439:. It is a process by which a DNA sequence is copied from one DNA helix (which remains unchanged) to another DNA helix, whose sequence is altered. Gene conversion has often been studied in fungal crosses where the 4 products of individual meioses can be conveniently observed. Gene conversion events can be distinguished as deviations in an individual meiosis from the normal 2:2 segregation pattern (e.g. a 3:1 pattern).
783:
300:
2800:
105:. This may be followed by information transfer between the chromosomes. The information transfer may occur without physical exchange (a section of genetic material is copied from one chromosome to another, without the donating chromosome being changed) (see SDSA – Synthesis Dependent Strand Annealing pathway in Figure); or by the breaking and rejoining of
2609:
604:
the intermediate formation of two "Holliday junctions" indicated in the lower right of the figure by two X-shaped structures in each of which there is an exchange of single strands between the two participating chromatids. This pathway is labeled in the figure as the DHJ (double-Holliday junction) pathway.
1493:
Ottolini, Christian S.; Newnham, Louise J.; Capalbo, Antonio; Natesan, Senthilkumar A.; Joshi, Hrishikesh A.; Cimadomo, Danilo; Griffin, Darren K.; Sage, Karen; Summers, Michael C.; Thornhill, Alan R.; Housworth, Elizabeth; Herbert, Alex D.; Rienzi, Laura; Ubaldi, Filippo M.; Handyside, Alan H. (July
599:
A molecular model for the mechanism of meiotic recombination presented by
Anderson and Sekelsky is outlined in the first figure in this article. Two of the four chromatids present early in meiosis (prophase I) are paired with each other and able to interact. Recombination, in this model, is initiated
382:
Tracking the movement of genes resulting from crossovers has proven quite useful to geneticists. Because two genes that are close together are less likely to become separated than genes that are farther apart, geneticists can deduce roughly how far apart two genes are on a chromosome if they know the
814:
and proposed that any theory for the origin of life must involve biological polymers that act as information carriers and catalysts. Lehman argued that recombination was an evolutionary development as ancient as the origins of life. Smail et al. proposed that in the primordial Earth, recombination
707:
Recombination in RNA viruses appears to be an adaptation for coping with genome damage. Switching between template strands during genome replication, referred to as copy-choice recombination, was originally proposed to explain the positive correlation of recombination events over short distances in
578:
In bacteria, transformation is a process of gene transfer that ordinarily occurs between individual cells of the same bacterial species. Transformation involves integration of donor DNA into the recipient chromosome by recombination. This process appears to be an adaptation for repairing DNA damages
607:
The NCO recombinants (illustrated on the left in the figure) are produced by a process referred to as "synthesis dependent strand annealing" (SDSA). Recombination events of the NCO/SDSA type appear to be more common than the CO/DHJ type. The NCO/SDSA pathway contributes little to genetic variation,
748:
In early 2020, many genomic sequences of
Australian SARS‐CoV‐2 isolates have deletions or mutations (29742G>A or 29742G>U; "G19A" or "G19U") in the s2m, suggesting that RNA recombination may have occurred in this RNA element. 29742G("G19"), 29744G("G21"), and 29751G("G28") were predicted as
603:
Two types of recombinant product are produced. Indicated on the right side is a "crossover" (CO) type, where the flanking regions of the chromosomes are exchanged, and on the left side, a "non-crossover" (NCO) type where the flanking regions are not exchanged. The CO type of recombination involves
643:
occurs when recombination rates differ between the sexes of a species. In humans, each oocyte has on average 41.6 ± 11.3 recombinations, 1.63-fold higher than sperms. This sexual dimorphic pattern in recombination rate has been observed in many species. In mammals, females most often have higher
744:
Recombination appears to be a major driving force in determining genetic variability within coronaviruses, as well as the ability of coronavirus species to jump from one host to another and, infrequently, for the emergence of novel species, although the mechanism of recombination in is unclear.
34:
A model of meiotic recombination, initiated by a double-strand break or gap, followed by pairing with an homologous chromosome and strand invasion to initiate the recombinational repair process. Repair of the gap can lead to crossover (CO) or non-crossover (NCO) of the flanking regions. CO
35:
recombination is thought to occur by the Double
Holliday Junction (DHJ) model, illustrated on the right. NCO recombinants are thought to occur primarily by the Synthesis Dependent Strand Annealing (SDSA) model, illustrated on the left. Most recombination events appear to be the SDSA type.
600:
by a double-strand break (or gap) shown in the DNA molecule (chromatid) at the top of the figure. Other types of DNA damage may also initiate recombination. For instance, an inter-strand cross-link (caused by exposure to a cross-linking agent such as mitomycin C) can be repaired by HRR.
