from the original on 19 April 2017 3540:Howes, Scarlet (24 January 2017). 3169:Fallon, Jonathon (25 April 2012). 2952:Advanced Magnet Lab, Inc. 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(2008) 2599:How To Build a Railgun Experiment 1305:(ALTA) announced on its official 1263:that served as a charger and a 5 1187: 1171:Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 1004:In 2007, BAE Systems delivered a 442:Dundrennan Weapons Testing Centre 211:is the permeability constant and 32:Test firing at the United States 6963: 6656: 6655: 6453: 5032:from the original on 6 July 2018 4500:A Laboratory Arc Driven Rail Gun 4411:Mizokami, Kyle (27 April 2020). 4331:Jeff Hecht (27 September 2017). 4281:Subrata Ghoshroy (18 May 2015). 4133:Osborn, Kris (16 January 2014). 4108:McDuffee, Allen (9 April 2014). 4043:Osborn, Kris (10 January 2014). 3849:Sofge, Erik (14 November 2007). 3521:from the original on 6 June 2021 3480:from the original on 2 May 2017. 3253:Page, Lewis (25 December 2010). 3095:U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 2877:Barros, Sam (11 November 2010). 2827:Kathe, Eric L. (November 2000). 2568:Ludic Science (4 October 2014), 2170:Kohlberg, Ira (September 1995). 1923:Korol'kov, A.L. (October 1983). 1573:from the original on 17 May 2015 1472:from the original on 4 June 2013 1430:, first ship to mount a railgun. 1040: 939:Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region 735:5"/54 caliber Mark 45 Naval guns 388:(later consolidated to form the 259: 237: 226: 4386:"US Navy railgun more powerful" 4135:"Navy Rail Gun Showing Promise" 3641:from the original on 7 May 2017 3301:LaGrone, Sam (5 January 2015). 2655:Meger, R. A. (1 January 2006). 1420:: another staged propulsion gun 1329:in the ship-board firing test. 848:A helical railgun was built at 204:is the effective permeability, 6082:Timeline of the electric motor 5639:LaGrone, Sam (14 April 2015). 4956:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 4779:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 4704:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 4669:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 4634:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 4533:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 3926:. Dvice.com. 2 February 2008. 2992:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 2738:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 2535:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 2467:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 2303:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 2260:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 2056:Australian National University 2012:Australian National University 1835:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 1743:"50 megajoules kinetic energy" 1699:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 1664:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 1620:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 1458:Fletcher, Seth (5 June 2013). 1436:, a similar device devised by 1206:Type 072III-class landing ship 398:Australian National University 375:Australian National University 115:Schematic diagram of a railgun 1: 6936:Technology in science fiction 5867:Dahlander pole changing motor 5457:X (Formerly known as Twitter) 3365:. dodbuzz.com. 10 June 2015. 2571:How to Make a Simple Railgun. 2336:Jamison, Keith (March 1996). 2137:Powell, John (October 1982). 1178:University of Texas at Austin 956:University of Texas at Austin 726:16-inch/50-caliber Mark 7 gun 463:U.S. Army Research Laboratory 430:University of Texas at Austin 390:U.S. Army Research Laboratory 386:Ballistic Research Laboratory 48:, sometimes referred to as a 6397:Pneumatic freestanding tower 4237:LaGrone, Sam (7 June 2013). 2982:McNab, I.R. (January 2003). 2405:. drdo.gov.in. 3 July 1994. 2050:Barber, J. P. (March 1972). 1244:Japanese Ministry of Defense 1230:are among the systems which 1093:expeditionary fast transport 266:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } 5911:Brushless DC electric motor 3906:, accessed 14 October 2009 2001:"Chapter 2:The Big Machine" 344:electric energy consumption 7023: 6997:Electromagnetic components 6941:Technology readiness level 6877:Technological unemployment 2814:10.1103/PhysRevE.63.058602 2104:Batteh, Jad (April 1982). 