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stories at various points after the presentation to newer generations of participants. His findings showed that the participants could provide a simple summary but had difficulty recalling the story accurately, with the participants' own account generally being shorter and manipulated in such a way that aspects of the original story that were unfamiliar or conflicting to the participants' own schematic knowledge were removed or altered in a way to fit into more personally relevant versions. For instance, allusions made to magic and Native
American mysticism that were in the original version were omitted as they failed to fit into the average Westerner schematic network. Besides, after several recounts of the story had been made by successive generations of participants, certain aspects of the recalled tale were embellished so they were more consistent with the participants' cultural and historical viewpoint compared to the original text (e.g. Emphasis placed on one of the characters desire to return to care for his dependent elderly mother). These findings lead Bartlett to conclude that recall is predominately a
230:. The Medial Temporal lobe is especially vital for encoding novel events in episodic networks, with the Hippocampus acting as one of the central locations that acts to both combine and later separate the various features of an event. Most popular research holds that the Hippocampus becomes less important in long term memory functioning after more extensive consolidation of the distinct features present at the time of episode encoding has occurred. In this way long term episodic functioning moves away from the CA3 region of the Hippocampal formation into the neocortex, effectively freeing up the CA3 area for more initial processing. Studies have also consistently linked the activity of the Prefrontal Cortex, especially that which occurs in the right hemisphere, to the process of retrieval. The Prefrontal cortex appears to be utilized for executive functioning primarily for directing the focus of attention during retrieval processing, as well as for setting the appropriate criterion required to find the desired target memory.
148:. Piaget defined assimilation as the process of making sense of the novel and unfamiliar information by using previously learned information. To assimilate, Piaget defined a second cognitive process that served to integrate new information into memory by altering preexisting schematic networks to fit novel concepts, what he referred to as accommodation. For Piaget, these two processes, accommodation, and assimilation, are mutually reliant on one another and are vital requirements for people to form basic conceptual networks around world knowledge and to add onto these structures by utilizing preexisting learning to understand new information, respectively.
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robbery decays much faster than those that are schema-consistent. These were memories such as the method of getaway, demands by the robbers, and the robbers' physical appearance. The study also found that information that was schema-inconsistent but stood out as very abnormal for the participants was usually recalled more readily and was retained for the duration of the study. The authors of the study advise that interviewers of eyewitnesses should take note of such reports because there is a possibility that they may be accurate.
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participants to a series of simple figures and provided different words to describe each images. For example, all participants were exposed to an image of two circles attached by a single line, where some of the participants were told it was a barbell and the rest were told it was a pair of reading glasses. The experiment revealed that when the participants were later tasked with replicating the images, they tended to add features to their own reproduction that more closely resembled the word they were
385:. Tip of the tongue phenomenon refers to when an individual knows particular information, and they are aware that they know this information, yet can not produce it even though they may know certain aspects about the information. For example, during an exam a student is asked who theorized the concept of Psychosexual Development, the student may be able to recall the details about the actual theory but they are unable to retrieve the memory associated with who originally introduced the theory.
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unique characteristics of the given memory they would like to retrieve. When there is little available distinctive information for a given episode there will be more overlap across multiple episodes, leading the individual to recall only the general similarities common to these memories. Ultimately proper recall for a desired target memory fails due to the interference of non-target memories that are activated because of their similarity.
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detract from it. The most common aspect of retrieval cues associated with reconstructive memory is the process that involves recollection. This process uses logical structures, partial memories, narratives, or clues to retrieve the desired memory. However, the process of recollection is not always successful due to
433:. However, there was not any broken glass in the video. The difference between this group and the others was that they were primed with the word “smashed” in the questionnaire, one week before answering the question. By changing one word in the questionnaire, their memories were re-encoded with new details.
