459:
820:(refractive lens exchange). Full thickness corneal graft may be a final option for patients with advanced kerataconus although currently there is interest in new techniques that involve collagen crosslinking. As with any surgical procedure complications may arise post-operatively Post-operative monitoring is normally undertaken by the specialist ophthalmic surgical clinic and optometry services. Patients are usually informed pre-operatively about what to expect and where to go if they suspect complications. Any patient reporting pain and redness after surgery should be referred urgently to their ophthalmic surgeon.
853:
51:
610:
322:
679:, where vision may remain permanently blurry. Because young children typically do not complain of blurry vision, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children have yearly vision screening starting at three years old so that unknown refractive errors or other ophthalmic conditions can be found and treated if deemed necessary by healthcare professionals.
635:) to measure objectively in which the person views a distant spot while the clinician changes the lenses held before the person's eye and watches the pattern of reflection of a small light shone on the eye. Following that "objective refraction" the clinician typically shows the person lenses of progressively higher or weaker powers in a process known as
951:
The number of people globally with significant refractive errors has been estimated at one to two billion. Rates vary between regions of the world with about 25% of
Europeans and 80% of Asians affected. Near-sightedness is one of the most prevalent disorders of the eye. Rates among adults are between
521:
2 (RP2; OMIM 312600); Bornholm eye disease (OMIM 310460). Many genes that have been associated with refractive error are clustered into common biological networks involved in connective tissue growth and extracellular matrix organization. Although a large number of chromosomal localisations have been
444:
meaning the eye is in a state in which it can focus parallel rays of light (light from distant objects) on the retina, without using any accommodation. A distant object, in this case, is defined as an object located beyond 6 meters, or 20 feet, from the eye, since the light from those objects arrives
744:
Alternatively, many people choose to wear contact lenses. One style is hard contact lenses, which can distort the shape of the cornea to a desired shape. Another style, soft contact lenses, are made of silicone or hydrogel. Depending on the duration they are designed for, they may be worn daily or
711:
These are the most effective ways of correcting the refractive error. However, the availability and affordability of eyeglasses can present a difficulty for people in many low income settings of the world. Glasses also pose a challenge to children to whom they are prescribed to, due to children's
535:
has also been found to be a predictor of myopia in children. It has been reported that children with myopia spent significantly more time reading than non-myopic children who spent more time playing outdoors. Additionally, focusing on near objects for long periods of time - such as when reading,
289:
The number of people globally with refractive errors has been estimated at one to two billion. Rates vary between regions of the world with about 25% of
Europeans and 80% of Asians affected. Near-sightedness is the most common disorder. Rates among adults are between 15 and 49% while rates among
690:
How refractive errors are treated or managed depends upon the amount and severity of the condition. Those who possess mild amounts of refractive error may elect to leave the condition uncorrected, particularly if the person is asymptomatic. For those who are symptomatic,
767:
Caused in response to the allergen present in the material from which the contact lens is made from. There is often discomfort in the eye after wearing and vision may be affected. Choosing the right lens material and changing it regularly might prevent conjunctivitis.
715:
As mentioned earlier refractive errors are because of the improper focusing of the light in the retina. Eyeglasses work as an added lens of the eye serving to bend the light to bring it to focus on the retina. Depending on the eyeglasses, they serve many functions.
350:
or nearsightedness. People with myopia typically have blurry vision when viewing distant objects because the eye is refracting more than necessary. Myopia can be corrected with a concave lens, which causes the divergence of light rays before they reach the
4639:
1461:
Lawrenson, John G; Shah, Rakhee; Huntjens, Byki; Downie, Laura E; Virgili, Gianni; Dhakal, Rohit; Verkicharla, Pavan K; Li, Dongfeng; Mavi, Sonia; Kernohan, Ashleigh; Li, Tianjing; Walline, Jeffrey J (2023-02-16). Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group (ed.).
956:. Presbyopia affects most people over the age of 35, and nearly 100% of people by the ages of 55–65. Uncorrected refractive error is responsible for visual impairment and disability for many people worldwide. It is one of the most common causes of
815:
Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) and photo-refractive keratectomy (PRK) are popular procedures; while use of laser epithelial keratomileusis (LASEK) is increasing. Other surgical treatments for severe myopia include insertion of implants after
947:
Refractive Errors are the first common cause of Visual
Impairment and second most common cause of visual loss . The assessment of Refractive Error is now done in DALY (Disability Adjusted Life Years) which showed an 8% increase from 1990 to 2019.
836:
Strategies being studied to slow worsening include adjusting working conditions, increasing the time children spend outdoors, and special types of contact lenses. In children special contact lenses appear to slow worsening of nearsightedness.
367:
or farsightedness. People with hyperopia have blurry vision when viewing near objects because the eye is unable to focus the light sufficiently. This can be corrected with convex lenses, which cause light rays to converge prior to hitting the
3020:
3001:
952:
15 and 49% while rates among children are between 1.2 and 42%. Far-sightedness more commonly affects young children, whose eyes have yet to grow to their full length, and the elderly, who have lost the ability to compensate with their
1362:"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013"
530:
In studies of the genetic predisposition of refractive error, there is a correlation between environmental factors and the risk of developing myopia. Myopia has been observed in individuals with visually intensive occupations.
1972:
Dutheil, Frédéric; Oueslati, Tharwa; Delamarre, Louis; Castanon, Joris; Maurin, Caroline; Chiambaretta, Frédéric; Baker, Julien S.; Ugbolue, Ukadike C.; Zak, Marek; Lakbar, Ines; Pereira, Bruno; Navel, Valentin (2023-01-03).
943:
It is estimated that at least 2 billion people in the world have refractive errors. The number of people globally with refractive errors that have not been corrected was estimated at 660 million (10 per 100 people) in 2013.
384:
is when the refractive power of the eye is not uniform across the surface of the cornea because of asymmetry. In other words, the eye focuses light more strongly in one direction than another, leading to distortion of the
800:
Various viral, bacterial, and fungal infection may be seen in the eye post-contact-lens wear, if proper lens hygiene is not maintained. Acanthamoeba are the most common infections in the people using contact lenses.
585:
This means that the refractive power of the eye matches what is needed to focus parallel rays of light onto the retina. A distant object is defined as an object located beyond 6 meters (20 feet) from the eye.
329:
Refractive error - sometimes called "ametropia" - is when the refractive power of an eye does not match the length of the eye, so the image is focused away from the central retina, instead of directly on it.
418:
This number denotes the strength of the lens needed to correct your vision. A "-" indicates nearsightedness while a "+" indicates farsightedness. Higher numbers indicate more power in either direction.
376:: When the flexibility of the lens declines, typically due to age. The individual would experience difficulty in near vision, often relieved by reading glasses, bifocal, or progressive lenses.
