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Reconstructive memory

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stories at various points after the presentation to newer generations of participants. His findings showed that the participants could provide a simple summary but had difficulty recalling the story accurately, with the participants' own account generally being shorter and manipulated in such a way that aspects of the original story that were unfamiliar or conflicting to the participants' own schematic knowledge were removed or altered in a way to fit into more personally relevant versions. For instance, allusions made to magic and Native American mysticism that were in the original version were omitted as they failed to fit into the average Westerner schematic network. Besides, after several recounts of the story had been made by successive generations of participants, certain aspects of the recalled tale were embellished so they were more consistent with the participants' cultural and historical viewpoint compared to the original text (e.g. Emphasis placed on one of the characters desire to return to care for his dependent elderly mother). These findings lead Bartlett to conclude that recall is predominately a
230:. The Medial Temporal lobe is especially vital for encoding novel events in episodic networks, with the Hippocampus acting as one of the central locations that acts to both combine and later separate the various features of an event. Most popular research holds that the Hippocampus becomes less important in long term memory functioning after more extensive consolidation of the distinct features present at the time of episode encoding has occurred. In this way long term episodic functioning moves away from the CA3 region of the Hippocampal formation into the neocortex, effectively freeing up the CA3 area for more initial processing. Studies have also consistently linked the activity of the Prefrontal Cortex, especially that which occurs in the right hemisphere, to the process of retrieval. The Prefrontal cortex appears to be utilized for executive functioning primarily for directing the focus of attention during retrieval processing, as well as for setting the appropriate criterion required to find the desired target memory. 148:. Piaget defined assimilation as the process of making sense of the novel and unfamiliar information by using previously learned information. To assimilate, Piaget defined a second cognitive process that served to integrate new information into memory by altering preexisting schematic networks to fit novel concepts, what he referred to as accommodation. For Piaget, these two processes, accommodation, and assimilation, are mutually reliant on one another and are vital requirements for people to form basic conceptual networks around world knowledge and to add onto these structures by utilizing preexisting learning to understand new information, respectively. 311:
robbery decays much faster than those that are schema-consistent. These were memories such as the method of getaway, demands by the robbers, and the robbers' physical appearance. The study also found that information that was schema-inconsistent but stood out as very abnormal for the participants was usually recalled more readily and was retained for the duration of the study. The authors of the study advise that interviewers of eyewitnesses should take note of such reports because there is a possibility that they may be accurate.
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participants to a series of simple figures and provided different words to describe each images. For example, all participants were exposed to an image of two circles attached by a single line, where some of the participants were told it was a barbell and the rest were told it was a pair of reading glasses. The experiment revealed that when the participants were later tasked with replicating the images, they tended to add features to their own reproduction that more closely resembled the word they were
385:. Tip of the tongue phenomenon refers to when an individual knows particular information, and they are aware that they know this information, yet can not produce it even though they may know certain aspects about the information. For example, during an exam a student is asked who theorized the concept of Psychosexual Development, the student may be able to recall the details about the actual theory but they are unable to retrieve the memory associated with who originally introduced the theory. 447: 88:
unique characteristics of the given memory they would like to retrieve. When there is little available distinctive information for a given episode there will be more overlap across multiple episodes, leading the individual to recall only the general similarities common to these memories. Ultimately proper recall for a desired target memory fails due to the interference of non-target memories that are activated because of their similarity.