2079:Journal of Applied Physics 1524:Journal of Applied Physics 1221:In November 2017, India's 1188:People's Republic of China 945:United States Armed Forces 830: 630: 624: 500:A railgun consists of two 18: 6959: 6924:Technological singularity 6884:Technological convergence 6634: 6451: 6368: 5928:Switched reluctance (SRM) 5906:Brushed DC electric motor 5712: 4162:National Defense Magazine 2860:Naval Postgraduate School 2759:10.1109/TMAG.1986.1064733 2657:Railgun Materials Science 1301:On October 17, 2023, the 1039: 782:anti-ship cruise missiles 567:Naval Research Laboratory 6425:Momentum exchange tether 6116:Experimental, futuristic 6033:Variable-frequency drive 5249:防衛装備庁技術シンポジウム2020 研究紹介資料 5192:Press Information Bureau 4976:10.1109/TMAG.2004.838744 4923:10.1109/ELT.2004.1398093 4882:10.1109/ELT.2004.1398089 4017:Office of Naval Research 3986:Jane's Information Group 3023:10.1109/TMAG.2002.805923 2962:13 February 2011 at the 2881:. Powerlabs.org (Blog). 2280:10.1109/TMAG.2004.838744 1592:Hindmarsh, John (1977). 1138:Army Research Laboratory 894:United States Government 282:Combustion Light Gas Gun 158:(MJ). For comparison, 50 21:Railgun (disambiguation) 6889:Technological evolution 6862:Exploratory engineering 6600:Beam-powered propulsion 6485:Endo-atmospheric tether 6133:Superconducting machine 5771:Coil winding technology 5518:Self Defense Fleet 自衛艦隊 4450:. Brookline Media Inc. 3625:Sovinec, C. R. (1990). 3102:(2): 34. Archived from 2940:14 October 2008 at the 2375:Electronic (EM) Railgun 1793:Defence Science Journal 1228:directed energy weapons 1101:directed-energy weapons 921:at Dundrennan Range in 919:Defence Research Agency 799:Future Fighting Vehicle 643:superconducting magnets 394:Aberdeen Proving Ground 305:German railgun diagrams 180:ferromagnetic materials 6899:Technology forecasting 6894:Technological paradigm 6867:Proactionary principle 6743:Directed-energy weapon 6626:High-altitude platform 6544:Blast wave accelerator 6362:Non-rocket spacelaunch 5381:"令和3年度政策評価書(事前の事業評価)" 3957:. United States Navy. 1393:Non-rocket spacelaunch 1367: 910: 713: 705: 426:ground combat vehicles 306: 267: 245: 116: 37: 7007:Spacecraft propulsion 6825:Disruptive innovation 6705:Emerging technologies 6649:Megascale engineering 6174:Power-to-weight ratio 6038:Direct torque control 5026:The National Interest 4478:25 April 2022 at the 2954:"Direct Double-Helix" 2879:"PowerLabs Rail Gun!" 2866:on 24 September 2015. 2841:on 24 September 2015. 2507:MIT Technology Review 1894:. London: Macdonald. 1890:Hogg, Ian V. (1969). 1362: 1254:projectile's initial 908: 711: 703: 639:electromagnetic coils 541:Design considerations 410:Defense Science Board 304: 268: 246: 114: 58:electromagnetic force 31: 6872:Technological change 6815:Collingridge dilemma 6758:Particle-beam weapon 6494:Projectile launchers 6169:Open-loop controller 6062:Ward Leonard control 5786:DC injection braking 5626:26 June 2015 at the 5574:Ottawa Life Magazine 5388:令和3年度政策評価書(事前の事業評価) 4917:. pp. 289–294. 4876:. pp. 273–278. 3710:on 23 February 2007. 3476:. 23 November 2015. 2626:"How Rail Guns Work" 1876:on 24 December 2011. 1805:10.14429/dsj.53.2279 1354:Projectile guidance: 255: 222: 19:For other uses, see 6929:Technology scouting 6904:Accelerating change 6733:Caseless ammunition 6072:History, education, 5718:Alternating current 5520:. 30 October 2023. 5312:"極超音速レールガン連続射撃への道" 5178:. 7 February 2017. 5175:Ministry of Defence 5144:News Corp Australia 5060:. 2 February 2018. 4968:2005ITM....41..158F 4791:1997ITM....33..129P 4716:1995ITM....31..225P 4681:1991ITM....27..521Z 4646:1991ITM....27..515Z 4545:1989ITM....25..448P 4368:Breakingdefense.com 4168:on 11 February 2015 4089:on 22 December 2014 3992:on 17 December 2010 3889:. 1 February 2008. 3838:on 10 October 2007. 3674:1993PhFlB...5.2938D 3662:Physics of Fluids B 3386:. 8 November 2017. 3005:2003ITM....39..295M 2932:"Space and Defense" 2806:2001PhRvE..63e8602C 2751:1986ITM....22.1808W 2547:1993ITM....29..975H 2479:1997ITM....33..630Z 2315:1997ITM....33..129P 2272:2005ITM....41..158F 1847:1999ITM....35..250M 1711:1991ITM....27..329G 1676:1991ITM....27..224B 1633:1991ITM....27..176F 1537:1978JAP....49.2540R 1413:Kinetic bombardment 1347:Railgun durability: 1296:hypersonic missiles 741:over a large area. 647:Composite materials 573:, and BAE Systems. 