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and its accuracy is the subject of many studies. Eyewitness testimony is any firsthand accounts given by individuals of an event they have witnessed. Eyewitness testimony is used to acquire details about the event and even to identify the perpetrators of the event. Eyewitness testimony is used often
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is the tendency that people have to distinguish among other of their race than of other races. Although the exact cause of the effect is unknown, two main theories are supported. The perceptual expertise hypothesis postulates that because most people are raised and are more likely to associate with
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The use of schemas has been shown to increase the accuracy of recall of schema-consistent information but this comes at the cost of decreased recall of schema-inconsistent information. A study by Tuckey and Brewer found that after 12 weeks, memories of information inconsistent with a schema-typical
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During retrieval of episodic memories, people use their schematic knowledge to fill in information gaps, though they generally do so in a manner that implements aspects of their own beliefs, moral values, and personal perspective that leads the reproduced memory to be a biased interpretation of the
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are generally defined as mental information networks that represent some aspect of collected world knowledge. Frederic
Bartlett was one of the first psychologists to propose Schematic theory, suggesting that the individual's understanding of the world is influenced by elaborate neural networks that
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and believe that their perspective is free from an error during recall. However, the reconstructive process of memory recall is subject to distortion by other intervening cognitive functions and operations such as individual perceptions, social influences, and world knowledge, all of which can lead
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According to Piaget, schematic knowledge organizes features information in such a way that more similar features are grouped so that when activated during recall the more strongly related aspects of memory will be more likely to activate together. An extension of this theory, Piaget proposed that
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of experience is stored. Rather, memory is dependent on constructive processes during encoding that may introduce errors or distortions. Essentially, the constructive memory process functions by encoding the patterns of perceived physical characteristics, as well as the interpretive conceptual and
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Many errors can occur when attempting to retrieve a specific episode. First, the retrieval cues used to initiate the search for a specific episode may be too similar to other experiential memories and the retrieval process may fail if the individual is unable to form a specific description of the
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After the information is encoded and stored in our memory, specific cues are often needed to retrieve these memories. These are known as retrieval cues and they play a major role in reconstructive memory. The use of retrieval cues can both promote the accuracy of reconstructive memory as well as
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However, in a study by
Clifford and Scott (1978), participants were shown either a film of a violent crime or a film of a non-violent crime. The participants who viewed the stressful film had difficulty remembering details about the event compared to the participants that watched the non-violent
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Anxiety is a state of distress or uneasiness of mind caused by fear and it is a consistently associated with witnessing crimes. In a study done by Yuille and
Cutshall (1986), they discovered that witnesses of real-life violent crimes were able to remember the event quite vividly even five months
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James J. Gibson built off of the work that
Bartlett originally laid down, suggesting that the degree of change found in a reproduction of an episodic memory depends on how that memory is later perceived. This concept was later tested by Carmichael, Hogan, and Walter (1932) who exposed a group of
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Priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli due to prior experience. Priming is believed to occur outside of conscious awareness, which makes it different from memory that relies on the direct retrieval of information. Priming can influence reconstructive memory because it can
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originally tested his idea of the reconstructive nature of recall by presenting a group of participants with foreign folk tales (his most famous being "War of the Ghosts") with which they had no previous experience. After presenting the story, he tested their ability to recall and summarize the
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In the regular process of reconstruction, several sources are used to accrue information and add detail to memory. For patients producing confabulations, some key sources of information are missing and so other sources are used to produce a cohesive, internally consistent, and often believable
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Secondly, a large number of errors that occur during memory reconstruction are caused by faults in the criterion-setting and decision making processes used to direct attention towards retrieving a specific target memory. When there are lapses in the recall of aspects of episodic memory, the
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Many autobiographies are excellent examples of motivated self-enhancement because when recalling the events that have taken place in one's life, there is a tendency to make oneself appear to be more involved in positive experiences, though others may remember the event differently.
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across subsequent recollections. By employing reconstructive processes, individuals supplement other aspects of available personal knowledge and schema into the gaps found in episodic memory in order to provide a fuller and more coherent version, albeit one that is often distorted.
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individual tends to supplement other aspects of knowledge that are unrelated to the actual episode to form a more cohesive and well-rounded reconstruction of the memory, regardless of whether or not the individual is aware of such supplemental processing. This process is known as
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Further studies on flashbulb memories seem to indicate that witnesses may recall vivid sensory content unrelated to the actual event but which enhance its perceived vividness. Due to this vividness, eyewitnesses may place higher confidence in their reconstructed memories.
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others of the same race, they develop an expertise in identifying the faces of that race. The other main theory is the in-group advantage. It has been shown in the lab that people are better at discriminating the emotions of in-group members than those of out-groups.