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detract from it. The most common aspect of retrieval cues associated with reconstructive memory is the process that involves recollection. This process uses logical structures, partial memories, narratives, or clues to retrieve the desired memory. However, the process of recollection is not always successful due to
433:. However, there was not any broken glass in the video. The difference between this group and the others was that they were primed with the word “smashed” in the questionnaire, one week before answering the question. By changing one word in the questionnaire, their memories were re-encoded with new details. 250:
and its accuracy is the subject of many studies. Eyewitness testimony is any firsthand accounts given by individuals of an event they have witnessed. Eyewitness testimony is used to acquire details about the event and even to identify the perpetrators of the event. Eyewitness testimony is used often
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is the tendency that people have to distinguish among other of their race than of other races. Although the exact cause of the effect is unknown, two main theories are supported. The perceptual expertise hypothesis postulates that because most people are raised and are more likely to associate with
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The use of schemas has been shown to increase the accuracy of recall of schema-consistent information but this comes at the cost of decreased recall of schema-inconsistent information. A study by Tuckey and Brewer found that after 12 weeks, memories of information inconsistent with a schema-typical
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During retrieval of episodic memories, people use their schematic knowledge to fill in information gaps, though they generally do so in a manner that implements aspects of their own beliefs, moral values, and personal perspective that leads the reproduced memory to be a biased interpretation of the
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are generally defined as mental information networks that represent some aspect of collected world knowledge. Frederic Bartlett was one of the first psychologists to propose Schematic theory, suggesting that the individual's understanding of the world is influenced by elaborate neural networks that
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and believe that their perspective is free from an error during recall. However, the reconstructive process of memory recall is subject to distortion by other intervening cognitive functions and operations such as individual perceptions, social influences, and world knowledge, all of which can lead
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According to Piaget, schematic knowledge organizes features information in such a way that more similar features are grouped so that when activated during recall the more strongly related aspects of memory will be more likely to activate together. An extension of this theory, Piaget proposed that
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of experience is stored. Rather, memory is dependent on constructive processes during encoding that may introduce errors or distortions. Essentially, the constructive memory process functions by encoding the patterns of perceived physical characteristics, as well as the interpretive conceptual and
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Many errors can occur when attempting to retrieve a specific episode. First, the retrieval cues used to initiate the search for a specific episode may be too similar to other experiential memories and the retrieval process may fail if the individual is unable to form a specific description of the
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After the information is encoded and stored in our memory, specific cues are often needed to retrieve these memories. These are known as retrieval cues and they play a major role in reconstructive memory. The use of retrieval cues can both promote the accuracy of reconstructive memory as well as
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However, in a study by Clifford and Scott (1978), participants were shown either a film of a violent crime or a film of a non-violent crime. The participants who viewed the stressful film had difficulty remembering details about the event compared to the participants that watched the non-violent
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Anxiety is a state of distress or uneasiness of mind caused by fear and it is a consistently associated with witnessing crimes. In a study done by Yuille and Cutshall (1986), they discovered that witnesses of real-life violent crimes were able to remember the event quite vividly even five months
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James J. Gibson built off of the work that Bartlett originally laid down, suggesting that the degree of change found in a reproduction of an episodic memory depends on how that memory is later perceived. This concept was later tested by Carmichael, Hogan, and Walter (1932) who exposed a group of
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Priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli due to prior experience. Priming is believed to occur outside of conscious awareness, which makes it different from memory that relies on the direct retrieval of information. Priming can influence reconstructive memory because it can
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originally tested his idea of the reconstructive nature of recall by presenting a group of participants with foreign folk tales (his most famous being "War of the Ghosts") with which they had no previous experience. After presenting the story, he tested their ability to recall and summarize the
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In the regular process of reconstruction, several sources are used to accrue information and add detail to memory. For patients producing confabulations, some key sources of information are missing and so other sources are used to produce a cohesive, internally consistent, and often believable
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Secondly, a large number of errors that occur during memory reconstruction are caused by faults in the criterion-setting and decision making processes used to direct attention towards retrieving a specific target memory. When there are lapses in the recall of aspects of episodic memory, the
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Many autobiographies are excellent examples of motivated self-enhancement because when recalling the events that have taken place in one's life, there is a tendency to make oneself appear to be more involved in positive experiences, though others may remember the event differently.
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across subsequent recollections. By employing reconstructive processes, individuals supplement other aspects of available personal knowledge and schema into the gaps found in episodic memory in order to provide a fuller and more coherent version, albeit one that is often distorted.
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individual tends to supplement other aspects of knowledge that are unrelated to the actual episode to form a more cohesive and well-rounded reconstruction of the memory, regardless of whether or not the individual is aware of such supplemental processing. This process is known as
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Further studies on flashbulb memories seem to indicate that witnesses may recall vivid sensory content unrelated to the actual event but which enhance its perceived vividness. Due to this vividness, eyewitnesses may place higher confidence in their reconstructed memories.
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others of the same race, they develop an expertise in identifying the faces of that race. The other main theory is the in-group advantage. It has been shown in the lab that people are better at discriminating the emotions of in-group members than those of out-groups.
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film. In a study by Brigham et al. (2010), subjects who experienced an electrical shock were less accurate in facial recognition tests, suggesting that some details were not well remembered under stressful situations. In fact, in the case of the phenomena known as
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with John Palmer in 1974. Loftus and Palmer recruited 150 participants and showed each of them a film of a traffic accident. After, they had the participants fill out a questionnaire concerning the video's details. The participants were split into three groups:
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to direct and control the type of response that is elicited by the witness. This phenomenon occurs when the response a person gives can be persuaded by the way a question is worded. For example, a person could be posed a question in two different forms:
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Selective memory involves actively forgetting negative experiences or enhancing positive ones. This process actively affects reconstructive memory by distorting recollections of events. This affects reconstructive memories in two ways:
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has shown that there is an extensive amount of distributed brain activation during the process of episodic encoding and retrieval. Among the various regions, the two most active areas during the constructive processes are the
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Using this method of controlled interrogation, the direction of a witness cross-examination can often be controlled and manipulated by the individual who is posing questions to fit their own needs and intentions.