412:study in 1985, the 379:homopolar generator 323:Jules-Louis Brenton 6946:Technology roadmap 6785:Stealth technology 6775:Pure fusion weapon 6644:Rocket sled launch 6621:Buoyant space port 6463:Dynamic structures 6235:Dolivo-Dobrovolsky 6194:Voltage controller 6149:Blocked-rotor test 6087:Ball bearing motor 6057:Motor soft starter 6011:AC-to-AC converter 5872:Wound-rotor (WRIM) 5834:Electric generator 5255:on 21 October 2023 4848:10.21236/ADA391975 4267:2017-10-23 at the 4071:Klunder, Matthew. 4020:. 9 October 2012. 3910:2011-09-27 at the 3886:United States Navy 3784:2015-02-06 at the 1338:Major difficulties 1321:Self Defense Fleet 1046:Additional footage 985:The United States 911: 870:linear accelerator 714: 706: 600:infrared signature 529:they cannot move. 470:United States Navy 307: 263: 241: 117: 38: 6992:Artillery by type 6979: 6978: 6798: 6797: 6728:Antimatter weapon 6671: 6670: 6573: 6572: 6449: 6448: 6445: 6444: 6413:Orbiting skyhooks 6378:Static structures 6328: 6327: 6164:Open-circuit test 6003:Motor controllers 5884:Synchronous motor 5706:Electric machines 5643:. News.usni.org. 5550:. 2 February 2023 5357:. 5 December 2023 5319:防衛装備庁技術シンポジウム2023 5146:. 15 March 2018. 5116:. 14 March 2018. 5086:. February 2018. 4932:978-0-7803-8290-9 4891:978-0-7803-8290-9 4799:10.1109/20.559917 4724:10.1109/20.364697 4689:10.1109/20.101087 4654:10.1109/20.101086 4417:Popular Mechanics 3855:Popular Mechanics 3726:978-1-4673-0306-4 3704:"Unfriendly Fire" 3197:"Blitzer Railgun" 2793:Physical Review E 2555:10.1109/20.195711 2487:10.1109/20.560087 2323:10.1109/20.559917 1892:The Guns: 1939/45 1855:10.1109/20.738413 1751:. 28 April 2014. 1719:10.1109/20.101051 1684:10.1109/20.101030 1641:10.1109/20.101019 1603:978-0-08-021165-7 1163:U.S. Marine Corps 1051: 1050: 1029:in October 2012. 367:Sir Mark Oliphant 135:neodymium magnets 126:augmented railgun 7014: 6967: 6966: 6914:Horizon scanning 6830:Ephemeralization 6716: 6698: 6691: 6684: 6675: 6659: 6658: 6640: 6595:Laser propulsion 6498: 6457: 6410: 6382: 6355: 6348: 6341: 6332: 6179:Two-phase system 6159:Electromagnetism 6107:Mouse mill motor 6074:recreational use 5948:Permanent magnet 5877:Linear induction 5730:Permanent magnet 5699: 5692: 5685: 5676: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5652: 5636: 5630: 5619: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5592: 5586: 5585: 5583: 5581: 5576:. 23 August 2012 5566: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5555: 5548:Born to Engineer 5540: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5529: 5510: 5504: 5503: 5501: 5499: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5470: 5468: 5449: 5443: 5442: 5440: 5438: 5432: 5421: 5413: 5407: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5396: 5385: 5377: 5371: 5370: 5364: 5362: 5347: 5338: 5337: 5335: 5333: 5327: 5316: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5299: 5297: 5276: 5265: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5241: 5232: 5231: 5229: 5227: 5221: 5210: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5189: 5187: 5166: 5160: 5159: 5157: 5155: 5136: 5130: 5129: 5127: 5125: 5106: 5100: 5099: 5097: 5095: 5080: 5074: 5073: 5071: 5069: 5048: 5042: 5041: 5039: 5037: 5018: 5012: 5011: 5003:Business Insider 4994: 4988: 4987: 4951: 4945: 4944: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4869: 4860: 4859: 4839: 4833: 4832: 4830: 4828: 4818: 4809: 4803: 4802: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4763: 4753: 4744: 4738: 4737: 4735: 4699: 4693: 4692: 4664: 4658: 4657: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4612: 4605: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4579: 4572: 4563: 4557: 4556: 4553:10.1109/20.22580 4528: 4522: 4521: 4519: 4517: 4511: 4504: 4495: 4489: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4439: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4428: 4408: 4402: 4401: 4399: 4397: 4382: 4376: 4375: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4348: 4328: 4322: 4321: 4309: 4303: 4302: 4300: 4298: 4278: 4272: 4259: 4253: 4252: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4209: 4203: 4202: 4184: 4178: 4177: 4175: 4173: 4164:. 