2091:
Owji, N; Khalili, MR; Bazrafkan, H; Heydari, M (September 2022). "Long-term outcome of refractive errors in patients with congenital blepharoptosis who have undergone ptosis surgery".
470:
There is evidence to suggest genetic predilection for refractive error. Individuals that have parents with certain refractive errors are more likely to have similar refractive errors.
255:
Near-sightedness is due to the length of the eyeball being too long, far-sightedness the eyeball too short, astigmatism, the cornea being the wrong shape, and presbyopia aging of the
1511:
Walline, Jeffrey J; Lindsley, Kristina B; Vedula, S Swaroop; Cotter, Susan A; Mutti, Donald O; Ng, Sueko M; Twelker, J. Daniel (2020-01-13). Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group (ed.).
58:
A correctly-focused eye (top), and two showing refractive error: in the middle image, the light is focused too far forward; in the bottom image, the focal point is behind the eye
1360:
Vos, Theo; Barber, Ryan M; Bell, Brad; Bertozzi-Villa, Amelia; Biryukov, Stan; Bolliger, Ian; et al. (Global Burden of
Disease Study 2013 Collaborators) (22 August 2015).
2902:
687:
The management of refractive error is done post-diagnosis of the condition by either optometrists, ophthalmologists, refractionists, or ophthalmic medical practitioners.
4084:
784:
Caused by decreased oxygen delivery to the tissue compressed by the lens. Usually resolved after the removal of the lenses. Discomfort upon lens removal may be seen.
735:
The multifocal lenses can correct defective vision in multiple focus, for example: near-vision as well as far-vision. This are particularly beneficial for presbyobia.
828:
Atropine has believed to slow the progression of near-sightedness and is administered in combination with multifocal lenses. These, however, need further research.
807:
If redness, itching, and difficulty in vision develops, the use of the lenses should be stopped immediately and the consultation of ophthalmologists may be sought.
617:
Blurry vision may result from any number of conditions not necessarily related to refractive errors. The diagnosis of a refractive error is usually confirmed by an
240:, far-sightedness and presbyopia result in close objects being blurry, and astigmatism causes objects to appear stretched out or blurry. Other symptoms may include
2659:
Li, X; Friedman, IB; Medow, NB; Zhang, C (1 May 2017). "Update on
Orthokeratology in Managing Progressive Myopia in Children: Efficacy, Mechanisms, and Concerns".
3481:
293:
The number of people with refractive errors that have not been corrected was estimated at 660 million (10 per 100 people) in 2013. Of these 9.5 million were
2823:
4153:
4079:
589:
When an object is located close to the eye, the rays of light from this object no longer approach the eye parallel to each other. Consequently, the eye must
2486:
477:) database has listed 261 genetic disorders in which myopia is one of the symptoms. Myopia may be present in heritable connective tissue disorders such as:
290:
children are between 1.2 and 42%. Far-sightedness more commonly affects young children and the elderly. Presbyopia affects most people over the age of 35.
2737:
Kandel H, Khadka J, Goggin M, Pesudovs K (2017). "Patient-reported outcomes for assessment of quality of life in refractive error: a systematic review".
2409:"Two strategies for correcting refractive errors in school students in Tanzania: randomised comparison, with implications for screening programmes"
3093:
723:
These are general over-the-counter glasses which can be worn for easier reading, especially for defective vision due to aging called presbyopia.
4101:
4096:
3921:
259:
such that it cannot change shape sufficiently. Some refractive errors occur more often among those whose parents are affected. Diagnosis is by
510:
3961:
653:
4074:
2609:
Lee, Jong-Jer; Fang, Po-Chiung; Yang, I-Hui; Chen, Chih-Hsin; Lin, Pei-Wen; Lin, Sue-Ann; Kuo, Hsi-Kung; Wu, Pei-Chang (February 2006).
2172:
1339:
4069:
3956:
3523:
3684:
1681:
1333:
1151:
458:
3824:
2510:
997:
3789:
2909:
4364:
3882:
3794:
2462:
1858:"Genome-wide meta-analyses of multiancestry cohorts identify multiple new susceptibility loci for refractive error and myopia"
3784:
3513:
2935:"Laser-assisted subepithelial keratectomy (LASEK) versus laser-assisted in-situ keratomileusis (LASIK) for correcting myopia"
598:
490:
3877:
3768:
3634:
2780:
Kandel H, Khadka J, Lundström M, Goggin M, Pesudovs K (2017). "Questionnaires for measuring refractive surgery outcomes".
856:
4275:
3966:
3951:
2845:
Hashemi, Hassan; Fotouhi, Akbar; Yekta, Abbasali; Pakzad, Reza; Ostadimoghaddam, Hadi; Khabazkhoob, Mehdi (2017-09-27).
2815:
2193:
3163:
3121:
3086:
1645:
1101:
980:
The yearly cost of correcting refractive errors is estimated at 3.9 to 7.2 billion dollars in the United States.
569:
389:
Children are typically born hyperopic and shift toward emmetropia or myopia as their eyes lengthen through childhood.
652:
is an instrument that is sometimes used in place of retinoscopy to objectively estimate a person's refractive error.
852:
4649:
4091:
3887:
3861:
3819:
3814:
3679:
3552:
3540:
3496:
4158:
3557:
4270:
4064:
3911:
3756:
3503:
645:
agents are frequently used to more accurately determine the amount of refractive error, particularly in children
565:
3809:
3780:
3404:
3369:
3043:
2560:
Shih, Yung-Feng; Hsiao, C. Kate; Chen, Chien-Jen; Chang, Ching-Wei; Hung, Por T.; Lin, Luke L.-K. (June 2001).
552:
In order to see a clear image, the eye must focus rays of light on to the light-sensing part of the eye - the
4280:
4034:
3834:
3354:
3347:
103:
1907:"The Association between Near Work Activities and Myopia in Children—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
748:
There are a number of complication associated with contact lenses. Typically the ones that are used daily.
4549:
4519:
4454:
4449:
4176:
3454:
3319:
3079:
657:
2562:"An intervention trial on efficacy of atropine and multi-focal glasses in controlling myopic progression"
4492:
4168:
1270:"Hyperopia: a meta-analysis of prevalence and a review of associated factors among school-aged children"
817:
637:
618:
2847:"Global and regional estimates of prevalence of refractive errors: Systematic review and meta-analysis"
4265:
3851:
3846:
3804:
3619:
3535:
1918:
969:
965:
537:
518:
463:
310:
306:
1464:"Interventions for myopia control in children: a living systematic review and network meta-analysis"
1222:
Pan, CW; Ramamurthy, D; Saw, SM (January 2012). "Worldwide prevalence and risk factors for myopia".