121:. Schema is understood to be central to reconstruction, used to confabulate, and fill in gaps to provide a plausible narrative. Bartlett also showed that schema can be tied to cultural and social norms. 79:. The complexity required for reconstructing some episodes is quite demanding and can result in incorrect or incomplete recall. This complexity leaves individuals susceptible to phenomena such as the 67:
Memory rarely relies on a literal recount of past experiences. By using multiple interdependent cognitive processes and functions, there is never a single location in the brain where a given complete
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Moscovitch M. 1995. Confabulation. In (Eds. Schacter D.L., Coyle J.T., Fischbach G.D., Mesulum M.M. & Sullivan L.G.), Memory Distortion (pp. 226-251). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
96:. All of the supplemental processes occurring during the course of reconstruction rely on the use of schema, information networks that organize and store abstract knowledge in the brain. 377:(also known as retrieval failure) occurs when memories are not obtainable because the appropriate cues are absent. This is associated with a relatively common occurrence known as the 341:"What was the approximate height of the robber?" which would lead the respondent to estimate the height according to their original perceptions. They could alternatively be asked: 75:
In this manner, the various features of the experience must be joined together to form a coherent representation of the episode. If this binding process fails, it can result in
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in court and is viewed favorably by juries as a reliable source of information. Unfortunately, eyewitness testimony can be easily manipulated by a variety of factors such as:
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A week later, all of the participants were asked whether or not there had been any broken glass in the video. A statistically significant number of participants in the group
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Brignull, H. (2010, March 16). The reconstructive nature of human memory (and what this means for research documentation). User Experience Design, Research and Usability.
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presented many papers concerning the effects of proactive interference on the recall of eyewitness events. Interference involving priming was established in her classic
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Frisoni, Matteo; Di Ghionno, Monica; Guidotti, Roberto; Tosoni, Annalisa; Sestieri, Carlo (2021). "Reconstructive Nature of Temporal Memory for Movie Scenes".
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results in overconfidence in personal perception and usually leads to a strengthening of beliefs, often in the face of contradictory dis-confirming evidence.
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after it originally occurred. In fact, witnesses to violent or traumatic crimes often self-report the memory as being particularly vivid. For this reason,
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the schematic frameworks that are more frequently activated will become more strongly consolidated and thus quicker and more efficient to activate later.
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and traumatic injury of certain brain structures. Those confabulating don't know that what they are remembering is false and have no intent to deceive.
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Often during eyewitness testimonies, the witness is interrogated about their particular view of an incident and often the interrogator will use
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Cherry, K. (2009, March 26). Priming - What Is Priming. Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts.
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Reconstructing the face of another race requires the use of schemas that may not be as developed and refined as those of the same race. The
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Auger, W.F. & Rich, S.J. (2006.) Curriculum Theory and Methods: Perspectives on Learning and Teaching. New York, NY: Wiley & Sons.
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The areas most actively involved in episodic encoding and retrieval are the medial temporal lobe (hippocampus) and the prefrontal lobe.
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organize abstract information and concepts. Schema are fairly consistent and become strongly internalized in the individual through
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Brigham, John C.; Maass, Anne; Martinez, David; Whittenberger, Gary (1983-09-01). "The Effect of Arousal on Facial Recognition".
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Elfenbein, H. A.; Ambady, N. (2003). "When familiarity breeds accuracy: Cultural exposure and facial emotion recognition".
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Group C contained 50 participants and were not asked this question because they were meant to represent a control group
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is the involuntary false remembering of events and can be a characteristic of several psychological diseases such as
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Schacter DL. 1989. Memory. In Foundations of Cognitive Science, ed. MI Posner, pp. 683–725. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
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FMRI showing the active areas of a schizophrenic participant's brain while performing working memory tasks
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Rae Tuckey, Michelle (2003). "How schemas affect eyewitness memory over repeated retrieval attempts".