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film. In a study by
Brigham et al. (2010), subjects who experienced an electrical shock were less accurate in facial recognition tests, suggesting that some details were not well remembered under stressful situations. In fact, in the case of the phenomena known as
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with John Palmer in 1974. Loftus and Palmer recruited 150 participants and showed each of them a film of a traffic accident. After, they had the participants fill out a questionnaire concerning the video's details. The participants were split into three groups:
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to direct and control the type of response that is elicited by the witness. This phenomenon occurs when the response a person gives can be persuaded by the way a question is worded. For example, a person could be posed a question in two different forms:
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Selective memory involves actively forgetting negative experiences or enhancing positive ones. This process actively affects reconstructive memory by distorting recollections of events. This affects reconstructive memories in two ways:
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has shown that there is an extensive amount of distributed brain activation during the process of episodic encoding and retrieval. Among the various regions, the two most active areas during the constructive processes are the
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Using this method of controlled interrogation, the direction of a witness cross-examination can often be controlled and manipulated by the individual who is posing questions to fit their own needs and intentions.
121:. Schema is understood to be central to reconstruction, used to confabulate, and fill in gaps to provide a plausible narrative. Bartlett also showed that schema can be tied to cultural and social norms.
79:. The complexity required for reconstructing some episodes is quite demanding and can result in incorrect or incomplete recall. This complexity leaves individuals susceptible to phenomena such as the
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Memory rarely relies on a literal recount of past experiences. By using multiple interdependent cognitive processes and functions, there is never a single location in the brain where a given complete
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Moscovitch M. 1995. Confabulation. In (Eds. Schacter D.L., Coyle J.T., Fischbach G.D., Mesulum M.M. & Sullivan L.G.), Memory
Distortion (pp. 226-251). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
96:. All of the supplemental processes occurring during the course of reconstruction rely on the use of schema, information networks that organize and store abstract knowledge in the brain.
377:(also known as retrieval failure) occurs when memories are not obtainable because the appropriate cues are absent. This is associated with a relatively common occurrence known as the
341:"What was the approximate height of the robber?" which would lead the respondent to estimate the height according to their original perceptions. They could alternatively be asked:
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In this manner, the various features of the experience must be joined together to form a coherent representation of the episode. If this binding process fails, it can result in
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in court and is viewed favorably by juries as a reliable source of information. Unfortunately, eyewitness testimony can be easily manipulated by a variety of factors such as:
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A week later, all of the participants were asked whether or not there had been any broken glass in the video. A statistically significant number of participants in the group
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Brignull, H. (2010, March 16). The reconstructive nature of human memory (and what this means for research documentation). User
Experience Design, Research and Usability.
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presented many papers concerning the effects of proactive interference on the recall of eyewitness events. Interference involving priming was established in her classic
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Why There Are
Complementary Learning Systems in the Hippocampus and Neocortex: Insights from the Successes and Failures of Connectionist Models of Learning and Memory
702:"An exploratory high-density EEG investigation of the misinformation effect: Attentional and recollective differences between true and false perceptual memories"
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Frisoni, Matteo; Di
Ghionno, Monica; Guidotti, Roberto; Tosoni, Annalisa; Sestieri, Carlo (2021). "Reconstructive Nature of Temporal Memory for Movie Scenes".
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results in overconfidence in personal perception and usually leads to a strengthening of beliefs, often in the face of contradictory dis-confirming evidence.
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after it originally occurred. In fact, witnesses to violent or traumatic crimes often self-report the memory as being particularly vivid. For this reason,
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the schematic frameworks that are more frequently activated will become more strongly consolidated and thus quicker and more efficient to activate later.
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and traumatic injury of certain brain structures. Those confabulating don't know that what they are remembering is false and have no intent to deceive.
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344:"How short was the robber?" which would persuade the respondent to recall that the robber was actually shorter than they had originally perceived.
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Often during eyewitness testimonies, the witness is interrogated about their particular view of an incident and often the interrogator will use
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Cherry, K. (2009, March 26). Priming - What Is Priming. Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts.
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Reconstructing the face of another race requires the use of schemas that may not be as developed and refined as those of the same race. The
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The areas most actively involved in episodic encoding and retrieval are the medial temporal lobe (hippocampus) and the prefrontal lobe.
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organize abstract information and concepts. Schema are fairly consistent and become strongly internalized in the individual through
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Group C contained 50 participants and were not asked this question because they were meant to represent a control group
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is the involuntary false remembering of events and can be a characteristic of several psychological diseases such as
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1714:"Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction : An Example of the Interaction Between Language and Memory"
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FMRI showing the active areas of a schizophrenic participant's brain while performing working memory tasks
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298:, eyewitnesses to stressful crimes involving weapons may perform worse during suspect identification.