563:, such as exposure to reactive oxygen species that are byproducts of normal metabolism, are also repaired by HRR. In humans, deficiencies in the gene products necessary for HRR during meiosis likely cause infertility In humans, deficiencies in gene products necessary for HRR, such as
587:, as well as in several pathogenic viruses. In the case of pathogenic viruses, multiplicity reactivation may be an adaptive benefit to the virus since it allows the repair of DNA damages caused by exposure to the oxidizing environment produced during host infection. See also
582:
When two or more viruses, each containing lethal genomic damages, infect the same host cell, the virus genomes can often pair with each other and undergo HRR to produce viable progeny. This process, referred to as multiplicity reactivation, has been studied in lambda and
608:
since the arms of the chromosomes flanking the recombination event remain in the parental configuration. Thus, explanations for the adaptive function of meiosis that focus exclusively on crossing-over are inadequate to explain the majority of recombination events.
128:). In meiosis, non-sister homologous chromosomes pair with each other so that recombination characteristically occurs between non-sister homologues. In both meiotic and mitotic cells, recombination between homologous chromosomes is a common mechanism used in
733:(RdRp) is able to carry out recombination. Recombination appears to occur by a copy choice mechanism in which the RdRp switches (+)ssRNA templates during negative strand synthesis. Recombination by RdRp strand switching also occurs in the (+)ssRNA plant
284:
to recipients which have set the incoming DNA as part of the genetic material of the recipient. Abortive transfer was registered in the following transduction and conjugation. In all cases, the transmitted fragment is diluted by the culture growth.
656:
are present in the same host cell. Recombination is largely responsible for RNA virus diversity and immune evasion. RNA recombination appears to be a major driving force in determining genome architecture and the course of viral evolution among
718:
Especially in coronaviruses, recombination may also occur even among distantly related evolutionary groups (subgenera), due to their characteristic transcription mechanism, that involves subgenomic mRNAs that are formed by template switching.
579:
in the recipient chromosome by HRR. Transformation may provide a benefit to pathogenic bacteria by allowing repair of DNA damage, particularly damages that occur in the inflammatory, oxidizing environment associated with infection of a host.
434:
In gene conversion, a section of genetic material is copied from one chromosome to another, without the donating chromosome being changed. Gene conversion occurs at high frequency at the actual site of the recombination event during
2613:
1343:"Meiotic versus mitotic recombination: two different routes for double-strand break repair: the different functions of meiotic versus mitotic DSB repair are reflected in different pathway usage and different outcomes"
378:
between two locations depends on the distance separating them. Therefore, for genes sufficiently distant on the same chromosome, the amount of crossover is high enough to destroy the correlation between alleles.
749:
recombination hotspots. During the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic, such a recombination event was suggested to have been a critical step in the evolution of SARS-CoV-2's ability to infect humans.
715:
Recombination can occur infrequently between animal viruses of the same species but of divergent lineages. The resulting recombinant viruses may sometimes cause an outbreak of infection in humans.
757:
with the 11083G > T mutation also contributed to the increase of mutations among the viral progeny. The findings indicate that the 11083G > T mutation of SARS-CoV-2 spread during
775:
of SARS-CoV-2. Although s2m is considered an RNA motif highly conserved in 3' untranslated region among many coronavirus species, this result also suggests that s2m of SARS-CoV-2 is
387:. One gene in a linked pair can sometimes be used as a marker to deduce the presence of the other gene. This is typically used to detect the presence of a disease-causing gene.
383:
frequency of the crossovers. Geneticists can also use this method to infer the presence of certain genes. Genes that typically stay together during recombination are said to be
794:. However, more comprehensive analyses later refuted this suggestion and showed that SARS-CoV-2 likely evolved solely within bats and with little or no recombination.
772:
230:, is responsible for the repair of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs). In yeast and other eukaryotic organisms there are two recombinases required for repairing DSBs. The
2656:
508:, recombination can also refer to artificial and deliberate recombination of disparate pieces of DNA, often from different organisms, creating what is called
2825:
621:
is the phenomenon where autosomal recombination is completely absent in one sex of a species. Achiasmatic chromosomal segregation is well documented in male
790:
SARS-CoV-2's entire receptor binding motif appeared, based on preliminary observations, to have been introduced through recombination from coronaviruses of
723:
662:
528:
31:
322:. The crossover process leads to offspring having different combinations of genes from those of their parents, and can occasionally produce new
994:
120:
are not produced since the sister chromosomes are usually identical. In meiosis and mitosis, recombination occurs between similar molecules of
116:
in eukaryotes where it ordinarily involves the two sister chromosomes formed after chromosomal replication. In this case, new combinations of
1044:
1019:
965:
1888:
Nikolaidis, Marios; Markoulatos, Panayotis; Van de Peer, Yves; Oliver, Stephen G; Amoutzias, Grigorios D (2021-10-12). Hepp, Crystal (ed.).