446: 298:, eyewitnesses to stressful crimes involving weapons may perform worse during suspect identification. 2559: 2543: 2422: 2180: 2133: 2123: 1911: 1859: 1143: 701: 477:. The source and type of confabulations differ for each type of disease or area of traumatic damage. 363: 243: 219: 177: 1497: 1438: 1032:
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Group B contained 50 participants that were asked: "About how fast were the cars going when they
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Group A contained 50 participants that were asked: "About how fast were the cars going when they
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26:, in which the act of remembering is influenced by various other cognitive processes including 2823: 2811: 2782: 2630: 2501: 2476: 2432: 2359: 2337: 2238: 2175: 2143: 2118: 2086: 2071: 1981: 1951: 1889: 1820: 1780: 1510: 1451: 1372: 1364: 1322: 1287: 1246: 1171: 1096: 1049: 1012: 881: 833: 790: 782: 729: 721: 682: 664: 623: 615: 568: 378: 320: 283: 270: 227: 190: 160: 956: 545: 2762: 2715: 2685: 2640: 2496: 2427: 2380: 2185: 2160: 2046: 2006: 1894: 1772: 1728: 1709: 1568: 1552: 1502: 1443: 1399: 1356: 1347:
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Jean Piaget influenced the study of reconstructive memory with his theory of schema.
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by preventing memories from being recalled, even when appropriate cues are present
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by enhancing one's own role in previous experiences, also known as motivated
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proposed an alternative understanding of schema based on the two concepts:
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semantic functions that act in response to the incoming information.
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answered that they remembered seeing broken glass in the video
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Recent research using neuro-imaging technology including
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Atkinson 2408:Effects of exercise 2282:Memory implantation 2166:Interference theory 2082:Selective retention 2062:Meaningful learning 1148:1994PNAS...91.2012T 901:Jack Block (1982). 544:Squire, LR (1992). 463:Alzheimer's disease 2788:Andriy Slyusarchuk 2611:Hermann Ebbinghaus 2517:Involuntary memory 2418:Memory improvement 2403:Effects of alcohol 2365:Transactive memory 2343:Politics of memory 2312:Exceptional memory 1664:. Washington, DC: 1612:. Washington, DC: 959:on October 8, 2001 660:10.5709/acp-0188-z 452: 277:Anxiety and stress 207: 189:original version. 135: 60: 2832: 2831: 2796: 2795: 2783:Cosmos Rossellius 2631:Marcia K. Johnson 2502:Exosomatic memory 2487:Context-dependent 2477:Absent-mindedness 2360:Memory conformity 2338:Collective memory 2239:Memory conformity 2176:Memory inhibition 2095: 2094: 2087:Tip of the tongue 1826:978-0-262-01457-1 1681:cite encyclopedia 1629:cite encyclopedia 1328:978-0-12-408087-4 1202:Simply Psychology 1077:Markowitsch, H.J. 1017:978-0-07-050477-6 910:Child Development 887:978-0-521-48356-8 379:tip of the tongue 334:leading questions 328:Leading questions 321:cross-race effect 315:Cross-race effect 284:eyewitness memory 271:cross-race effect 228:prefrontal cortex 191:Confirmation bias 184:Confirmation bias 161:Frederic Bartlett 2857: 2822: 2821: 2820: 2810: 2809: 2808: 2763:Jonathan Hancock 2716:Robert Stickgold 2686:Richard Shiffrin 2641:Elizabeth Loftus 2581: 2497:Childhood memory 2304:Research methods 2186:Repressed memory 2161:Forgetting curve 2149:transient global 2020:Autobiographical 1930: 1869: 1862: 1855: 1846: 1840: 1837: 1831: 1830: 1812: 1806: 1803: 1797: 1796: 1771:(6): 2135–2151. 