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Archived from 3700: 3694: 3693: 3682:10.1063/1.860681 3668:(8): 2938–2958. 3657: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3609: 3601: 3599: 3597: 3591: 3584: 3576: 3570: 3569: 3562: 3556: 3555: 3537: 3531: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3515:www.hisutton.com 3506: 3500: 3499: 3488: 3482: 3481: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3453: 3441:Business Insider 3432: 3426: 3425: 3423: 3421: 3412:. 12 July 2017. 3406: 3400: 3399: 3397: 3395: 3380: 3371: 3370: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3323: 3317: 3316: 3298: 3292: 3291: 3284:Breaking Defense 3275: 3269: 3268: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3234:on 29 March 2014 3230:. Archived from 3219: 3213: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3193: 3187: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3143: 3137: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3117: 3111: 3110: 3108: 3091: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3057: 3051: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3039: 3016: 2988: 2979: 2966: 2950: 2944: 2928: 2922: 2921: 2919: 2912: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2862:. Archived from 2858:(M.Sc. thesis). 2849: 2843: 2842: 2837:. Archived from 2824: 2818: 2817: 2787: 2781: 2780: 2770: 2745:(6): 1808–1811. 2732: 2726: 2725: 2707: 2698: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2687:Business Insider 2681:Pickrell, Ryan. 2678: 2672: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2661: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2621: 2615: 2614: 2613: 2611: 2593: 2587: 2586: 2585: 2583: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2530: 2524: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2462: 2453: 2452: 2450: 2448: 2428: 2419: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2399: 2393: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2369: 2360: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2349: 2342: 2333: 2327: 2326: 2298: 2292: 2291: 2255: 2246: 2245: 2233: 2227: 2226: 2224: 2222: 2216: 2209: 2200: 2194: 2193: 2191: 2189: 2183: 2176: 2167: 2161: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2150: 2143: 2134: 2128: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2117: 2110: 2101: 2095: 2094: 2091:10.1063/1.329080 2085:(4): 2717–2730. 2074: 2068: 2067: 2047: 2041: 2040: 2038: 2032:. Archived from 2005: 1996: 1990: 1989: 1983: 1975: 1973: 1971: 1965: 1959:. Archived from 1958: 1950: 1944: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1929: 1920: 1914: 1913: 1887: 1878: 1877: 1872:. Archived from 1865: 1859: 1858: 1830: 1817: 1816: 1788: 1782: 1781: 1779: 1772: 1763: 1757: 1756: 1739: 1733: 1732: 1730: 1694: 1688: 1687: 1659: 1653: 1652: 1614: 1608: 1607: 1589: 1583: 1582: 1580: 1578: 1562: 1555: 1549: 1548: 1545:10.1063/1.325107 1518: 1512: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1488: 1482: 1481: 1479: 1477: 1455: 1148:CHECMATE railgun 1044: 1043: 1032: 992:BGM-109 Tomahawk 888:) is, or was, a 838:Helical railguns 769: 768: 764: 663:aerodynamic drag 590:Heat dissipation 479: 349:In 1944, during 272: 270: 269: 264: 262: 250: 248: 247: 242: 240: 229: 161: 152:explosive shells 7022: 7021: 7017: 7016: 7015: 7013: 7012: 7011: 6982: 6981: 6980: 6975: 6955: 6794: 6790:Vortex ring gun 6707: 6702: 6672: 6667: 6638: 6630: 6609:Buoyant lifting 6604: 6578:Reaction drives 6569: 6553: 6549:Ram accelerator 6527: 6489: 6458: 6441: 6434:Space elevators 6429: 6401: 6373: 6364: 6359: 6329: 6324: 6198: 6137: 6111: 6102:Mendocino motor 6075: 6073: 6066: 5997: 5857:Induction motor 5838: 5815: 5761:Braking chopper 5749: 5747: 5740: 5708: 5703: 5665: 5660: 5650: 5648: 5638: 5637: 5633: 5628:Wayback Machine 5620: 5616: 5606: 5604: 5594: 5593: 5589: 5579: 5577: 5568: 5567: 5563: 5553: 5551: 5542: 5541: 5537: 5527: 5525: 5512: 5511: 5507: 5497: 5495: 5481: 5480: 5476: 5466: 5464: 5451: 5450: 5446: 5436: 5434: 5430: 5419: 5415: 5414: 5410: 5400: 5398: 5394: 5383: 5379: 5378: 5374: 5360: 5358: 5349: 5348: 5341: 5331: 5329: 5325: 5314: 5310: 5309: 5305: 5295: 5293: 5278: 5277: 5268: 5258: 5256: 5243: 5242: 5235: 5225: 5223: 5219: 5208: 5204: 5203: 5199: 5185: 5183: 5168: 5167: 5163: 5153: 5151: 5138: 5137: 5133: 5123: 5121: 5108: 5107: 5103: 5093: 5091: 5082: 5081: 5077: 5067: 5065: 5050: 5049: 5045: 5035: 5033: 5028:. 