1890:"The neighborhood of the Spike gene is a hotspot for modular intertypic homologous and non-homologous recombination in Coronavirus genomes"
1496:"Genome-wide maps of recombination and chromosome segregation in human oocytes and embryos show selection for maternal recombination rates"
858:
709:
2088:"Mechanism of RNA recombination in carmo- and tombusviruses: evidence for template switching by the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase in vitro"
2649:
82:
whose loci are on different but homologous chromosomes (random orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I); & (2)
1095:
786:
Schematic representation of the s2m RNA secondary structure, with tertiary structural interactions indicated as long range contacts.
701:
1204:
Galetzka D, Weis E, Kohlschmidt N, Bitz O, Stein R, Haaf T (April 2007). "Expression of somatic DNA repair genes in human testes".
2618:
412:
observed. For any fixed set of genetic and environmental conditions, recombination in a particular region of a linkage structure (
560:
2601:
2642:
572:
477:
464:
2790:
182:
is a type of site-specific genetic recombination that helps immune cells rapidly diversify to recognize and adapt to new
730:
520:
as it allows them to study the effects of specific genes. Techniques based on genetic recombination are also applied in
2830:
2820:
1251:
863:
1982:"Evaluation of a recombination-resistant coronavirus as a broadly applicable, rapidly implementable vaccine platform"
54:
which leads to production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent. In
2184:
Wang H, Pipes L, Nielsen R (2020-10-12). "Synonymous mutations and the molecular evolution of SARS-Cov-2 origins".
2254:
Li X, Giorgi EE, Marichannegowda MH, Foley B, Xiao C, Kong XP, Chen Y, Gnanakaran S, Korber B, Gao F (July 2020).
1889:
2744:
2700:
452:
416:) tends to be constant, and the same is then true for the crossing-over value which is used in the production of
2739:
2669:
2634:
2595:
838:
2339:
2695:
2673:
848:
828:
766:
758:
623:
375:
259:
200:
During meiosis, synapsis (the pairing of homologous chromosomes) ordinarily precedes genetic recombination.
1945:
Bernstein H (1962). "On the mechanism of intragenic recombination. I. The rII region of bacteriophage T4".
516:, which can be used to add, delete or otherwise change an organism's genes. This technique is important to
138:– the process during which homologous sequences are made identical also falls under genetic recombination.
843:
750:
179:
1980:
Graham, Rachel L.; Deming, Damon J.; Deming, Meagan E.; Yount, Boyd L.; Baric, Ralph S. (December 2018).
1646:"Recombination is required for efficient HIV-1 replication and the maintenance of viral genome integrity"
2724:
2690:
853:
678:
397:
319:
294:
273:
102:
776:
762:
754:
2531:"Spontaneous advent of genetic diversity in RNA populations through multiple recombination mechanisms"
2749:
2487:
2424:
2267:
2185:
1954:
1753:
1139:
1060:
485:
342:
154:
2313:"Evolutionary origins of the SARS-CoV-2 sarbecovirus lineage responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic"
873:
536:
521:
517:
505:
392:
334:
175:
125:
894:"Interchromosomal recombination in the extremely radioresistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans"
2591:
2511:
1392:"Temporal Analysis of Meiotic DNA Double-Strand Break Formation and Repair in Drosophila Females"
1229:
1128:"Genetic controls of meiotic recombination and somatic DNA metabolism in Drosophila melanogaster"
815:
played a key role in the expansion of the initially short informational polymers (presumed to be
617:
559:
agents) can be repaired by homologous recombinational repair (HRR). These findings suggest that
448:
323:
303:
247:
27:
Production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent
348:
tend to accumulate more deleterious mutations over time than beneficial or reversing mutations.
2560:
2503:
2460:
2442:
2393:
2344:
2293:
2236:
2166:
2137:"Emerging viral mutants in Australia suggest RNA recombination event in the SARS-CoV-2 genome"
2117:
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2019:
2001:
1927:
1909:
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1813:
1769:
1726:
1675:
1626:
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Because there is a small probability of recombination at any location along a chromosome, the
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2550:
2542:
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2375:
2334:
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2009:
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1213:
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to offspring. Most recombination occurs naturally and can be classified into two types: (1)
782:
371:
on two chromatids can closely pair with one another, and may exchange genetic information.
2767:
2729:
1126:
Baker BS, Boyd JB, Carpenter AT, Green MM, Nguyen TD, Ripoll P, Smith PD (November 1976).
693:
532:
509:
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165:
135:
30:
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1958:
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2103:
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2038:
2014:
1981:
1922:
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1837:
1744:
Hu WS, Temin HM (November 1990). "Retroviral recombination and reverse transcription".