1760: 1754: 1751: 1745: 1744: 1718: 1706: 1700: 1697: 1691: 1690: 1684: 1676: 1674: 1673: 1654: 1648: 1645: 1639: 1638: 1632: 1624: 1622: 1621: 1602: 1596: 1589: 1583: 1582: 1580: 1579: 1573: 1567:. Archived from 1542: 1533: 1527: 1526: 1500: 1480: 1474: 1473: 1471: 1470: 1464: 1458:. Archived from 1441: 1423: 1414: 1408: 1407: 1387: 1381: 1380: 1344: 1338: 1337: 1336: 1335: 1302: 1296: 1295: 1285: 1261: 1255: 1254: 1226: 1220: 1219: 1212: 1206: 1205: 1193: 1180: 1179: 1169: 1159: 1127: 1121: 1114: 1105: 1104: 1072: 1066: 1065: 1029: 1020: 1009: 1003: 1002: 999:10.1037/h0072470 984: 975: 969: 968: 966: 964: 955:. Archived from 949: 943: 940: 934: 933: 907: 898: 892: 891: 871: 862: 861: 859: 851: 842: 841: 813: 807: 806: 780: 752: 746: 745: 697: 691: 690: 680: 662: 638: 632: 631: 595: 586: 583: 577: 576: 550: 541: 495:self-enhancement 481:Selective memory 396:Elizabeth Loftus 288:flashbulb memory 2865: 2864: 2860: 2859: 2858: 2856: 2855: 2854: 2835: 2834: 2833: 2828: 2818: 2816: 2806: 2804: 2792: 2773:Dominic O'Brien 2751: 2720: 2701:Susumu Tonegawa 2681:Daniel Schacter 2656:Eleanor Maguire 2646:Geoffrey Loftus 2601:Stephen J. Ceci 2596:Robert A. Bjork 2572: 2491:state-dependent 2465: 2437: 2369: 2350:Cultural memory 2326: 2322:Memory disorder 2298: 2258: 2200: 2091: 2001: 1976: 1921: 1878: 1873: 1843: 1838: 1834: 1827: 1814: 1813: 1809: 1804: 1800: 1762: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1748: 1716: 1708: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1694: 1677: 1671: 1669: 1656: 1655: 1651: 1646: 1642: 1625: 1619: 1617: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1590: 1586: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1540: 1535: 1534: 1530: 1498:10.1.1.200.1256 1482: 1481: 1477: 1468: 1466: 1462: 1439:10.1.1.365.6517 1421: 1416: 1415: 1411: 1404:10.1002/acp.906 1389: 1388: 1384: 1346: 1345: 1341: 1333: 1331: 1329: 1304: 1303: 1299: 1263: 1262: 1258: 1228: 1227: 1223: 1214: 1213: 1209: 1195: 1194: 1183: 1129: 1128: 1124: 1115: 1108: 1087:(18): 2525–28. 1074: 1073: 1069: 1031: 1030: 1023: 1019:, OCLC 26931106 1010: 1006: 982: 977: 976: 972: 962: 960: 951: 950: 946: 941: 937: 922:10.2307/1128971 905: 900: 899: 895: 888: 873: 872: 865: 857: 853: 852: 845: 815: 814: 810: 754: 753: 749: 699: 698: 694: 640: 639: 635: 597: 596: 589: 584: 580: 548: 543: 542: 538: 534: 516:Recall (memory) 507: 483: 444: 439: 391: 372: 355: 330: 317: 308: 279: 241: 236: 222:(including the 199: 186: 158: 138:Piaget's theory 127: 119:episodic memory 107: 102: 100:Characteristics 65: 48:episodic memory 40:semantic memory 22:is a theory of 17: 12: 11: 5: 2863: 2861: 2853: 2852: 2847: 2837: 2836: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2826: 2814: 2801: 2798: 2797: 2794: 2793: 2791: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2768:Paul R. McHugh 2765: 2759: 2757: 2753: 2752: 2750: 2749: 2744: 2739: 2734: 2728: 2726: 2722: 2721: 2719: 2718: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2678: 2673: 2668: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2628: 2626:Ivan Izquierdo 2623: 2618: 2613: 2608: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2587: 2585: 2578: 2574: 2573: 2571: 2570: 2563: 2553: 2552: 2551: 2541: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2525: 2524: 2514: 2509: 2504: 2499: 2494: 2484: 2479: 2473: 2471: 2467: 2466: 2464: 2463: 2458: 2457: 2456: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2438: 2436: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2405: 2400: 2399: 2398: 2393: 2383: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2370: 2368: 2367: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2327: 2325: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2308: 2306: 2300: 2299: 2297: 2296: 2291: 2290: 2289: 2279: 2274: 2268: 2266: 2260: 2259: 2257: 2256: 2251: 2246: 2241: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2224:Hindsight bias 2221: 2216: 2210: 2208: 2202: 2201: 2199: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2173: 2171:Memory erasure 2168: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2152: 2151: 2146: 2141: 2136: 2131: 2129:post-traumatic 2126: 2121: 2116: 2105: 2103: 2097: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2090: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2074: 2069: 2067:Personal-event 2064: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2043: 2042: 2037: 2032: 2022: 2017: 2011: 2009: 2003: 2002: 2000: 1999: 1997:Working memory 1994: 1986: 1984: 1978: 1977: 1975: 1974: 1969: 1967:Motor learning 1964: 1959: 1954: 1949: 1944: 1938: 1936: 1927: 1923: 1922: 1920: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1886: 1884: 1883:Basic concepts 1880: 1879: 1874: 1872: 1871: 1864: 1857: 1849: 1842: 1841: 1832: 1825: 1807: 1798: 1755: 1746: 1701: 1692: 1649: 1640: 1597: 1584: 1551:(4): 560–572. 