4644:
4570:
4444:
4244:
4127:
4119:
3907:
3871:
3856:
3711:
3491:
3271:
3024:
953:
649:
2222:
Schiefer, Ulrich; Kraus, Christina; Baumbach, Peter; UngewiĂź, Judith; Michels, Ralf (2016-10-14).
575:
When an eye focuses light correctly on to the retina when viewing distant objects, this is called
4181:
3931:
3839:
3763:
3716:
3528:
3464:
3449:
3309:
3258:
2762:
2719:
2444:
2389:
2331:
2283:"Refractive Errors in Children - American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus"
2116:
1727:
1443:
1247:
700:
498:
283:
278:. Eyeglasses are the easiest and safest method of correction. Contact lenses can provide a wider
182:
79:
729:
They can correct only one form of defective vision, either far-sightedness or near-sightedness.
430:
This number notes the direction of the astigmatism and is written in degrees between 1 and 180.
50:
4524:
4421:
4186:
4046:
3829:
3486:
3392:
3054:
2964:
2884:
2866:
2797:
2754:
2711:
2676:
2638:
2630:
2591:
2583:
2436:
2428:
2381:
2373:
2323:
2261:
2243:
2108:
2073:
2055:
2014:
1996:
1954:
1936:
1887:
1835:
1779:
1719:
1677:
1671:
1569:
1542:
1493:
1435:
1391:
1329:
1301:
1239:
1201:
1147:
1052:
486:
478:
159:
63:
1323:
325:
Top: farsighted corrected using convex lens Bottom: nearsighted corrected using concave lens.
4312:
4148:
4123:
4056:
4022:
3941:
3572:
3562:
3459:
3314:
3201:
3191:
2954:
2946:
2874:
2858:
2789:
2746:
2703:
2668:
2622:
2573:
2420:
2365:
2315:
2251:
2235:
2164:
2100:
2063:
2045:
2004:
1986:
1944:
1926:
1877:
1869:
1825:
1817:
1769:
1761:
1711:
1532:
1524:
1483:
1475:
1425:
1381:
1373:
1291:
1281:
1231:
1191:
1183:
1042:
664:
494:
397:
338:
2903:"Global Disease Burden of Uncorrected Refractive Error Among Adolescents From 1990 to 2019"
2282:
2194:"NETRA: Inverse Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor using High Resolution Mobile Phone Display"
675:
When refractive errors in children are not treated, the child may be at risk of developing
663:
Vision defects caused by refractive error can be distinguished from other problems using a
4634:
4379:
4343:
4307:
3926:
3751:
3738:
3672:
3629:
3547:
3359:
3291:
3211:
3196:
1905:
Huang, Hsiu-Mei; Chang, Dolly Shuo-Teh; Wu, Pei-Chang (2015-10-20). Jhanji, Vishal (ed.).
841:
622:
541:
482:
411:
Refractive errors are typically measured using three numbers: sphere, cylinder, and axis.
355:
342:
279:
260:
256:
164:
1922:
346:: When the refractive power is too strong for the length of the eyeball, this is called
4609:
4461:
4406:
4249:
4017:
3946:
3728:
3698:
3644:
3598:
3469:
3342:
3276:
3266:
2959:
2934:
2879:
2846:
2256:
2223:
2068:
2033:
2009:
1974:
1949:
1906:
1882:
1857:
1830:
1805:
1774:
1749:
1537:
1512:
1488:
1463:
1386:
1361:
1296:
1269:
1196:
1171:
1047:
1030:
1004:
696:
609:
540:
and higher levels of education have also been reported to be a risk factor for myopia.
359:
271:
237:
202:
178:
3037:
3033:
3029:
2578:
2561:
2139:
1715:
1377:
792:
New blood vessels may form in the iris region and the limbus. This may impair vision.
613:
A doctor uses a trial frame and trial lenses to measure the person's refractive error.
4628:
4529:
4384:
4324:
4041:
3989:
3936:
3866:
3775:
3662:
3639:
3567:
3476:
3281:
3186:
2407:
Wedner, S.; Masanja, H.; Bowman, R.; Todd, J.; Bowman, R.; Gilbert, C. (2008-01-01).
2335:
2120:
1873:
1821:
1765:
1731:
1235:
405:
393:
241:
88:
84:
68:
2766:
2723:
1447:
1251:
4394:
4222:
3603:
3518:
3426:
3304:
3299:
3244:
3239:
2950:
2448:
2393:
1528:
1479:
445:
as essentially parallel rays when considering the limitations of human perception.
2535:
2104:
333:
Types of refractive error include myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism.
3048:
2793:
2750:
2707:
2672:
1931:
1593:"Anisometropia - American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus"
1430:
1413:
434:
An eye that has no refractive error when viewing distant objects is said to have
17:
4593:
4544:
4487:
4482:
4439:
4417:
4328:
4319:
4239:
4217:
4029:
4001:
3799:
3667:
3508:
3329:
3206:
3158:
3105:
1268:
Castagno, VD; Fassa, AG; Carret, ML; Vilela, MA; Meucci, RD (23 December 2014).
957:
642:
631:
626:
401:
380:
298:
229:
130:
27:
Problem with focusing light accurately on the retina due to the shape of the eye
3059:
2862:
1561:
363:: When the refractive power is too weak for the length of the eyeball, one has
321:
4514:
4477:
4401:
4389:
4333:
4294:
4200:
4136:
4115:
4005:
3364:
3229:
3014:
3010:
2239:
1328:(5 ed.). St. Louis (Miss.): Butterworth Heinemann, Elsevier. p. 70.
577:
557:
522:
associated with myopia (MYP1-MYP17), few specific genes have been identified.
506:
502:
436:
372:
249:
233:
134:
96:
4640:
Disorders of ocular muscles, binocular movement, accommodation and refraction
2870:
2634:
2587:
2432:
2377:
2327:
2319:
2247:
2059:
2000:
1940:
1286:
489:(type 1, OMIM 108300; type 2, OMIM 604841). Myopia has also been reported in
4565:
4539:
4413:
4359:
4347:
4232:
4227:
4212:
4208:
3746:
3444:
3421:
3234:
3181:
3176:
3153:
3071:
2610:
2424:
2353:
2352:
Cochrane, Gillian M.; Toit, Rènée du; Mesurier, Richard T. Le (2010-04-12).
2201:
676:
364:
294:
245:
225:
126:
112:
108:
92:
72:
2968:
2888:
2801:
2758:
2715:
2680:
2642:
2626:
2595:
2440:
2385:
2307:
2265:
2112:
2077:
2018:
1991:
1958:
1891:
1839:
1783:
1723:
1592:
1573:
1546:
1497:
1439:
1395:
1305:
1243:
1205:
1109:
1056:
4604:
4369:
3903:
3706:
3337:
2050:
1806:"Nature and Nurture: the complex genetics of myopia and refractive error"
1750:"Nature and Nurture: the complex genetics of myopia and refractive error"
1187:
961:
302:
267:
174:
625:
using a large number of lenses of different optical powers, and often a
536:
looking at close screens, or writing - has been associated with myopia.