1721:
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1621:
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983:
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513:
405:
281:
17:
2555:
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2112:
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1966:
1318:
1293:
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1127:
926:
893:
2814:
2311:
Boni MF, Lemey P, Jiang X, Lam TT, Perry BW, Castoe TA, et al. (November 2020).
2054:
909:
771:
cruise, two mutations, 29736G > T and 29751G > T (G13 and G28) were located in
697:
639:
473:
2515:
1233:
2772:
2719:
868:
658:
588:
329:. The shuffling of genes brought about by genetic recombination produces increased
2580:
652:
Numerous RNA viruses are capable of genetic recombination when at least two viral
299:
2207:"Viral transmission and evolution dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 in shipboard quarantine"
1808:
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1309:
1270:
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803:
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243:
217:
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2379:
1132:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2682:
2499:
2329:
2312:
2256:"Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 through recombination and strong purifying selection"
2190:
1997:
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811:
734:
727:
685:
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666:
556:
413:
352:
345:
311:
142:
129:
98:
2446:
2005:
1913:
1905:
1836:
Su S, Wong G, Shi W, Liu J, Lai AC, Zhou J, Liu W, Bi Y, Gao GF (June 2016).
1612:
1519:
917:
220:
are key enzymes that catalyse the strand transfer step during recombination.
2711:
2529:
Smail, Benedict A.; Clifton, Bryce E.; Mizuuchi, Ryo; Lehman, Niles (2019).
2437:
1765:
1152:
807:
364:
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2507:
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Extreme Antiquity of Recombination".
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1871:
1817:
1730:
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Muslin C, Mac Kain A, Bessaud M, Blondel B, Delpeyroux F (September 2019).
1679:
1630:
1573:
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1479:
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there is regular genetic recombination, as well as ineffective transfer of
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1773:
1495:
1327:
935:
2665:
1661:
1171:
791:
481:
265:
195:
183:
146:
63:
51:
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1604:
1014:. Institut za genetičko inženjerstvo i biotehnologiju (INGEB) Sarajevo.
2152:
469:
447:
Recombination can occur between DNA sequences that contain no sequence
436:
360:
356:
315:
239:
235:
169:
150:
113:
109:
strands, which forms new molecules of DNA (see DHJ pathway in Figure).
94:
59:
1711:
1217:
653:
338:
326:
213:
117:
79:
67:
1511:
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2759:
781:
568:
564:
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are in tight formation with one another. While in this formation,
298:
231:
355:
inherited from each of one's parents, generally occurring during
2624:
401:
351:
Chromosomal crossover involves recombination between the paired
221:
2638:
2583:: Animations showing several models of homologous recombination
1010:
Bajrović K, Jevrić-Čaušević A, Hadžiselimović R, eds. (2005).
956:
Glossary of genetics and cytogenetics: Classical and molecular
816:
674:
489:
277:
121:
106:
47:
810:. They pointed out that all known life on earth is based on
390:
The recombination frequency between two loci observed is the
765:
under positive selection pressure. In three patients on the
512:. A prime example of such a use of genetic recombination is
246:, is specific to meiotic recombination. In the archaea, the
78:
recombination, occurring through independent assortment of
547:
DNA damages caused by a variety of exogenous agents (e.g.
1587:
Simon-Loriere, Etienne; Holmes, Edward C. (August 2011).
677:), damage in the RNA genome appears to be avoided during
333:. It also allows sexually reproducing organisms to avoid
160:
Recombination can be artificially induced in laboratory (
2788:
2413:"Prevolutionary dynamics and the origin of evolution"
1790:
Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE (January 2018).
2758:
2709:
2680:
408:), and depends on the distance between the genetic
2362:Neches RY, McGee MD, Kyrpides NC (November 2020).
2039:"The mechanism of RNA recombination in poliovirus"
1883:
1881:
1446:"The evolution of sex dimorphism in recombination"
982:
953:
2411:Nowak, Martin A.; Ohtsuki, Hisashi (2008-09-30).
2340:20.500.11820/222bb9b9-2481-4086-bd22-f0b200930bef
1548:"How RNA viruses maintain their genome integrity"
802:Nowak and Ohtsuki noted that the origin of life (
1785:
1783:
1189:". In Hanawalt PC, Friedberg EC, Fox CF (eds.).
524:to develop new proteins of biological interest.
484:from one class to another, for example, from an
101:, genetic recombination involves the pairing of
90:recombination, occurring through crossing over.
1294:"Deoxyribonucleic acid repair in bacteriophage"
1250:Michod RE, Bernstein H, Nedelcu AM (May 2008).
761:shipboard quarantine and arose through de novo
708:organisms with a DNA genome (see first Figure,
480:. It is a biological mechanism that changes an
242:recombination, whereas the DNA repair protein,
66:information that can be further passed on from
1252:"Adaptive value of sex in microbial pathogens"
1115:. Oxford: Blackwell Science. pp. 945–950.