1528: 1491:(2): 276–290. 1475: 1432:(4): 760–763. 1409: 1398:(7): 785–800. 1382: 1355:(2): 284–309. 1339: 1327: 1297: 1276:(3): 257–263. 1256: 1237:(3): 279–293. 1221: 1207: 1181: 1142:(6): 2012–15. 1122: 1106: 1067: 1021: 1004: 970: 944: 935: 916:(2): 281–295. 893: 886: 863: 843: 824:(4): 359–411. 808: 747: 692: 633: 606:(1): 189–202. 587: 578: 559:(2): 195–231. 535: 533: 530: 529: 528: 523: 518: 513: 506: 503: 498: 497: 491: 482: 479: 443: 440: 438: 435: 423: 422: 419: 412: 390: 387: 371: 368: 354: 353:Retrieval cues 351: 346: 345: 342: 329: 326: 316: 313: 307: 304: 278: 275: 274: 273: 267: 262: 240: 237: 235: 232: 198: 195: 185: 182: 166:reconstructive 157: 154: 126: 123: 106: 103: 101: 98: 64: 61: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2862: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2842: 2840: 2825: 2815: 2813: 2803: 2802: 2799: 2789: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2771: 2769: 2766: 2764: 2761: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2748: 2747:Clive Wearing 2745: 2743: 2740: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2729: 2727: 2723: 2717: 2714: 2712: 2711:Endel Tulving 2709: 2707: 2706:Anne Treisman 2704: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2682: 2679: 2677: 2674: 2672: 2669: 2667: 2666:Brenda Milner 2664: 2662: 2659: 2657: 2654: 2652: 2651:James McGaugh 2649: 2647: 2644: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2632: 2629: 2627: 2624: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2616:Sigmund Freud 2614: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2582: 2579: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2564: 2561: 2560:retrospective 2557: 2554: 2550: 2547: 2546: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2539:Muscle memory 2537: 2535: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2523: 2520: 2519: 2518: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2508: 2505: 2503: 2500: 2498: 2495: 2492: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2474: 2472: 2468: 2462: 2459: 2455: 2452: 2451: 2450: 2447: 2446: 2444: 2440: 2434: 2431: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2397: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2387: 2386:Art of memory 2384: 2382: 2379: 2378: 2376: 2372: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2344: 2341: 2340: 2339: 2336: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2313: 2310: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2301: 2295: 2292: 2288: 2285: 2284: 2283: 2280: 2278: 2275: 2273: 2270: 2269: 2267: 2265: 2261: 2255: 2252: 2250: 2247: 2245: 2242: 2240: 2237: 2235: 2234:Memory biases 2232: 2230: 2227: 2225: 2222: 2220: 2217: 2215: 2214:Confabulation 2212: 2211: 2209: 2207: 2206:Memory errors 2203: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2150: 2147: 2145: 2142: 2140: 2137: 2135: 2132: 2130: 2127: 2125: 2124:post-hypnotic 2122: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2111: 2110: 2107: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2098: 2088: 2085: 2083: 2080: 2078: 2077:Rote learning 2075: 2073: 2070: 2068: 2065: 2063: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2053: 2052:Hyperthymesia 2050: 2048: 2045: 2041: 2038: 2036: 2033: 2031: 2028: 2027: 2026: 2023: 2021: 2018: 2016: 2015:Active recall 2013: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2004: 1998: 1995: 1992: 1988: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1931: 1928: 1924: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1912:Consolidation 1910: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1870: 1865: 1863: 1858: 1856: 1851: 1850: 1847: 1836: 1833: 1828: 1822: 1818: 1811: 1808: 