4431:
4374:
3916:
3723:
3654:
3624:
3614:
3221:
692:
532:
275:
144:
2993:
2408:
2369:
1617:
776:
Caused by a foreign body, dust, sand, or grit trapped under the lens.
4534:
3436:
3413:
3133:
3005:
594:
561:
553:
347:
221:
217:
209:
148:
122:
297:
due to the refractive error. It is one of the most common causes of
2165:"Frequently Asked Questions: How do you measure refractive errors?"
4506:
851:
667:, which will improve vision only in the case of refractive error.
608:
593:
its refractive power to bring those rays of light together on the
556:, which is located in the back of the eye. This focusing - called
457:
320:
205:
2198:
Vitor F. Pamplona, Ankit Mohan, Manuel M. Oliveira, Ramesh Raskar
1979:
International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
3586:
3148:
1414:"The age-specific prevalence of myopia in Asia: a meta-analysis"
514:
474:
152:
4591:
3987:
3390:
3119:
3075:
2611:"Prevention of Myopia Progression with 0.05% Atropine Solution"
1412:
Pan, CW; Dirani, M; Cheng, CY; Wong, TY; Saw, SM (March 2015).
745:
may be worn for an extended period of time, such as for weeks.
213:
1975:"Myopia and Near Work: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
2487:"Eyeglasses for Refractive Errors | National Eye Institute"
712:
tendency to not wear them as consistently as recommended.
1799:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1513:"Interventions to slow progression of myopia in children"
2694:
Walline, JJ (January 2016). "Myopia
Control: A Review".
1743:
1741:
282:; however they are associated with a risk of infection.
601:, and is accomplished by the eye thickening the lens.
424:
This number denotes the amount of astigmatism, if any.
1702:
Morgan, Ian; Kyoko Ohno-Matsui (May 2012). "Myopia".
236:. Near-sightedness results in far away objects being
2983:
859:
per 100,000 people due to refractive errors in 2004.
4558:
4505:
4470:
4430:
4342:
4293:
4258:
4199:
4167:
4135:
4114:
4055:
4000:
3896:
3737:
3697:
3653:
3594:
3585:
3435:
3412:
3403:
3328:
3290:
3257:
3220:
3141:
3132:
2987:
2511:"10 Cataract Surgery Side Effects, and How to Cope"
2463:"Pediatric Ophthalmology, Optometry and Orthoptics"
1697:
1695:
1693:
188:
170:
158:
140:
118:
102:
78:
62:
40:
35:
844:impact of refractive errors and their correction.
4080:arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)
2661:Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus
2347:
2345:
656:and its inverse can also be used to characterize
568:, which are located at the front of the eye, the
220:. The most common types of refractive error are
2615:Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics
1568:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
2140:"Eye Anatomy: Parts of the Eye and How We See"
840:A number of questionnaires exist to determine
660:in a higher level of resolution and accuracy.
3087:
286:permanently changes the shape of the cornea.
8:
4154:Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
1670:Bope, Edward T.; Kellerman, Rick D. (2015).
1142:Denniston, Alastair; Murray, Philip (2018).
3482:Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy
4588:
4352:
4141:
4132:
4010:
3997:
3984:
3591:
3409:
3400:
3387:
3138:
3129:
3116:
3094:
3080:
3072:
2984:
2816:"WHO Disease and injury country estimates"
1407:
1405:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
49:
32:
2958:
2878:
2654:
2652:
2577:
2255:
2067:
2049:
2008:
1990:
1948:
1930:
1881:
1829:
1773:
1676:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 354.
1562:"Childhood Myopia and Ocular Development"
1536:
1487:
1429:
1385:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1317:
1315:
1295:
1285:
1263:
1261:
1217:
1215:
1195:
1165:
1163:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1046:
1035:Bulletin of the World Health Organization
473:The Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (
1646:"How to Read an Eyeglasses Prescription"
1560:Saluja, Gunjan; Kaur, Kirandeep (2023),
750:
2032:Foster, P J; Jiang, Y (February 2014).
1517:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1468:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1146:(4 ed.). OUP Oxford. p. 926.
989:
703:, or a combination are typically used.
2277:
2275:
1170:Foster, PJ; Jiang, Y (February 2014).
764:Conjunctivitis (giant papillary form)
2933:Kuryan J, Cheema A, Chuck RS (2017).
2134:
2132:
2130:
2093:Clinical & Experimental Optometry
1851:
1849:
1804:Wojcienchowski, Robert (April 2011).
1640:
1638:
1224:Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics
511:congenital stationary night blindness
509:, MYP1) such as: autosomal recessive
266:Refractive errors are corrected with
7:
3962:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy
1748:Wojciechowski, Robert (April 2011).
998:"Care of the Patient with Amblyopia"
4085:non-arteritic anterior (NAION)
3922:Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
756:Complications of contact lens wear
544:can also induce refractive errors.
3957:Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis
2228:Deutsches Ă„rzteblatt International
2169:The New York Eye And Ear Infirmary
25:
3685:Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy
2579:10.1034/j.1600-0420.2001.790304.x
2566:Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica
2540:American Academy of Ophthalmology
2515:American Academy of Ophthalmology
2354:"Management of refractive errors"
2144:American Academy of Ophthalmology
1650:American Academy of Ophthalmology
726:Single vision prescription lenses
396:, when the two eyes have unequal
3790:Central retinal artery occlusion
2851:Journal of Current Ophthalmology
2413:British Journal of Ophthalmology
1874:10.1111/j.1399-0004.2010.01592.x
1822:10.1111/j.1399-0004.2010.01592.x
1766:10.1111/j.1399-0004.2010.01592.x
1342:from the original on 2016-08-15.
1236:10.1111/j.1475-1313.2011.00884.x
1144:Oxford Handbook of Ophthalmology
3795:Branch retinal artery occlusion
3524:Terrien's marginal degeneration
2826:from the original on 2009-11-11
2175:from the original on 2006-09-01
1102:"Facts About Refractive Errors"
1029:Dandona, R; Dandona, L (2001).
654:Shack–Hartmann wavefront sensor
408:power between the eyes differ.
3825:Bietti's crystalline dystrophy
3785:Central retinal vein occlusion
3514:Pellucid marginal degeneration
2951:10.1002/14651858.CD011080.pub2
1856:Barnes, Katherine (Feb 2013).