1012:Uvod u genetičko inženjerstvo i biotehnologiju
681:by strand switching, a form of recombination.
2650:
2364:"Recombination should not be an afterthought"
1193:. New York: Academic Press. pp. 449–452.
1090:. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1037:Molecular Biology of the Cell, Fourth Edition
989:. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
276:or abortive transfer, which is any bacterial
8:
1439:
1437:
1067:. The National Health Museum Resource Center
773:Coronavirus 3′ stem-loop II-like motif (s2m)
2602:Animated guide to homologous recombination.
2587:The Holliday Model of Genetic Recombination
2037:Kirkegaard K, Baltimore D (November 1986).
1541:
1539:
798:Role of recombination in the origin of life
631:states that achiasmy usually occurs in the
2657:
2643:
2635:
2581:Animations – homologous recombination
960:. Heidelberg – New York: Springer-Verlag.
561:DNA damages arising from natural processes
141:Genetic recombination and recombinational
2594:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
2554:
2454:
2436:
2387:
2338:
2328:
2287:
2230:
2189:
2160:
2111:
2062:
2013:
1921:
1861:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1807:
1720:
1710:
1669:
1620:
1563:
1527:
1469:
1417:
1407:
1366:
1341:Andersen SL, Sekelsky J (December 2010).
1317:
1245:
1243:
1161:
1151:
925:
952:Rieger R, Michaelis A, Green MM (1976).
29:
2795:
892:Daly, M J; Minton, K W (October 1995).
884:
529:Restriction enzyme mediated integration
306:'s illustration of crossing over (1916)
250:of the bacterial RecA protein is RadA.
476:perform genetic recombination, called
1113:The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology
363:(pachytene stage) the four available
7:
2205:Yeh TY, Contreras GP (1 July 2021).
1065:Crossing-over: Genetic Recombination
947:
945:
859:Site-specific recombinase technology
819:) that were the precursors to life.
112:Recombination may also occur during
2826:Modification of genetic information
2086:Cheng CP, Nagy PD (November 2003).
1390:Mehrotra, S.; McKim, K. S. (2006).
806:) is also the origin of biological
571:, increase the risk of cancer (see
2135:Yeh TY, Contreras GP (July 2020).
2104:10.1128/jvi.77.22.12033-12047.2003
25:
1796:Infection, Genetics and Evolution
1259:Infection, Genetics and Evolution
684:Recombination also occurs in the
224:, the chief recombinase found in
2798:
2612: This article incorporates
2607:
2141:The Medical Journal of Australia
1206:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry
1086:King RC, Stransfield WD (1998).
981:King RC, Stransfield WD (1998).
910:10.1128/jb.177.19.5495-5505.1995
1894:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1589:"Why do RNA viruses recombine?"
1552:The Journal of General Virology
1546:Barr JN, Fearns R (June 2010).
1185:Boyd JB (1978). "DNA repair in
455:, sometimes leading to cancer.
58:, genetic recombination during
2480:Journal of Molecular Evolution
1947:Journal of Theoretical Biology
573:DNA repair-deficiency disorder
478:immunoglobulin class switching
465:Immunoglobulin class switching
1:
1967:10.1016/S0022-5193(62)80030-7
1444:Lenormand T (February 2003).
1039:. New York: Garland Science.
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1792:"Sex in microbial pathogens"
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1310:10.1128/MMBR.45.1.72-98.1981
1271:10.1016/j.meegid.2008.01.002
731:RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
1593:Nature Reviews Microbiology
864:Site-specific recombination
443:Nonhomologous recombination
62:can lead to a novel set of
2847:
2380:10.1038/s41579-020-00451-1
1462:10.1093/genetics/163.2.811
1292:Bernstein C (March 1981).
612:Achiasmy and heterochiasmy
462:
453:chromosomal translocations
427:
376:frequency of recombination
292:
257:
193:
2745:Sister chromatid exchange
2500:10.1007/s00239-003-2454-1
2330:10.1038/s41564-020-0771-4
2191:10.1101/2020.04.20.052019
1998:10.1038/s42003-018-0175-7
1854:10.1016/j.tim.2016.03.003
644:rates of recombination.