1802: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1759: 1756: 1750: 1747: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1715: 1711: 1705: 1702: 1696: 1693: 1688: 1682: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1653: 1650: 1644: 1641: 1636: 1630: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1601: 1598: 1594: 1588: 1585: 1574:on 2020-06-19 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1539: 1532: 1529: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1479: 1476: 1465:on 2010-06-15 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1420: 1413: 1410: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1386: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1343: 1340: 1330: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1301: 1298: 1293: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1260: 1257: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1225: 1222: 1217: 1211: 1208: 1203: 1199: 1192: 1190: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1126: 1123: 1119: 1113: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1071: 1068: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1008: 1005: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 981: 974: 971: 958: 954: 948: 945: 939: 936: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 904: 897: 894: 889: 883: 879: 878: 870: 868: 864: 856: 850: 848: 844: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 812: 809: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 779: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 751: 748: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 696: 693: 688: 684: 679: 674: 670: 666: 661: 656: 652: 648: 644: 637: 634: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 594: 592: 588: 582: 579: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 547: 540: 537: 531: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 508: 504: 502: 496: 492: 489: 488: 487: 480: 478: 476: 470: 468: 467:schizophrenia 464: 460: 456: 455:Confabulation 448: 442:Confabulation 441: 436: 434: 432: 431:(p < -.05) 428: 420: 417: 413: 410: 406: 405: 404: 401: 397: 388: 386: 384: 383:William James 380: 376: 369: 367: 365: 361: 352: 350: 343: 340: 339: 338: 335: 327: 325: 322: 314: 312: 305: 303: 299: 297: 291: 289: 285: 276: 272: 268: 266: 263: 261: 257: 254: 253: 252: 249: 245: 238: 233: 231: 229: 225: 221: 216: 215:fMRI scanning 212: 203: 196: 194: 192: 183: 181: 179: 173: 171: 167: 162: 153: 149: 147: 146:accommodation 143: 139: 131: 122: 120: 116: 115:socialization 111: 104: 99: 97: 95: 94:confabulation 89: 85: 82: 78: 77:memory errors 73: 70: 62: 56: 52: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 29: 25: 24:memory recall 21: 2778:Ben Pridmore 2696:Larry Squire 2606:Susan Clancy 2565: 2449:Memory sport 2374:Other topics 2264:False memory 2219:Cryptomnesia 2196:Weapon focus 2156:Decay theory 1917:Neuroanatomy 1876:Human memory 1835: 1816: 1810: 1801: 1768: 1764: 1758: 1749: 1727:(5): 585–9. 1724: 1720: 1704: 1695: 1670:. Retrieved 1661: 1652: 1643: 1618:. Retrieved 1609: 1600: 1587: 1576:. Retrieved 1569:the original 1548: 1544: 1531: 1488: 1484: 1478: 1467:. Retrieved 1460:the original 1429: 1425: 1412: 1395: 1391: 1385: 1352: 1348: 1342: 1332:, retrieved 1311:Human Memory 1310: 1300: 1273: 1269: 1259: 1234: 1230: 1224: 1210: 1201: 1139: 1135: 1125: 1084: 1080: 1075:Tulving, E; 1070: 1037: 1033: 1007: 990: 986: 973: 961:. Retrieved 957:the original 947: 938: 913: 909: 896: 876: 821: 817: 811: 778:11585/964912 760: 756: 750: 709: 705: 695: 653:(2): 79–87. 650: 646: 636: 603: 599: 581: 556: 553:Psychol. Rev 552: 539: 499: 484: 475:false memory 471: 453: 430: 426: 424: 418:each other?" 415: 411:each other?” 408: 392: 373: 356: 347: 331: 318: 309: 300: 296:weapon focus 292: 280: 247: 242: 234:Applications 208: 187: 174: 170:reproductive 169: 168:rather than 165: 159: 150: 145: 142:assimilation 141: 136: 108: 90: 86: 74: 69:memory trace 66: 19: 18: 2636:Eric Kandel 2584:Researchers 2556:Prospective 2507:Free recall 2461:Shas Pollak 2114:anterograde 2030:Declarative 1081:NeuroReport 1040:: 289–318. 993:(1): 1–39. 