4 July 2018. 5020: 5019: 5015: 4996: 4995: 4991: 4953: 4952: 4948: 4933: 4912: 4911: 4907: 4892: 4871: 4870: 4863: 4841: 4840: 4836: 4826: 4824: 4816: 4811: 4810: 4806: 4776: 4775: 4771: 4761: 4759: 4751: 4746: 4745: 4741: 4701: 4700: 4696: 4666: 4665: 4661: 4631: 4630: 4626: 4616: 4614: 4610: 4603: 4598: 4597: 4593: 4583: 4581: 4577: 4570: 4565: 4564: 4560: 4530: 4529: 4525: 4515: 4513: 4509: 4502: 4497: 4496: 4492: 4480:Wayback Machine 4471: 4467: 4457: 4455: 4441: 4440: 4436: 4426: 4424: 4410: 4409: 4405: 4395: 4393: 4384: 4383: 4379: 4361: 4360: 4356: 4346: 4344: 4330: 4329: 4325: 4311: 4310: 4306: 4296: 4294: 4280: 4279: 4275: 4269:Wayback Machine 4260: 4256: 4236: 4235: 4231: 4219:Popular Science 4211: 4210: 4206: 4186: 4185: 4181: 4171: 4169: 4156:Irwin, Sandra. 4155: 4154: 4150: 4139:Defensetech.org 4132: 4131: 4127: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4092: 4090: 4086: 4080:www.acq.osd.mil 4075: 4070: 4069: 4062: 4042: 4041: 4037: 4027: 4025: 4010: 4009: 4005: 3995: 3993: 3979: 3978: 3974: 3964: 3962: 3948: 3947: 3943: 3933: 3931: 3922: 3921: 3917: 3912:Wayback Machine 3902: 3898: 3879: 3878: 3874: 3864: 3862: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3830: 3829: 3825: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3797: 3796: 3792: 3786:Wayback Machine 3777: 3770: 3753: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3733: 3731:"Archived copy" 3729: 3719: 3715: 3702: 3701: 3697: 3659: 3658: 3654: 3644: 3642: 3624: 3623: 3619: 3602: 3595: 3593: 3589: 3582: 3580:"Archived copy" 3578: 3577: 3573: 3564: 3563: 3559: 3539: 3538: 3534: 3524: 3522: 3508: 3507: 3503: 3490: 3489: 3485: 3473:Popular Science 3466: 3465: 3461: 3451: 3449: 3434: 3433: 3429: 3419: 3417: 3408: 3407: 3403: 3393: 3391: 3382: 3381: 3374: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3343: 3342: 3338: 3325: 3324: 3320: 3300: 3299: 3295: 3277: 3276: 3272: 3252: 3251: 3247: 3237: 3235: 3221: 3220: 3216: 3206: 3204: 3195: 3194: 3190: 3180: 3178: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3152:National Review 3145: 3144: 3140: 3130: 3128: 3119: 3118: 3114: 3109:on 8 July 2007. 3106: 3089: 3084: 3083: 3079: 3059: 3058: 3054: 3049: 3045: 3037: 3014:10.1.1.393.1173 2986: 2981: 2980: 2969: 2964:Wayback Machine 2951: 2947: 2942:Wayback Machine 2929: 2925: 2920:on 6 June 2015. 2917: 2910: 2903: 2902: 2898: 2888: 2886: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2851: 2850: 2846: 2826: 2825: 2821: 2789: 2788: 2784: 2734: 2733: 2729: 2709: 2708: 2701: 2691: 2689: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2653: 2649: 2639: 2637: 2623: 2622: 2618: 2609: 2607: 2595: 2594: 2590: 2581: 2579: 2567: 2566: 2562: 2532: 2531: 2527: 2517: 2515: 2499: 2498: 2494: 2464: 2463: 2456: 2446: 2444: 2430: 2429: 2422: 2412: 2410: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2386: 2384: 2379:. BAE Systems. 2371: 2370: 2363: 2353: 2351: 2347: 2340: 2335: 2334: 2330: 2300: 2299: 2295: 2257: 2256: 2249: 2235: 2234: 2230: 2220: 2218: 2214: 2207: 2202: 2201: 2197: 2187: 2185: 2181: 2174: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2108: 2103: 2102: 2098: 2076: 2075: 2071: 2054:(Ph.D thesis). 2049: 2048: 2044: 2039:on 17 May 2013. 2036: 2022: 2003: 1998: 1997: 1993: 1976: 1969: 1967: 1966:on 4 March 2016 1963: 1956: 1954:"Archived copy" 1952: 1951: 1947: 1937: 1935: 1927: 1922: 1921: 1917: 1902: 1889: 1888: 1881: 1867: 1866: 1862: 1832: 1831: 1820: 1790: 1789: 1785: 1777: 1770: 1765: 1764: 1760: 1741: 1740: 1736: 1696: 1695: 1691: 1661: 1660: 1656: 1616: 1615: 1611: 1604: 1591: 1590: 1586: 1576: 1574: 1557: 1556: 1552: 1520: 1519: 1515: 1505: 1503: 1490: 1489: 1485: 1475: 1473: 1465:Popular Science 1457: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1443: 1428: (T-EPF-5) 1388:Project Babylon 1383:Ram accelerator 1378: 1340: 1335: 1261:cargo container 1240: 1219: 1190: 1140: 