396:. It is the frequency of
208:Genetic recombination is
2740:Horizontal gene transfer
2670:homologous recombination
2596:Medical Subject Headings
2211:Bull. World Health Organ
839:Homologous recombination
753:analysis confirmed that
688:(dsRNA)(e.g. reovirus),
234:protein is required for
2674:mobile genetic elements
2438:10.1073/pnas.0806714105
1766:10.1126/science.1700865
1298:Microbiological Reviews
1153:10.1073/pnas.73.11.4140
898:Journal of Bacteriology
849:Recombination frequency
829:Eukaryote hybrid genome
648:RNA virus recombination
624:Drosophila melanogaster
314:, recombination during
260:Bacterial recombination
254:Bacterial recombination
168:for purposes including
18:Recombination (biology)
2614:public domain material
2547:10.1261/rna.068908.118
2280:10.1126/sciadv.abb9153
1986:Communications Biology
1906:10.1093/molbev/msab292
1842:Trends in Microbiology
1650:Nucleic Acids Research
1565:10.1099/vir.0.020818-0
1359:10.1002/bies.201000087
1088:Dictionary of Genetics
985:Dictionary of genetics
844:Independent assortment
787:
751:Linkage disequilibrium
543:Recombinational repair
518:biomedical researchers
307:
280:transfer of the donor
180:adaptive immune system
164:) settings, producing
103:homologous chromosomes
36:
2725:Chromosomal crossover
2592:Genetic+recombination
2223:10.2471/BLT.20.255752
1191:DNA Repair Mechanisms
854:Recombination hotspot
785:
722:When replicating its
679:reverse transcription
629:"Haldane-Huxley rule"
595:Meiotic recombination
492:to an isotype called
320:chromosomal crossover
302:
295:Chromosomal crossover
289:Chromosomal crossover
274:unsuccessful transfer
178:in organisms with an
46:) is the exchange of
40:Genetic recombination
33:
155:asexual reproduction
126:homologous sequences
2492:2003JMolE..56..770L
2429:2008PNAS..10514924N
2423:(39): 14924–14927.
2317:Nature Microbiology
2272:2020SciA....6.9153L
2092:Journal of Virology
1959:1962JThBi...3..335B
1758:1990Sci...250.1227H
1656:(20): 10535–10545.
1605:10.1038/nrmicro2614
1144:1976PNAS...73.4140B
1061:"Access Excellence"
874:V(D)J recombination
537:Golden Gate Cloning
522:protein engineering
506:genetic engineering
500:Genetic engineering
400:between two linked
393:crossing-over value
176:V(D)J recombination
44:genetic reshuffling
2831:Molecular genetics
2821:Cellular processes
2153:10.5694/mja2.50657
1662:10.1093/nar/gky910
1035:Alberts B (2002).
996:978-0-19-50944-1-1
788:
779:/mutation hotspot.
318:is facilitated by
308:
304:Thomas Hunt Morgan
212:by many different
50:between different
37:
2786:
2785:
2323:(11): 1408–1417.
1752:(4985): 1227–33.
1712:10.3390/v11090859
1558:(Pt 6): 1373–87.
1218:10.1002/jcb.21113
1046:978-0-8153-3218-3
1021:978-9958-9344-1-4
967:978-3-540-07668-1
904:(19): 5495–5505.
777:RNA recombination
763:RNA recombination
755:RNA recombination
700:((+)ssRNA) (e.g.
633:heterogametic sex
585:T4 bacteriophages
527:Examples include
451:. This can cause
331:genetic variation
16:(Redirected from
2838:
2803:
2802:
2794:
2659:
2652:
2645:
2636:
2632:
2627:. Archived from
2611:
2610:
2569:
2568:
2558:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2458:
2440:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2391:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2342:
2332:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2291:
2266:(27): eabb9153.
2260:Science Advances
2251:
2245:
2244:
2234:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2181:
2175:
2174:
2164:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2115:
2098:(22): 12033–47.
2083:
2077:
2076:
2066:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2017:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1925:
1885:
1876:
1875:
1865:
1833:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1787:
1778:
1777:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1724:
1714:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1673:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1624:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1567:
1543:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1473:
1441:
1432:
1431:
1421:
1411:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1370:
1338:
1332:
1331:
1321:
1289:
1283:
1282:
1256:
1247:
1238:
1237:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1165:
1155:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1108:
1102:
1101:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1032:
1026:
1025:
1007:
1001:
1000:
988:
978:
972:
971:
959:
949:
940:
939:
929:
889:
834:Four-gamete test
768:Diamond Princess
759:Diamond Princess
692:((-)ssRNA)(e.g.
690:orthomyxoviridae
673:((+)ssRNA)(e.g.
369:homologous sites
335:Muller's ratchet
270:genetic material
227:Escherichia coli
48:genetic material
21:
2846:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2797:
2789:
2787:
2782:
2768:Antigenic shift
2754:
2730:Gene conversion
2705:
2676:
2663:
2617:
2608:
2577:
2572:
2528:
2527:
2523:
2477:
2476:
2472:
2410:
2409:
2405:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2204:
2203:
2199:
2183:
2182:
2178:
2147:(1): 44–44.e1.