712:: 199–208. 511:Jean Piaget 224:hippocampus 32:imagination 2839:Categories 2671:Lynn Nadel 2549:intertrial 2534:Metamemory 2522:flashbacks 2442:In society 2139:retrograde 2101:Forgetting 2072:Procedural 1982:Short-term 1952:Eyewitness 1710:Loftus, EF 1672:2020-04-14 1620:2020-04-14 1578:2012-03-22 1469:2012-03-20 1334:2020-04-14 763:: 104557. 532:References 226:) and the 36:motivation 28:perception 2423:Nutrition 2331:In groups 2144:selective 2119:childhood 2047:Flashbulb 2007:Long-term 1907:Attention 1785:1573-0964 1741:143526400 1658:"Priming" 1493:CiteSeerX 1434:CiteSeerX 1369:1939-1455 1292:2211-3681 1251:0197-3533 803:229539467 787:0010-0277 757:Cognition 726:1074-7427 669:1895-1171 620:1756-8765 172:process. 2725:Patients 2396:mnemonic 2391:chunking 2057:Implicit 2040:Semantic 2035:Episodic 2025:Explicit 1890:Encoding 1793:46967747 1765:Synthese 1565:16731808 1523:16511650 1515:12916570 1456:12940414 963:March 6, 795:33373938 734:28442391 687:27512526 628:25164805 505:See also 2544:Priming 2470:Related 2413:Emotion 2109:Amnesia 1947:Eidetic 1934:Sensory 1895:Storage 1377:1454896 1176:8134341 1144:Bibcode 1101:7696595 1062:5141113 1054:9496626 930:1128971 838:8817460 742:4421445 678:4975570 573:1594723 416:smashed 389:Priming 364:priming 256:Anxiety 44:beliefs 2850:Memory 2577:People 2562:memory 2493:memory 2433:Trauma 1972:Visual 1962:Iconic 1957:Haptic 1942:Echoic 1900:Recall 1823:  1791:  1783:  1739:  1563:  1521:  1513:  1495:  1454:  1436:  1375:  1367:  1325:  1290:  1249:  1174:  1164:  1099:  1060:  1052:  1015:  928:  884:  836:  818:Memory 801:  793:  785:  740:  732:  724:  685:  675:  667:  626:  618:  571:  265:Schema 260:stress 180:with. 178:primed 110:Schema 105:Schema 2756:Other 2428:Sleep 2381:Aging 1926:Types 1789:S2CID 1737:S2CID 1717:(PDF) 1668:. n.d 1616:. n.d 1572:(PDF) 1561:S2CID 1541:(PDF) 1519:S2CID 1463:(PDF) 1422:(PDF) 1167:43299 1058:S2CID 983:(PDF) 926:JSTOR 906:(PDF) 858:(PDF) 799:S2CID 738:S2CID 549:(PDF) 400:study 2558:and 2489:and 1821:ISBN 1781:ISSN 1687:link 1635:link 1511:PMID 1452:PMID 1373:PMID 1365:ISSN 1323:ISBN 1288:ISSN 1247:ISSN 1172:PMID 1097:PMID 1050:PMID 1013:ISBN 965:2012 882:ISBN 834:PMID 791:PMID 783:ISSN 730:PMID 722:ISSN 683:PMID 665:ISSN 624:PMID 616:ISSN 569:PMID 362:and 269:The 258:and 213:and 144:and 42:and 1773:doi 1769:196 1729:doi 1553:doi 1503:doi 1444:doi 1400:doi 1357:doi 1353:112 1315:doi 1278:doi 1239:doi 1162:PMC 1152:doi 1089:doi 1042:doi 995:doi 918:doi 826:doi 773:hdl 765:doi 761:208 714:doi 710:141 673:PMC 655:doi 608:doi 561:doi 409:hit 211:PET 2841:: 2742:NA 2737:KC 2732:HM 1787:. 1779:. 1767:. 1735:. 1725:13 1723:. 1719:. 1683:}} 1679:{{ 1660:. 1631:}} 1627:{{ 1608:. 1559:. 1547:. 1543:. 1517:. 1509:. 1501:. 1489:85 1487:. 1450:. 1442:. 1430:88 1428:. 1424:. 1396:17 1394:. 1371:. 1363:. 1351:. 1321:, 1309:, 1286:. 1272:. 1268:. 1245:. 1233:. 1200:. 1184:^ 1170:. 1160:. 1150:. 1140:91 1138:. 1134:. 1109:^ 1095:. 1083:. 1056:. 1048:. 1038:49 1036:. 1024:^ 991:12 989:. 985:. 924:. 914:53 912:. 908:. 866:^ 846:^ 832:. 820:. 797:. 789:. 781:. 771:. 759:. 736:. 728:. 720:. 708:. 704:. 681:. 671:. 663:. 651:12 649:. 645:. 622:. 614:. 602:. 590:^ 567:. 557:99 555:. 551:. 465:, 461:, 366:. 290:. 38:, 34:, 30:, 1993:" 1989:" 1868:e 1861:t 1854:v 1829:. 1795:. 1775:: 1743:. 1731:: 1689:) 1675:. 1637:) 1623:. 1581:. 1555:: 1549:7 1525:. 1505:: 1472:. 1446:: 1406:. 1402:: 1379:. 1359:: 1317:: 1294:. 1280:: 1274:5 1253:. 1241:: 1235:4 1218:. 1204:. 1178:. 1154:: 1146:: 1103:. 1091:: 1085:5 1064:. 1044:: 1001:. 997:: 967:. 932:. 920:: 890:. 860:. 840:. 828:: 822:4 805:. 775:: 767:: 744:. 716:: 689:. 657:: 630:. 610:: 604:1 575:. 563:: 427:B

Index

memory recall
perception
imagination
motivation
semantic memory
beliefs
episodic memory

memory trace
memory errors
misinformation effect
confabulation
Schema
socialization
episodic memory

Piaget's theory
Frederic Bartlett
primed
Confirmation bias

PET
fMRI scanning
medial temporal lobe
hippocampus
prefrontal cortex
Eyewitness testimony
Anxiety
stress
Schema

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