1041: 1035:External videos 1006:32 MJ prototype 983: 947: 903: 862: 835: 833:Helical railgun 829: 827:Helical railgun 791:endoatmospheric 766: 762: 761: 759: 750:General Atomics 698: 659:escape velocity 635: 629: 623: 615: 592: 579: 543: 514:right-hand rule 498: 493: 477: 359:12.8 cm FlaK 40 315:Tudor Batteries 299: 253: 252: 220: 219: 217: 210: 199: 192: 159: 109: 93:muzzle velocity 74:homopolar motor 60:to launch high- 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7020: 7018: 7010: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6984: 6983: 6977: 6976: 6974: 6973: 6960: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6932: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6880: 6879: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6858: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6806: 6804: 6800: 6799: 6796: 6795: 6793: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6766: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6724: 6722: 6713: 6709: 6708: 6703: 6701: 6700: 6693: 6686: 6678: 6669: 6668: 6666: 6665: 6652: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6635: 6632: 6631: 6629: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6612: 6610: 6606: 6605: 6603: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6581: 6579: 6575: 6574: 6571: 6570: 6568: 6567: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6554: 6552: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6535: 6533: 6529: 6528: 6526: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6504: 6502: 6495: 6491: 6490: 6488: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6470:Space fountain 6466: 6464: 6460: 6459: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6446: 6443: 6442: 6439:Space elevator 6437: 6435: 6431: 6430: 6428: 6427: 6422: 6416: 6414: 6407: 6403: 6402: 6400: 6399: 6394: 6388: 6386: 6379: 6375: 6374: 6369: 6366: 6365: 6360: 6358: 6357: 6350: 6343: 6335: 6326: 6325: 6323: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6206: 6204: 6200: 6199: 6197: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6184:Inchworm motor 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6154:Circle diagram 6151: 6145: 6143: 6142:Related topics 6139: 6138: 6136: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6119: 6117: 6113: 6112: 6110: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6092:Barlow's wheel 6089: 6084: 6078: 6076: 6071: 6068: 6067: 6065: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6048: 6047: 6046: 6045: 6043:Vector control 6040: 6025: 6020: 6019: 6018: 6016:Cycloconverter 6007: 6005: 5999: 5998: 5996: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5919: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5893: 5892: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5880: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5848: 5846: 5840: 5839: 5837: 5836: 5831: 5825: 5823: 5817: 5816: 5814: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5781:Damper winding 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5752: 5750: 5746:Components and 5745: 5742: 5741: 5739: 5738: 5732: 5726: 5724:Direct current 5720: 5713: 5710: 5709: 5704: 5702: 5701: 5694: 5687: 5679: 5673: 5672: 5664: 5663:External links 5661: 5659: 5658: 5631: 5614: 5595:Frost, Tracy. 5587: 5561: 5535: 5505: 5474: 5444: 5408: 5372: 5339: 5303: 5285:Sankei Shimbun 5266: 5233: 5197: 5161: 5131: 5101: 5075: 5043: 5013: 4989: 4962:(1): 158–164. 4946: 4931: 4905: 4890: 4861: 4858:. ARL-TR-2392. 4834: 4804: 4785:(1): 129–133. 4769: 4739: 4710:(1): 225–230. 4694: 4675:(1): 521–526. 4659: 4640:(1): 515–520. 4624: 4591: 4558: 4539:(1): 448–453. 4523: 4490: 4488:. 1 July 2021. 4465: 4434: 4403: 4377: 4354: 4323: 4304: 4273: 4254: 4229: 4204: 4179: 4148: 4125: 4100: 4060: 4035: 4003: 3972: 3941: 3915: 3896: 3872: 3841: 3823: 3790: 3768: 3713: 3695: 3652: 3617: 3571: 3557: 3532: 3501: 3483: 3459: 3427: 3401: 3372: 3354: 3336: 3318: 3293: 3270: 3245: 3214: 3203:on 8 July 2012 3188: 3173:. CubicleBot. 3161: 3138: 3112: 3077: 3067:Universe Today 3052: 3043: 2999:(1): 295–304. 2967: 2945: 2923: 2896: 2869: 2844: 2819: 2782: 2727: 2699: 2673: 2647: 2616: 2588: 2560: 2541:(1): 975–979. 2525: 2492: 2473:(1): 630–635. 2454: 2420: 2394: 2361: 2328: 2309:(1): 129–133. 