2134:
2133:
2129:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2036:
2035:
2031:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1887:
1886:
1879:
1835:
1834:
1825:
1789:
1788:
1781:
1743:
1742:
1738:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1586:
1585:
1581:
1545:
1544:
1537:
1512:10.1038/ng.3306
1500:Nature Genetics
1492:
1491:
1487:
1443:
1442:
1435:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1353:(12): 1058–66.
1340:
1339:
1335:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1254:
1249:
1248:
1241:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1184:
1183:
1179:
1125:
1124:
1120:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1098:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1070:
1068:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1047:
1034:
1033:
1029:
1022:
1009:
1008:
1004:
997:
980:
979:
975:
968:
951:
950:
943:
891:
890:
886:
882:
825:
800:
724:(+)ssRNA genome
694:influenza virus
650:
614:
597:
545:
533:Gibson assembly
510:recombinant DNA
502:
467:
461:
445:
432:
430:Gene conversion
426:
424:Gene conversion
337:, in which the
297:
291:
272:, expressed as
262:
206:
198:
192:
166:recombinant DNA
145:also occurs in
136:Gene conversion
42:(also known as
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2844:
2842:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2813:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2764:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2716:
2714:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2703:
2701:Transformation
2698:
2693:
2687:
2685:
2678:
2677:
2664:
2662:
2661:
2654:
2647:
2639:
2631:on 2009-12-08.
2620:Science Primer
2605:
2604:
2599:
2589:
2584:
2576:
2575:External links
2573:
2571:
2570:
2541:(4): 453–464.
2521:
2486:(6): 770–777.
2470:
2403:
2354:
2303:
2246:
2217:(7): 486–495.
2197:
2176:
2127:
2078:
2029:
1972:
1953:(3): 335–353.
1937:
1877:
1848:(6): 490–502.
1823:
1779:
1736:
1685:
1636:
1599:(8): 617–626.
1579:
1535:
1506:(7): 727–735.
1485:
1433:
1382:
1333:
1284:
1239:
1196:
1177:
1138:(11): 4140–4.
1118:
1103:
1096:
1078:
1052:
1045:
1027:
1020:
1002:
995:
973:
966:
941:
883:
881:
878:
877:
876:
871:
866:
861:
856:
851:
846:
841:
836:
831:
824:
821:
799:
796:
659:picornaviridae
649:
646:
613:
610:
596:
593:
544:
541:
514:gene targeting
501:
498:
463:Main article:
460:
457:
444:
441:
428:Main article:
425:
422:
293:Main article:
290:
287:
258:Main article:
256:
255:
205:
202:
194:Main article:
191:
188:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2843:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2757:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2708:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2660:
2655:
2653:
2648:
2646:
2641:
2640:
2637:
2633:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2621:
2615:
2603:
2600:
2597:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2566:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2525:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2407:
2404:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2355:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2198:
2192:
2187:
2180:
2177:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2128:
2123:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2079:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2049:(3): 433–43.
2048:
2044:
2040:
2033:
2030:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1740:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1640:
1637:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1489:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1456:(2): 811–22.
1455:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1396:PLOS Genetics
1393:
1386:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1337:
1334:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1288:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1265:(3): 267–85.
1264:
1260:
1253:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1212:(5): 1232–9.
1211:
1207:
1200:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1181:
1178:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1122:
1119:
1114:
1107:
1104:
1099:
1097:0-19-509442-5
1093:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1066:
1062:
1056:
1053:
1048:
1042:
1038:
1031:
1028:
1023:
1017:
1013:
1006:
1003:
998:
992:
987:
986:
977:
974:
969:
963:
958:
957:
948:
946:
942:
937:
933:
928:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
888:
885:
879:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
860:
857:
855:
852:
850:
847:
845:
842:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
826:
822:
820:
818:
813:
809:
805:
797:
795:
793:
784:
780:
778:
774:
770:
769:
764:
760:
756:
752:
746:
742:
740:
739:tombusviruses
736:
732:
729:
725:
720:
716:
713:
711:
705:
703:
699:
698:coronaviridae
695:
691:
687:
682:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
655:
647:
645:
642:
641:
640:Heterochiasmy
636:
634:
630:
626:
625:
620:
619:
611:
609:
605:
601:
594:
592:
590:
586:
580:
576:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
557:cross-linking
554:
550:
542:
540:
538:
534:
530:
525:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
499:
497:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
474:immune system
471:
466:
458:
456:
454:
450:
442:
440:
438:
431:
423:
421:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
398:crossing over
395:
394:
388:
386:
380:
377:
372:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
349:
347:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
325:
321:
317:
313:
305:
301:
296:
288:
286:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
261:
253:
252:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
228:
223:
219:
215:
211:
203:
201:
197:
189:
187:
185:
181:
177:
173:
172:development.