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477:. The source and type of confabulations differ for each type of disease or area of traumatic damage.
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Schacter, DL; Norman, KA; Koutstaal, W (1998). "The Cognitive Neuroscience of Constructive Memory".
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Group B contained 50 participants that were asked: "About how fast were the cars going when they
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Group A contained 50 participants that were asked: "About how fast were the cars going when they
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Bartlett, Sir Frederic Charles; Bartlett, Frederic C.; Bartlett, Frederic Charles (1995-06-30).
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855:""Frederick Bartlett", Some Experiments on the Reproduction of Folk-Stories, March 30, 1920"
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1132:"Neuroanatomical Correlates of Retrieval in Episodic Memory: Auditory Sentence Recognition"
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46:, amongst others. People view their memories as being a coherent and truthful account of
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Hemmer, Pernille; Steyvers, Mark (2009). "A Bayesian Account of Reconstructive Memory".
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546:"Memory and the hippocampus: a synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans"
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Jean Piaget influenced the study of reconstructive memory with his theory of schema.
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Howes, Mary; O'Shea, Geoffrey (2014-01-01), Howes, Mary; O'Shea, Geoffrey (eds.),
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Nalbantian, Suzanne; Matthews, Paul M.; McClelland, James L., eds. (2010).
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proposed an alternative understanding of schema based on the two concepts:
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The memory process : neuroscientific and humanistic perspectives
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643:"The Effects of the Amount of Information on Episodic Memory Binding"
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semantic functions that act in response to the incoming information.
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answered that they remembered seeing broken glass in the video
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Memory Retrieval - How Information is Retrieved From Memory
381:(TOT) phenomenon, originally developed by the psychologist
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Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology
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Recent research using neuro-imaging technology including
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Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
641:Torres-Trejo, Frine; Cansino, Selene (2016-06-30).
246:is a commonly recurring topic in the discussion of
1417:Pezdek, K.; Blandon-Gitlin, I.; Moore, C. (2003).
1116:McClelland JL, McNaughton BL, O’Reilly RC. 1995.
1721:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
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980:"The Reproduction of Visually Perceived Forms"
700:Kiat, John E.; Belli, Robert F. (2017-05-01).
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1538:"Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Report"
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1485:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1216:"Anxiety - Define Anxiety at Dictionary.com"
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394:interfere with retrieval cues. Psychologist
1991:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
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1198:"Eyewitness Testimony - Simply Psychology"
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117:, which in turn alters the recall of
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1313:, Academic Press, pp. 177–196,
953:""War of the Ghosts", March 5, 2012"
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1231:Basic and Applied Social Psychology
706:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
1666:American Psychological Association
1614:American Psychological Association
1319:10.1016/B978-0-12-408087-4.00009-8
987:Journal of Experimental Psychology
14:
2272:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
286:is often listed as an example of
51:to errors during reconstruction.
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1307:"Chapter 9 - Memory and Emotion"
1093:10.1097/00001756-199412000-00030
647:Advances in Cognitive Psychology
612:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2008.01010.x
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1819:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
1196:McLeod, S. (October 13, 2009).
769:10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104557
156:Frederic Bartlett's experiments
2482:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
2355:Memory and social interactions
1120:. Psychology Review 102:419–57
1046:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.289
880:. Cambridge University Press.
205:MRI indicating the hippocampus
125:Jean Piaget's theory of schema
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1733:10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80011-3
1426:Journal of Applied Psychology
2191:Retrieval-induced forgetting
1662:APA Dictionary of Psychology
1610:APA Dictionary of Psychology
1557:10.1016/0010-0285(75)90023-7
1392:Applied Cognitive Psychology
1283:10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.07.005
1591:Cherry, K. (2010, June 7).