2293: 2266:(1): 158–164. 2247: 2228: 2195: 2162: 2129: 2096: 2069: 2042: 2020: 1991: 1945: 1915: 1900: 1879: 1860: 1841:(1): 250–261. 1818: 1799:(4): 341–350. 1783: 1758: 1734: 1705:(1): 329–334. 1689: 1670:(1): 224–227. 1654: 1627:(1): 176–180. 1609: 1602: 1584: 1569:. 9 May 2015. 1550: 1513: 1496:dictionary.com 1483: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1441: 1431: 1421: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1403:Plasma railgun 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1369: 1368: 1359: 1358: 1351: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1239: 1236: 1218: 1215: 1189: 1186: 1139: 1136: 1114:In July 2017, 1049: 1048: 1037: 1036: 982: 979: 963:armor-piercing 946: 943: 902: 899: 866:plasma railgun 861: 860:Plasma railgun 858: 831:Main article: 828: 825: 757: 697: 694: 625:Main article: 622: 619: 614: 611: 591: 588: 578: 577:Materials used 575: 542: 539: 497: 494: 492: 489: 336:magnetic field 298: 295: 278:light-gas guns 261: 239: 235: 232: 228: 215: 208: 197: 190: 108: 105: 81:kinetic energy 66:kinetic energy 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7019: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6989: 6987: 6972: 6971: 6962: 6961: 6958: 6952: 6951:Transhumanism 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6901: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6878: 6875: 6874: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6807: 6805: 6801: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6770:Plasma weapon 6768: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6745: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6725: 6723: 6721: 6717: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6699: 6694: 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6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6146: 6144: 6140: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6114: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6069: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6035: 6034: 6031: 6030: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6017: 6014: 6013: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6006: 6004: 6000: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5978:Piezoelectric 5976: 5974: 5973:Electrostatic 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5898: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5859: 5858: 5855: 5854: 5853: 5850: 5849: 5847: 5845: 5841: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5826: 5824: 5822: 5818: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 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HI Sutton. 3516: 3512: 3509:Sutton, H I. 3505: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3487: 3484: 3479: 3475: 3474: 3469: 3463: 3460: 3447: 3443: 3442: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3415: 3411: 3405: 3402: 3389: 3385: 3379: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3358: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3340: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3322: 3319: 3314: 3310: 3309: 3304: 3297: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3271: 3266: 3262: 3261: 3256: 3249: 3246: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3218: 3215: 3202: 3198: 3192: 3189: 3176: 3172: 3165: 3162: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3142: 3139: 3126: 3122: 3116: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3096: 3088: 3081: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3068: 3063: 3056: 3053: 3047: 3044: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2993: 2985: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2968: 2965: 2961: 2958: 2957:magnetlab.com 2955: 2949: 2946: 2943: 2939: 2936: 2935:magnetlab.com 2933: 2927: 2924: 2916: 2909: 2908: 2900: 2897: 2884: 2880: 2873: 2870: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2856: 2848: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2831: 2823: 2820: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2800:(5): 058602. 