1529:10.1002/14651858.CD004916.pub4
1480:10.1002/14651858.CD014758.pub2
1108:. October 2010. Archived from
1:
3878:Vitelliform macular dystrophy
3769:Posterior vitreous detachment
3635:Persistent pupillary membrane
2782:Journal of Refractive Surgery
2105:10.1080/08164622.2021.1973344
1716:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60272-4
1378:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60692-4
560:- is performed mainly by the
4365:Leber's congenital amaurosis
4276:Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
3967:Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease
3952:Persistent fetal vasculature
3883:Leber's congenital amaurosis
2794:10.3928/1081597X-20170310-01
2751:10.1097/OPX.0000000000001143
2739:Optometry and Vision Science
2708:10.1097/ICL.0000000000000207
2673:10.3928/01913913-20170106-01
1932:10.1371/journal.pone.0140419
1431:10.1097/opx.0000000000000516
1418:Optometry and Vision Science
1322:Grosvenor, Theodore (2007).
1031:"Refractive error blindness"
3164:Meibomian gland dysfunction
2536:"LASIK — Laser Eye Surgery"
1673:Conn's Current Therapy 2016
4666:
3888:Birdshot chorioretinopathy
3862:Central serous retinopathy
3680:Focal choroidal excavation
3553:Corneal neovascularization
3370:Subconjunctival hemorrhage
2939:Cochrane Database Syst Rev
2863:10.1016/j.joco.2017.08.009
2306:Adam, Henry (2020-04-02).
392:Other terminology include
4600:
4587:
4355:
4271:Convergence insufficiency
4144:
4013:
3996:
3983:
3912:Primary juvenile glaucoma
3757:Cytomegalovirus retinitis
3399:
3386:
3172:
3128:
3115:
3106:Diseases of the human eye
2820:World Health Organization
2240:10.3238/arztebl.2016.0693
57:
48:
3781:Ocular ischemic syndrome
2320:10.1542/aap.ppcqr.396022
2034:"Epidemiology of myopia"
1287:10.1186/1471-2415-14-163
1172:"Epidemiology of myopia"
212:due to the shape of the
4281:One and a half syndrome
4035:Foster Kennedy syndrome
2425:10.1136/bjo.2007.119198
1618:"Aniseikonia - EyeWiki"
493:caused by mutations in
4520:Argyll Robertson pupil
3320:Periorbital cellulitis
2696:Eye & Contact Lens
2627:10.1089/jop.2006.22.41
1992:10.3390/ijerph20010875
1325:Primary care optometry
940:
629:(a procedure entitled
614:
467:
462:Fundus of person with
326:
147:length, problems with
4493:Scintillating scotoma
4159:Kearns–Sayre syndrome
4102:Toxic and nutritional
4075:posterior (PION)
3558:Kayser–Fleischer ring
2312:Pediatric Care Online
855:
818:clear lens extraction
638:subjective refraction
619:eye care professional
612:
461:
324:
4266:Conjugate gaze palsy
4137:Paralytic strabismus
4070:anterior (AION)
3852:Retinitis pigmentosa
3847:Macular degeneration
3620:Intermediate uveitis
3536:Keratoconjunctivitis
2051:10.1038/eye.2013.280
1188:10.1038/eye.2013.280
970:vitamin A deficiency
966:macular degeneration
954:accommodation system
538:Socioeconomic status
519:retinitis pigmentosa
497:involved in retinal
464:retinitis pigmentosa
311:vitamin A deficiency
307:macular degeneration
151:shape, aging of the
4571:Childhood blindness
4550:Parinaud's syndrome
4120:Extraocular muscles
3908:Ocular hypertension
3872:Epiretinal membrane
3857:Retinal haemorrhage
3712:Congenital cataract
2467:Asian Eye Institute
2224:"Refractive errors"
1923:2015PLoSO..1040419H
1710:(9827): 1739–1748.
937: More than 800
871: Less than 100
789:Neovascularization
752:
650:automated refractor
485:(OMIM 154700); and
4097:Leber's hereditary
3764:Retinal detachment
3717:Childhood cataract
3529:Post-LASIK ectasia
3310:Orbital cellulitis
3259:Lacrimal apparatus
2308:"Vision Screening"
941:
751:
701:refractive surgery
615:
491:X-linked disorders
468:
404:which is when the
327:
284:Refractive surgery
208:accurately on the
201:is a problem with
183:refractive surgery
4650:Corrective lenses
4622:
4621:
4618:
4617:
4583:
4582:
4579:
4578:
4525:Marcus Gunn pupil
4501:
4500:
4422:Visual impairment
4289:
4288:
4195:
4194:
4182:Fourth-nerve (IV)
4110:
4109:
4047:Optic disc drusen
3979:
3978:
3975:
3974:
3693:
3692:
3581:
3580:
3487:Corneal dystrophy
3382:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3253:
3252:
3069:
3068:
2745:(12): 1102–1119.
2370:10.1136/bmj.c1711
1862:Clinical Genetics
1810:Clinical Genetics
1372:(9995): 743–800.
1274:BMC Ophthalmology
1010:on 19 August 2016
824:Medical treatment
805:
804:
773:Corneal abrasion
732:Multifocal lenses
597:. This is called
548:Normal Refraction
487:Stickler syndrome
479:Knobloch syndrome
196:
195:
192:~1.5 billion
160:Diagnostic method
30:Medical condition
18:Refractive errors
16:(Redirected from
4657:
4589:
4353:
4344:Vision disorders
4303:Refractive error
4245:Brown's syndrome
4201:Other strabismus
4187:Sixth-nerve (VI)
4177:Oculomotor (III)
4149:Ophthalmoparesis
4142:
4133:
4124:Binocular vision
4057:Optic neuropathy
4023:optic papillitis
4011:
3998:
3985:
3874:(Macular pucker)
3592:
3573:Band keratopathy
3410:
3401:
3388:
3315:Orbital lymphoma
3202:Blepharophimosis
3192:Blepharochalasis
3139:
3130:
3117:
3096:
3089:
3082:
3073:
2985:
2973:
2972:
2962:
2930:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2920:
2914:
2908:. Archived from
2907:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2882:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2812:
2806:
2805:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2656:
2647:
2646:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2581:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2522:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2459:
2453:
2452:
2404:
2398:
2397:
2349:
2340:
2339:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2279:
2270:
2269:
2259:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2209:
2200:. Archived from
2190:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2152:
2151:
2136:
2125:
2124:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2071:
2053:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2012:
1994:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1952:
1934:
1917:(10): e0140419.