1361:10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.284
1243:10.1207/s15324834basp0403_6
1034:Annual Review of Psychology
600:Topics in Cognitive Science
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2529:Levels of Processing model
2454:World Memory Championships
2287:Lost in the mall technique
2134:dissociative (psychogenic)
1606:"Cue-dependent forgetting"
1507:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.276
1448:10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.760
565:10.1037/0033-295x.99.2.195
197:Associated neural activity
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1777:10.1007/s11229-017-1315-1
718:10.1016/j.nlm.2017.04.007
16:A theory of memory recall
2567:The Seven Sins of Memory
2512:Intermediate-term memory
2317:Indirect tests of memory
2294:Recovered-memory therapy
2244:Misattribution of memory
521:Context-dependent memory
375:Cue-dependent forgetting
370:Cue-dependent forgetting
360:cue-dependent forgetting
2254:Source-monitoring error
830:10.1080/096582196388906
526:Source-monitoring error
2661:George Armitage Miller
2621:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
1349:Psychological Bulletin
1157:10.1073/pnas.91.6.2012
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63:Reconstructive process
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2824:Philosophy portal
2812:Psychology portal
2676:Henry L. Roediger III
2277:False memory syndrome
2249:Misinformation effect
2229:Imagination inflation
1536:Loftus, E.F. (1975).
978:Gibson, J.J. (1929).
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437:Reconstructive errors
306:Application of schema
248:reconstructive memory
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81:misinformation effect
57:
20:Reconstructive memory
2845:Cognitive psychology
2181:Motivated forgetting
1712:; Palmer JC (1974).
1685:: CS1 maint: year (
1633:: CS1 maint: year (
1545:Cognitive Psychology
459:Korsakoff's syndrome
244:Eyewitness testimony
239:Eyewitness testimony
220:medial temporal lobe
2691:Arthur P. Shimamura
2591:Richard C. Atkinson
2408:Effects of exercise
2282:Memory implantation
2166:Interference theory
2082:Selective retention
2062:Meaningful learning
1148:1994PNAS...91.2012T
901:Jack Block (1982).
544:Squire, LR (1992).
463:Alzheimer's disease
2788:Andriy Slyusarchuk
2611:Hermann Ebbinghaus
2517:Involuntary memory
2418:Memory improvement
2403:Effects of alcohol
2365:Transactive memory
2343:Politics of memory
2312:Exceptional memory
1664:. Washington, DC:
1612:. Washington, DC:
959:on October 8, 2001
660:10.5709/acp-0188-z
452:
277:Anxiety and stress
207:
189:original version.
135:
60:
2832:
2831:
2796:
2795:
2783:Cosmos Rossellius
2631:Marcia K. Johnson
2502:Exosomatic memory
2487:Context-dependent
2477:Absent-mindedness
2360:Memory conformity
2338:Collective memory
2239:Memory conformity
2176:Memory inhibition
2095:
2094:
2087:Tip of the tongue
1826:978-0-262-01457-1
1681:cite encyclopedia
1629:cite encyclopedia
1328:978-0-12-408087-4
1202:Simply Psychology
1077:Markowitsch, H.J.
1017:978-0-07-050477-6
910:Child Development
887:978-0-521-48356-8
379:tip of the tongue
334:leading questions
328:Leading questions
321:cross-race effect
315:Cross-race effect
284:eyewitness memory
271:cross-race effect
228:prefrontal cortex
191:Confirmation bias
184:Confirmation bias
161:Frederic Bartlett
2857:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2763:Jonathan Hancock
2716:Robert Stickgold
2686:Richard Shiffrin
2641:Elizabeth Loftus
2581:
2497:Childhood memory
2304:Research methods
2186:Repressed memory
2161:Forgetting curve
2149:transient global
2020:Autobiographical
1930:
1869:
1862:
1855:
1846:
1840:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1812:
1806:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1771:(6): 2135–2151.
1760:
1754:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1718:
1706:
1700:
1697:
1691:
1690:
1684:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1654:
1648:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1632:
1624:
1622:
1621:
1602:
1596:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1573:
1567:. Archived from
1542:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1500:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1471:
1470:
1464:
1458:. Archived from
1441:
1423:
1414:
1408:
1407:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1285:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1193:
1180:
1179:
1169:
1159:
1127:
1121:
1114:
1105:
1104:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1029:
1020:
1009:
1003:
1002:
999:10.1037/h0072470
984:
975:
969:
968:
966:
964:
955:. Archived from
949:
943:
940:
934:
933:
907:
898:
892:
891:
871:
862:
861:
859:
851:
842:
841:
813:
807:
806:
780:
752:
746:
745:
697:
691:
690:
680:
662:
638:
632:
631:
595:
586:
583:
577:
576:
550:
541:
495:self-enhancement
481:Selective memory
396:Elizabeth Loftus
288:flashbulb memory
2865:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2818:
2816:
2806:
2804:
2792:
2773:Dominic O'Brien
2751:
2720:
2701:Susumu Tonegawa
2681:Daniel Schacter
2656:Eleanor Maguire
2646:Geoffrey Loftus
2601:Stephen J. Ceci
2596:Robert A. Bjork
2572:
2491:state-dependent
2465:
2437:
2369:
2350:Cultural memory
2326:
2322:Memory disorder
2298:
2258:
2200:
2091:
2001:
1976:
1921:
1878:
1873:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1814:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1800:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1716:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1694:
1677:
1671:
1669:
1656:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1625:
1619:
1617:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1590:
1586:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1498:10.1.1.200.1256
1482:
1481:
1477:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1439:10.1.1.365.6517
1421:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1404:10.1002/acp.906
1389:
1388:
1384:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1195:
1194:
1183:
1129:
1128:
1124:
1115:
1108:
1087:(18): 2525–28.