2799: 2795: 2794: 2786: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2739: 2731: 2728: 2723: 2719: 2718: 2713: 2706: 2704: 2700: 2688: 2684: 2677: 2674: 2658: 2651: 2648: 2635: 2631: 2630:HowStuffWorks 2627: 2620: 2617: 2605: 2601: 2600: 2592: 2589: 2577: 2573: 2572: 2564: 2561: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2529: 2526: 2513: 2509: 2508: 2503: 2496: 2493: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2461: 2459: 2455: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2427: 2425: 2421: 2408: 2404: 2398: 2395: 2382: 2378: 2376: 2368: 2366: 2362: 2346: 2339: 2332: 2329: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2297: 2294: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2243: 2239: 2232: 2229: 2213: 2206: 2199: 2196: 2180: 2173: 2166: 2163: 2147: 2140: 2133: 2130: 2114: 2107: 2100: 2097: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2073: 2070: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2046: 2043: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2021:9780858000483 2017: 2013: 2009: 2002: 1995: 1992: 1987: 1981: 1962: 1955: 1949: 1946: 1933: 1926: 1919: 1916: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1901:9780019067102 1897: 1893: 1886: 1884: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1864: 1861: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1829: 1827: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1787: 1784: 1776: 1773:. p. 2. 1769: 1762: 1759: 1754: 1750: 1749: 1748:Wolfram Alpha 1744: 1738: 1735: 1729: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1693: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1658: 1655: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1621: 1613: 1610: 1605: 1599: 1595: 1588: 1585: 1572: 1568: 1567: 1566:The Economist 1561: 1560:"Rail Strike" 1554: 1551: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1525: 1517: 1514: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1487: 1484: 1471: 1467: 1466: 1461: 1454: 1451: 1445: 1439: 1435: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1422: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1375: 1373: 1366: 1361: 1360: 1355: 1352: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1337: 1332: 1330: 1328: 1327: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1313: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1297: 1293: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1245: 1237: 1235: 1233: 1229: 1224: 1216: 1214: 1212: 1211: 1207: 1202: 1200: 1195: 1185: 1181: 1179: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1151: 1149: 1145: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1128: 1123: 1121: 1117: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1102: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1078:Arleigh Burke 1074: 1071: 1069: 1063: 1059: 1057: 1047: 1038: 1033: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1019: 1013: 1011: 1007: 1002: 1000: 997: 993: 988: 980: 978: 976: 972: 967: 964: 961: 957: 953: 944: 942: 940: 936: 930: 928: 924: 923:Kirkcudbright 920: 916: 907: 900: 898: 895: 891: 887: 883: 878: 877:energy weapon 875: 871: 867: 859: 857: 855: 851: 846: 844: 839: 834: 826: 824: 821: 819: 815: 811: 807: 802: 800: 795: 792: 787: 783: 779: 778:anti-aircraft 774: 771: 755: 751: 746: 742: 738: 736: 732: 727: 723: 719: 710: 702: 695: 693: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 668: 664: 660: 656: 650: 648: 644: 640: 634: 628: 620: 618: 612: 610: 608: 603: 601: 597: 589: 587: 584: 576: 574: 572: 568: 562: 560: 555: 553: 549: 540: 538: 534: 530: 527: 526:Lorentz force 523: 519: 515: 511: 510:electromagnet 506: 503: 495: 490: 488: 485: 483: 475: 471: 468:In 2010, the 466: 464: 460: 455: 451: 447: 443: 438: 436: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 384:In 1980, the 382: 380: 376: 372: 368: 365:During 1950, 363: 360: 356: 352: 347: 345: 339: 337: 333: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 303: 296: 294: 292: 287: 286:hypervelocity 283: 279: 274: 233: 230: 214: 207: 203: 196: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 157: 153: 147: 144: 138: 136: 132: 127: 123: 113: 106: 104: 102: 97: 94: 90: 86: 82: 77: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 35: 30: 26: 22: 6968: 6855:Robot ethics 6779: 6763:Sonic weapon 6660: 6517: 6475:Orbital ring 6127: 5649:. 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