1902:
1896:
1895:
1885:
1853:
1844:
1843:
1833:
1801:
1788:
1787:
1777:
1745:
1736:
1735:
1699:
1688:
1687:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1658:
1657:
1642:
1633:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1614:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1580:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1540:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1491:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1433:
1409:
1400:
1399:
1389:
1357:
1344:
1343:
1319:
1310:
1309:
1299:
1289:
1265:
1256:
1255:
1219:
1210:
1209:
1199:
1167:
1158:
1157:
1139:
1122:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1098:
1061:
1060:
1050:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1009:
1003:. Archived from
1002:
994:
936:
930:
924:
918:
912:
906:
900:
894:
888:
882:
876:
870:
864:
753:
665:pinhole occluder
570:anterior segment
517:; OMIM 310500);
398:refractive power
222:near-sightedness
199:Refractive error
123:Near-sightedness
53:
44:Refraction error
36:Refractive error
33:
21:
4665:
4664:
4660:
4659:
4658:
4656:
4655:
4654:
4625:
4624:
4623:
4614:
4596:
4575:
4554:
4497:
4466:
4426:
4380:Color blindness
4346:
4338:
4285:
4259:Other binocular
4254:
4191:
4163:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4106:
4051:
4004:
3992:
3971:
3927:Ocular hypotony
3892:
3752:Chorioretinitis
3733:
3689:
3673:Chorioretinitis
3649:
3630:Rubeosis iridis
3608:
3577:
3548:Corneal opacity
3504:Corneal ectasia
3431:
3395:
3374:
3360:Pseudopterygium
3324:
3286:
3249:
3216:
3212:Ankyloblepharon
3168:
3124:
3111:
3110:
3100:
3070:
3065:
3064:
2996:
2982:
2977:
2976:
2945:(2): CD011080.
2932:
2931:
2927:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2829:
2827:
2814:
2813:
2809:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2736:
2735:
2731:
2693:
2692:
2688:
2658:
2657:
2650:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2559:
2558:
2554:
2545:
2543:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2520:
2518:
2509:
2508:
2504:
2495:
2493:
2491:www.nei.nih.gov
2485:
2484:
2480:
2471:
2469:
2461:
2460:
2456:
2406:
2405:
2401:
2351:
2350:
2343:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2291:
2289:
2281:
2280:
2273:
2234:(41): 693–702.
2221:
2220:
2216:
2207:
2205:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2178:
2176:
2163:
2162:
2158:
2149:
2147:
2138:
2137:
2128:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2031:
2030:
2026:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1855:
1854:
1847:
1803:
1802:
1791:
1747:
1746:
1739:
1701:
1700:
1691:
1684:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1655:
1653:
1644:
1643:
1636:
1626:
1624:
1622:eyewiki.aao.org
1616:
1615:
1611:
1601:
1599:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1578:
1576:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1523:(9): CD004916.
1510:
1509:
1505:
1474:(2): CD014758.
1460:
1459:
1455:
1411:
1410:
1403:
1359:
1358:
1347:
1336:
1321:
1320:
1313:
1267:
1266:
1259:
1221:
1220:
1213:
1169:
1168:
1161:
1154:
1141:
1140:
1125:
1115:
1113:
1112:on 28 July 2016
1100:
1099:
1064:
1028:
1027:
1023:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1000:
996:
995:
991:
986:
978:
939:
938:
934:
932:
928:
926:
922:
920:
916:
914:
910:
908:
904:
902:
898:
896:
892:
890:
886:
884:
880:
878:
874:
872:
868:
866:
862:
850:
842:quality of life
834:
826:
813:
742:
720:Reading glasses
709:
685:
673:
658:eye aberrations
623:eye examination
607:
550:
528:
483:Marfan syndrome
481:(OMIM 267750);
456:
451:
343:Nearsightedness
319:
280:field of vision
261:eye examination
257:lens of the eye
226:far-sightedness
165:Eye examination
127:far-sightedness
31:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4663:
4661:
4653:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4627:
4626:
4620:
4619:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4612:
4610:Onchocerciasis
4607:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4592:
4585:
4584:
4581:
4580:
4577:
4576:
4574:
4573:
4568:
4562:
4560:
4556:
4555:
4553:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4511:
4509:
4503:
4502:
4499:
4498:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4474:
4472:
4468:
4467:
4465:
4464:
4462:Quadrantanopia
4459:
4458:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4436:
4434:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4424:
4411:
4410:
4409:
4407:Oguchi disease
4399:
4398:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4356:
4350:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4336:
4331:
4322:
4317:
4316:
4315:
4310:
4299:
4297:
4291:
4290:
4287:
4286:
4284:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4262:
4260:
4256:
4255:
4253:
4252:
4250:Duane syndrome
4247:
4242:
4237:
4236:
4235:
4230:
4220:
4215:
4205:
4203:
4197:
4196:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4173:
4171:
4165:
4164:
4162:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4145:
4139:
4130:
4112:
4111:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4088:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4061:
4059:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4038:
4037:
4027:
4026:
4025:
4018:Optic neuritis
4014:
4008:
3994:
3993:
3988:
3981:
3980:
3977:
3976:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3947:Phthisis bulbi
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3900:
3898:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3843:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3830:Coats' disease
3827:
3822:
3820:of prematurity
3817:
3812:
3807:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3778:
3773:
3772:
3771:
3761:
3760:
3759:
3754:
3743:
3741:
3735:
3734:
3732:
3731:
3729:Ectopia lentis
3726:
3721:
3720:
3719:
3714:
3703:
3701:
3695:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3665:
3659:
3657:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3611:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3601:
3595:
3589:
3587:Vascular tunic
3583:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3544:
3543:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3501:
3500:
3499:
3494:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3470:Photokeratitis
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3441:
3439:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3429:
3424:
3418:
3416:
3407:
3397:
3396:
3391:
3384:
3383:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3351:
3350:
3343:Conjunctivitis
3340:
3334:
3332:
3326:
3325:
3323:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3296:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3284:
3279:
3277:Dacryocystitis
3274:
3269:
3267:Dacryoadenitis
3263:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3226:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3145:
3143:
3136:
3126:
3125:
3120:
3113:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3098:
3091:
3084:
3076:
3067:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3051:
3040:
3017:
2997:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:Classification
2981:
2980:External links
2978:
2975:
2974:
2925:
2894:
2837:
2807:
2788:(6): 416–424.
2772:
2729:
2686:
2667:(3): 142–148.
2648:
2601:
2572:(3): 233–236.
2552:
2527:
2502:
2478:
2454:
2399:
2341:
2298:
2271:
2214:
2185:
2156:
2126:
2099:(7): 715–720.
2083:
2044:(2): 202–208.
2024:
1964:
1897:
1845:
1816:(4): 301–320.
1789:
1760:(4): 301–320.