1074:
1073:
1069:
1031:
1030:
1023:
1019:, OCLC 26931106
1010:
1006:
982:
977:
976:
972:
962:
960:
951:
950:
946:
941:
937:
922:10.2307/1128971
905:
900:
899:
895:
888:
873:
872:
865:
857:
853:
852:
845:
815:
814:
810:
754:
753:
749:
699:
698:
694:
640:
639:
635:
597:
596:
589:
584:
580:
548:
543:
542:
538:
534:
516:Recall (memory)
507:
483:
444:
439:
391:
372:
355:
330:
317:
308:
279:
241:
236:
222:(including the
199:
186:
158:
138:Piaget's theory
127:
119:episodic memory
107:
102:
100:Characteristics
65:
48:episodic memory
40:semantic memory
22:is a theory of
17:
12:
11:
5:
2863:
2861:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2837:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2814:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2768:Paul R. McHugh
2765:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2728:
2726:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2626:Ivan Izquierdo
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2587:
2585:
2578:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2570:
2563:
2553:
2552:
2551:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2484:
2479:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2463:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2383:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2370:
2368:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2346:
2345:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2308:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2279:
2274:
2268:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2224:Hindsight bias
2221:
2216:
2210:
2208:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2171:Memory erasure
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2129:post-traumatic
2126:
2121:
2116:
2105:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2067:Personal-event
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2022:
2017:
2011:
2009:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1999:
1997:Working memory
1994:
1986:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1969:
1967:Motor learning
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1938:
1936:
1927:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1886:
1884:
1883:Basic concepts
1880:
1879:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1864:
1857:
1849:
1842:
1841:
1832:
1825:
1807:
1798:
1755:
1746:
1701:
1692:
1649:
1640:
1597:
1584:
1551:(4): 560–572.
1528:
1491:(2): 276–290.
1475:
1432:(4): 760–763.
1409:
1398:(7): 785–800.
1382:
1355:(2): 284–309.
1339:
1327:
1297:
1276:(3): 257–263.
1256:
1237:(3): 279–293.
1221:
1207:
1181:
1142:(6): 2012–15.
1122:
1106:
1067:
1021:
1004:
970:
944:
935:
916:(2): 281–295.
893:
886:
863:
843:
824:(4): 359–411.
808:
747:
692:
633:
606:(1): 189–202.
587:
578:
559:(2): 195–231.