171:
167:
163:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
139:
137:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
110:
108:
104:
100:
96:
91:
89:
87:
81:
77:
75:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
32:
19:
2773:Reassortment
2720:Transfection
2696:Transduction
2629:the original
2619:
2606:
2538:
2534:
2524:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2420:
2416:
2406:
2371:
2367:
2357:
2320:
2316:
2306:
2263:
2259:
2249:
2214:
2210:
2200:
2179:
2144:
2140:
2130:
2095:
2091:
2081:
2046:
2042:
2032:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1950:
1946:
1940:
1897:
1893:
1845:
1841:
1799:
1795:
1749:
1745:
1739:
1702:
1698:
1688:
1653:
1649:
1639:
1596:
1592:
1582:
1555:
1551:
1503:
1499:
1488:
1453:
1449:
1402:(11): e200.
1399:
1395:
1385:
1350:
1346:
1336:
1304:(1): 72–98.
1301:
1297:
1287:
1262:
1258:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1190:
1186:
1180:
1135:
1131:
1121:
1112:
1106:
1087:
1081:
1071:February 23,
1069:. Retrieved
1064:
1055:
1036:
1030:
1011:
1005:
984:
976:
955:
901:
897:
887:
869:Reassortment
801:
789:
767:
747:
743:
735:carmoviruses
721:
717:
714:
706:
683:
671:retroviridae
651:
638:
637:
628:
622:
616:
615:
606:
602:
598:
589:reassortment
581:
577:
546:
526:
503:
468:
446:
433:
418:genetic maps
391:
389:
381:
373:
350:
309:
263:
225:
218:Recombinases
207:
199:
174:
161:
159:
153:, which use
140:
134:
111:
92:
85:
83:
73:
71:
43:
39:
38:
2778:Viral shift
2735:Fusion gene
2691:Conjugation
2683:prokaryotic
2374:(11): 606.
1900:: msab292.
812:biopolymers
804:abiogenesis
669:). In the
555:, chemical
353:chromosomes
88:chromosomal
76:chromosomal
2815:Categories
2750:Transposon
2712:eukaryotes
2710:Occurs in
2681:Primarily
1992:(1): 179.
1705:(9): 859.
1187:Drosophila
880:References
728:poliovirus
712:pathway).
686:reoviridae
667:poliovirus
459:In B cells
414:chromosome
365:chromatids
361:prophase I
346:population
312:eukaryotes
143:DNA repair
130:DNA repair
99:eukaryotes
56:eukaryotes
2447:0027-8424
2006:2399-3642
1914:0737-4038
1613:1740-1526
1520:1546-1718
1347:BioEssays
918:0021-9193
808:evolution
792:pangolins
359:. During
210:catalyzed
204:Mechanism
184:pathogens
52:organisms
2666:Genetics
2565:30670484
2516:33130898
2508:12911039
2465:18791073
2398:32958891
2349:32724171
2298:32937441
2241:34248221
2171:32506536
2122:14581540
2024:30393776
1932:34638137
1872:27012512
1818:29111273
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1731:31540135
1680:30307534
1631:21725337
1574:20335491
1480:12618416
1450:Genetics
1428:17166055
1377:20967781
1279:18295550
1234:23743474
1226:17177185
823:See also
665:) (e.g.
663:(+)ssRNA
618:Achiasmy
549:UV light
482:antibody
449:homology
324:chimeric
266:bacteria
248:ortholog
196:Synapsis
190:Synapsis
162:in vitro
147:bacteria
2805:Biology
2488:Bibcode
2456:2567469
2425:Bibcode
2389:7503439
2289:7458444
2268:Bibcode
2232:8243027
2186:bioRxiv
2162:7300921
2073:3021340
2064:7133339
2015:6206136
1955:Bibcode
1923:8549283
1863:7125511
1774:1700865
1754:Bibcode
1746:Science
1722:6784155
1699:Viruses
1671:6237782
1622:3324781
1529:4770575
1494:2015).
1471:1462442
1419:1657055
1368:3090628
1328:6261109
1140:Bibcode
936:7559335
654:genomes
488:called
486:isotype
472:of the
470:B cells
437:meiosis
406:markers
357:meiosis
343:asexual
339:genomes
327:alleles
316:meiosis
240:meiotic
236:mitotic
214:enzymes
170:vaccine
151:archaea
118:alleles
114:mitosis
95:meiosis
93:During
80:alleles
68:parents
64:genetic
60:meiosis
2791:Portal
2598:(MeSH)
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565:BRCA1
232:RAD51
2625:NCBI
2561:PMID
2504:PMID
2461:PMID
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2394:PMID
2345:PMID
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2237:PMID
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1910:ISSN
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1814:PMID
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1092:ISBN
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962:ISBN
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244:DMC1
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222:RecA
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2335:hdl
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2145:213
2108:PMC
2100:doi
2059:PMC
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2010:PMC
1994:doi
1963:doi
1918:PMC
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1858:PMC
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