1737:
1689:
1682:
1662:
1634:
1609:
1584:
1552:
1503:
1453:
1401:
1345:
1334:
1311:
1257:
1211:
1159:
1152:
1123:
1062:
1021:
988:
987:
985:
982:
977:
974:
933:
927:
921:
915:
909:
903:
897:
891:
885:
879:
873:
867:
861:
860:
849:
846:
833:
830:
825:
822:
812:
809:
803:
802:
798:
794:
793:
790:
786:
785:
782:
781:Corneal edema
778:
777:
774:
770:
769:
765:
761:
760:
757:
741:
740:Contact lenses
738:
737:
736:
733:
730:
727:
724:
721:
708:
705:
697:contact lenses
684:
681:
672:
669:
606:
603:
549:
546:
542:Blepharoptosis
527:
524:
455:
452:
450:
447:
432:
431:
425:
419:
387:
386:
377:
369:
360:Farsightedness
352:
318:
317:Classification
315:
272:contact lenses
194:
193:
190:
186:
185:
179:contact lenses
172:
168:
167:
162:
156:
155:
142:
138:
137:
120:
116:
115:
106:
100:
99:
82:
76:
75:
66:
60:
59:
55:
54:
46:
45:
42:
38:
37:
29:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4662:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4632:
4630:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4602:
4599:
4595:
4590:
4586:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4563:
4561:
4557:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4530:Adie syndrome
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4512:
4510:
4508:
4504:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4469:
4463:
4460:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4441:
4438:
4437:
4435:
4433:
4429:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4412:
4408:
4405:
4404:
4403:
4400:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4385:Achromatopsia
4383:
4382:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4357:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4326:
4325:Anisometropia
4323:
4321:
4318:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4305:
4304:
4301:
4300:
4298:
4296:
4292:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4263:
4261:
4257:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4225:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4174:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4128:Accommodation
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4067:
4066:
4063:
4062:
4060:
4058:
4054:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4042:Optic atrophy
4040:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4031:
4028:
4024:
4021:
4020:
4019:
4016:
4015:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3986:
3982:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3942:Keratomycosis
3940:
3938:
3937:Globe rupture
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3902:
3901:
3899:
3895:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3867:Macular edema
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3802:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3776:Retinoschisis
3774:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3762:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3749:
3748:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3740:
3736:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3700:
3696:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3674:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3663:Choroideremia
3661:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3640:Iridodialysis
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3568:Arcus senilis
3566:
3564:
3563:Haab's striae
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3502:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3489:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3477:Corneal ulcer
3475:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3455:acanthamoebic
3453:
3451:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3434:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3417:
3415:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3405:Fibrous tunic
3402:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3331:
3327:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3289:
3283:
3282:Xerophthalmia
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3219:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3187:Lagophthalmos
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3171:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3144:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3107:
3104:
3103:
3097:
3092:
3090:
3085:
3083:
3078:
3077:
3074:
3061:
3057:
3056:
3052:
3050:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2990:
2986:
2979:
2970:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2929:
2926:
2915:on 2021-06-24
2911:
2904:
2898:
2895:
2890:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2838:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2811:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2776:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2733:
2730:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2690:
2687:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2553:
2541:
2537:
2531:
2528:
2516:
2512:
2506:
2503:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2479:
2468:
2464:
2458:
2455:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2403:
2400:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2302:
2299:
2288:
2284:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2218:
2215:
2204:on 2011-12-21
2203:
2199:
2195:
2189:
2186:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2160:
2157:
2145:
2141:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2084:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2028:
2025:
2020:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1968:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1683:9780323355353
1679:
1675:
1674:
1666:
1663:
1651:
1647:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1623:
1619:
1613:
1610:
1598:
1594:
1588:
1585:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1457:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1424:(3): 258–66.
1423:
1419:
1415:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1337:
1335:9780750675758
1331:
1327:
1326:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1153:9780198816751
1149:
1145:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1041:(3): 237–43.
1040:
1036:
1032:
1025:
1022:
1006:
999:
993:
990:
983:
981:
975:
973:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
949:
945:
931: 730-800
925: 660-730
919: 590-660
913: 520-590
907: 450-520
901: 380-450
895: 310-380
889: 240-310
883: 170-240
877: 100-170
865: No data
858:
854:
847:
845:
843:
838:
831:
829:
823:
821:
819:
810:
808:
799:
796:
795:
791:
788:
787:
783:
780:
779:
775:
772:
771:
766:
763:
762:
758:
755:
754:
749:
746:
739:
734:
731:
728:
725:
722:
719:
718:
717:
713:
706:
704:
702:
698:
694:
688:
682:
680:
678:
670:
668:
666:
661:
659:
655:
651:
646:
644:
640:
639:
634:
633:
628:
624:
620:
611:
604:
602:
600:
599:accommodation
596:
592:
587:
584:
580:
579:
573:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
547:
545:
543:
539:
534:
526:Environmental
525:
523:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
499:photoreceptor
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
471:
466:, early stage
465:
460:
453:
448:
446:
443:
439:
438:
429:
426:
423:
420:
417:
414:
413:
412:
409:
407:
406:magnification
403:
399:
395:
394:anisometropia
390:
383:
382:
378:
375:
374:
370:
366:
362:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
344:
340:
336:
335:
334:
331:
323:
316:
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
291:
287:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
264:
262:
258:
253:
251:
247:
243:
242:double vision
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
204:
200:
191:
187:
184:
180:
176:
173:
169:
166:
163:
161:
157:
154:
150:
146:
143:
139:
136:
132:
128:
124:
121:
117:
114:
110:
107:
105:
104:Complications
101:
98:
94:
90:
89:double vision
86:
85:Blurry vision
83:
81:
77:
74:
70:
69:Ophthalmology
67:
65:
61:
56:
52:
47:
43:
39:
34:
19:
4420: /
4416: /
4395:Monochromacy
4327: /
4302:
4223:Heterophoria
4211: /
3910: /
3906: /
3810:hypertensive
3783: /
3604:Ciliary body
3519:Keratoglobus
3427:Episcleritis
3305:Enophthalmos
3300:Exophthalmos
3245:Trichomegaly
3240:Distichiasis
3142:Inflammation
3053:
3042:
3019:
3000:
2942:
2938:
2928:
2917:. Retrieved
2910:the original
2897:
2854:
2850:
2840:
2828:. Retrieved
2819:
2810:
2785:
2781:
2775:
2742:
2738:
2732:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2664:
2660:
2621:(1): 41–46.
2618:
2614:
2604:
2569:
2565:
2555:
2544:. Retrieved
2542:. 2023-07-26
2539:
2530:
2519:. Retrieved
2517:. 2023-05-03
2514:
2505:
2494:. Retrieved
2490:
2481:
2470:. Retrieved
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2146:. 2023-04-29
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1110:the original
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1012:. Retrieved
1005:the original
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848:Epidemiology
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337:
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265:
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198:
197:
4545:Cycloplegia
4488:Photophobia
4483:Hemeralopia
4440:Hemianopsia
4418:Vision loss
4329:Aniseikonia
4320:Astigmatism
4240:Cyclotropia
4218:Hypertropia
4030:Papilledema
4002:Optic nerve
3835:Sickle cell
3815:Purtscher's
3800:Retinopathy
3668:Choroiditis
3509:Keratoconus
3330:Conjunctiva
3207:Xanthelasma
3159:Blepharitis
2857:(1): 3–22.