535:
533:
530:
529:
528:
523:
518:
513:
506:
503:
498:
497:
491:
482:
479:
443:
440:
438:
435:
423:
422:
419:
412:
390:
387:
371:
368:
354:
353:Retrieval cues
351:
346:
345:
342:
329:
326:
316:
313:
307:
304:
278:
275:
274:
273:
267:
262:
240:
237:
235:
232:
198:
195:
185:
182:
166:reconstructive
157:
154:
126:
123:
106:
103:
101:
98:
64:
61:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2862:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2825:
2815:
2813:
2803:
2802:
2799:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2754:
2748:
2747:Clive Wearing
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2729:
2727:
2723:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2711:Endel Tulving
2709:
2707:
2706:Anne Treisman
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2666:Brenda Milner
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2651:James McGaugh
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2616:Sigmund Freud
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2564:
2561:
2560:retrospective
2557:
2554:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2539:Muscle memory
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2523:
2520:
2519:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2468:
2462:
2459:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2386:Art of memory
2384:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2292:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2234:Memory biases
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2214:Confabulation
2212:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2206:Memory errors
2203:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2124:post-hypnotic
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2077:Rote learning
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2052:Hyperthymesia
2050:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2015:Active recall
2013:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1912:Consolidation
1910:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1870:
1865:
1863:
1858:
1856:
1851:
1850:
1847:
1836:
1833:
1828:
1822:
1818:
1811:
1808:
1802:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1759:
1756:
1750:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1715:
1711:
1705:
1702:
1696:
1693:
1688:
1682:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1653:
1650:
1644:
1641:
1636:
1630:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1588:
1585:
1574:on 2020-06-19
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1476:
1465:on 2010-06-15
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1420:
1413:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1340:
1330:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1301:
1298:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1225:
1222:
1217:
1211:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1126:
1123:
1119:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1071:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1008:
1005:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
981:
974:
971:
958:
954:
948:
945:
939:
936:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
904:
897:
894:
889:
883:
879:
878:
870:
868:
864:
856:
850:
848:
844:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
812:
809:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
779:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
751:
748:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
696:
693:
688:
684:
679:
674:
670:
666:
661:
656:
652:
648:
644:
637:
634:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
594:
592:
588:
582:
579:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
547:
540:
537:
531:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
508:
504:
502:
496:
492:
489:
488:
487:
480:
478:
476:
470:
468:
467:schizophrenia
464:
460:
456:
455:Confabulation
448:
442:Confabulation
441:
436:
434:
432:
431:(p < -.05)
428:
420:
417:
413:
410:
406:
405:
404:
401:
397:
388:
386:
384:
383:William James
380:
376:
369:
367:
365:
361:
352:
350:
343:
340:
339:
338:
335:
327:
325:
322:
314:
312:
305:
303:
299:
297:
291:
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2778:Ben Pridmore
2696:Larry Squire
2606:Susan Clancy
2565:
2449:Memory sport
2374:Other topics
2264:False memory
2219:Cryptomnesia
2196:Weapon focus
2156:Decay theory
1917:Neuroanatomy
1876:Human memory
1835:
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1569:the original
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1311:Human Memory
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2636:Eric Kandel
2584:Researchers
2556:Prospective
2507:Free recall
2461:Shas Pollak
2114:anterograde
2030:Declarative
1081:NeuroReport
1040:: 289–318.
993:(1): 1–39.
712:: 199–208.
511:Jean Piaget
224:hippocampus
32:imagination
2839:Categories
2671:Lynn Nadel
2549:intertrial
2534:Metamemory
2522:flashbacks
2442:In society
2139:retrograde
2101:Forgetting
2072:Procedural
1982:Short-term
1952:Eyewitness
1710:Loftus, EF
1672:2020-04-14
1620:2020-04-14
1578:2012-03-22
1469:2012-03-20
1334:2020-04-14
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532:References
226:) and the
36:motivation
28:perception
2423:Nutrition
2331:In groups
2144:selective
2119:childhood
2047:Flashbulb
2007:Long-term
1907:Attention
1785:1573-0964
1741:143526400
1658:"Priming"
1493:CiteSeerX
1434:CiteSeerX
1369:1939-1455
1292:2211-3681
1251:0197-3533
803:229539467
787:0010-0277
757:Cognition
726:1074-7427
669:1895-1171
620:1756-8765
172:process.
2725:Patients
2396:mnemonic
2391:chunking
2057:Implicit
2040:Semantic
2035:Episodic
2025:Explicit
1890:Encoding
1793:46967747
1765:Synthese
1565:16731808
1523:16511650
1515:12916570
1456:12940414
963:March 6,
795:33373938
734:28442391
687:27512526
628:25164805
505:See also
2544:Priming
2470:Related
2413:Emotion
2109:Amnesia
1947:Eidetic
1934:Sensory
1895:Storage
1377:1454896
1176:8134341
1144:Bibcode
1101:7696595
1062:5141113
1054:9496626
930:1128971
838:8817460
742:4421445
678:4975570
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416:smashed
389:Priming
364:priming
256:Anxiety
44:beliefs
2850:Memory
2577:People
2562:memory
2493:memory
2433:Trauma
1972:Visual
1962:Iconic
1957:Haptic
1942:Echoic
1900:Recall
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260:stress
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2756:Other
2428:Sleep
2381:Aging
1926:Types
1789:S2CID
1737:S2CID
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