1627:10 February
1602:10 February
1230:(1): 3–16.
1014:17 February
960:along with
958:vision loss
797:Infections
643:Cycloplegic
632:retinoscopy
627:retinoscope
583:emmetropic.
402:aniseikonia
381:Astigmatism
301:along with
299:vision loss
230:astigmatism
131:astigmatism
41:Other names
4645:Refraction
4629:Categories
4594:Infections
4515:Anisocoria
4478:Asthenopia
4471:subjective
4455:homonymous
4450:bitemporal
4402:Nyctalopia
4390:Dichromacy
4334:Presbyopia
4295:Refraction
4116:Strabismus
4006:Optic disc
3365:Pinguecula
3230:Trichiasis
3055:DiseasesDB
2919:2023-03-21
2702:(1): 3–8.
2546:2023-11-06
2521:2023-11-06
2496:2021-06-29
2472:2022-08-03
2292:2023-10-30
2208:2011-12-13
2179:2006-09-13
2150:2023-10-31
1985:(1): 875.
1754:Clin Genet
1704:The Lancet
1656:2023-10-31
1579:2023-10-31
1566:StatPearls
984:References
832:Prevention
683:Management
621:during an
578:emmetropia
558:refraction
501:function (
442:emmetropic
437:emmetropia
373:Presbyopia
268:eyeglasses
250:eye strain
234:presbyopia
175:Eyeglasses
135:presbyopia
97:eye strain
4566:Nystagmus
4540:Mydriasis
4414:Blindness
4360:Amblyopia
4348:Blindness
4308:Hyperopia
4233:Exophoria
4228:Esophoria
4213:Exotropia
4209:Esotropia
3747:Retinitis
3445:Keratitis
3422:Scleritis
3355:Pterygium
3235:Madarosis
3182:Ectropion
3177:Entropion
3154:Chalazion
2871:2452-2325
2635:1080-7683
2588:1395-3907
2433:0007-1161
2378:0959-8138
2364:: c1711.
2336:263605231
2328:2767-6617
2287:aapos.org
2248:1866-0452
2121:237573319
2060:0950-222X
2001:1660-4601
1941:1932-6203
1732:208793136
1597:aapos.org
962:cataracts
677:ambylopia
671:Screening
605:Diagnosis
581:or being
422:Cylinder:
365:hyperopia
356:Hyperopia
303:cataracts
246:headaches
189:Frequency
171:Treatment
113:amblyopia
109:Blindness
93:headaches
73:optometry
64:Specialty
4605:Trachoma
4370:Diplopia
4065:Ischemic
3990:Pathways
3904:Glaucoma
3805:diabetic
3707:Cataract
3645:Synechia
3497:Meesmann
3465:Exposure
3450:herpetic
3348:allergic
3338:Chemosis
3272:Epiphora
2969:28197998
2889:29564404
2824:Archived
2822:. 2009.
2802:28586503
2767:21512136
2759:29095758
2724:24069302
2716:26513719
2681:28092397
2643:16503774
2596:11401629
2441:18156372
2386:20385718
2266:27839543
2173:Archived
2113:34538220
2078:24406412
2019:36613196
1959:26485393
1911:PLOS ONE
1892:23396134
1840:21155761
1784:21155761
1724:22559900
1574:36508524
1547:31930781
1498:36809645
1448:42359341
1440:25611765
1396:26063472
1340:Archived
1306:25539893
1252:32397628
1244:22150586
1206:24406412
1057:11285669
591:increase
564:and the
454:Genetics
203:focusing
80:Symptoms
4445:binasal
4432:Anopsia
4375:Scotoma
4169:palsies
3932:Red eye
3917:Floater
3724:Aphakia
3655:Choroid
3625:Hyphema
3615:Uveitis
3222:Eyelash
3049:D012030
2960:5408355
2880:5859285
2830:Nov 11,
2449:2157969
2394:8240093
2257:5143802
2069:3930282
2010:9820324
1950:4618477
1919:Bibcode
1883:3740568
1831:3058260
1775:3058260
1538:6984636
1489:9933422
1387:4561509
1297:4391667
1280:: 163.
1197:3930282
1116:29 July
1048:2566380
811:Surgery
707:Glasses
693:glasses
533:Reading
416:Sphere:
368:cornea.
351:cornea.
276:surgery
216:and/or
145:Eyeball
4635:Vision
4535:Miosis
4313:Myopia
4092:Kjer's
3840:photic
3739:Retina
3492:Fuchs'
3460:fungal
3437:Cornea
3414:Sclera
3197:Ptosis
3134:Eyelid
3122:Adnexa
2967:
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2800:
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869:
863:
595:retina
562:cornea
554:retina
440:or be
400:, and
385:image.
348:myopia
339:Myopia
309:, and
248:, and
238:blurry
232:, and
218:cornea
210:retina
149:cornea
141:Causes
4559:Other
4507:Pupil
3897:Other
3541:sicca
3393:Globe
3292:Orbit
3060:29645
3038:367.9
3034:367.2
3030:367.0
3015:H52.4
3011:H52.0
2913:(PDF)
2906:(PDF)
2763:S2CID
2720:S2CID
2445:S2CID
2390:S2CID
2332:S2CID
2117:S2CID
1728:S2CID
1444:S2CID
1248:S2CID
1008:(PDF)
1001:(PDF)
857:DALYs
428:Axis:
295:blind
274:, or
206:light
119:Types
3699:Lens
3599:Iris
3149:Stye
3044:MeSH
3025:9-CM
2965:PMID
2943:2017
2885:PMID
2867:ISSN
2832:2009
2798:PMID
2755:PMID
2712:PMID
2677:PMID
2639:PMID
2631:ISSN
2592:PMID
2584:ISSN
2437:PMID
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2262:PMID
2244:ISSN
2109:PMID
2074:PMID
2056:ISSN
2015:PMID
1997:ISSN
1955:PMID
1937:ISSN
1888:PMID
1836:PMID
1780:PMID
1720:PMID
1678:ISBN
1629:2020
1604:2020
1570:PMID
1543:PMID
1521:2021
1494:PMID
1472:2023
1436:PMID
1392:PMID
1330:ISBN
1302:PMID
1240:PMID
1202:PMID
1148:ISBN
1118:2016
1053:PMID
1016:2020
976:Cost
566:lens
515:CSNB
495:loci
475:OMIM
153:lens
3021:ICD
3002:ICD
2955:PMC
2947:doi
2875:PMC
2859:doi
2790:doi
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2358:BMJ
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2064:PMC
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2005:PMC
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