355:. The consensus of the nuclear industry, nuclear regulators, and governments, is that the incidence of cancers caused by ionizing radiation can be modeled as increasing linearly with effective dose at a rate of 0.055% per rem (5.5%/Sv). Individual studies, alternate models, and earlier versions of the industry consensus have produced other risk estimates scattered around this consensus model. There is general agreement that the risk is much higher for infants and fetuses than adults, higher for the middle-aged than for seniors, and higher for women than for men, though there is no quantitative consensus about this. There is much less data, and much more controversy, regarding the possibility of
404:
noted in 1954 that this effectively implied an increase in the magnitude of the rem to match the rad (100 erg/gram). The ICRP introduced and then officially adopted the rem in 1962 as the unit of equivalent dose to measure the way different types of radiation distribute energy in tissue and began
286:
The conventional units for dose rate is mrem/h. Regulatory limits and chronic doses are often given in units of mrem/yr or rem/yr, where they are understood to represent the total amount of radiation allowed (or received) over the entire year. In many occupational scenarios, the hourly dose rate
347:
only occur in the case of high doses (> ~10 rad or > 0.1 Gy) and high dose rates (> ~10 rad/h or > 0.1 Gy/h). A model of deterministic risk would require different weighting factors (not yet established) than are used in the calculation of
416:(CIPM) adopted the sievert in 1980 but never accepted the use of the rem. The NIST recognizes that this unit is outside the SI but temporarily accepts its use in the U.S. with the SI. The rem remains in widespread use as an industry standard in the U.S. The United States
391:
The concept of the rem first appeared in literature in 1945 and was given its first definition in 1947. The definition was refined in 1950 as "that dose of any ionizing radiation which produces a relevant biological effect equal to that produced by one
245:. The unit name is misleading, since 1 roentgen actually deposits about 0.96 rem in soft biological tissue, when all weighting factors equal unity. Older units of rem following other definitions are up to 17% smaller than the modern rem.
370:
The ICRP recommends limiting artificial irradiation of the public to an average of 100 mrem (1 mSv) of effective dose per year, not including medical and occupational exposures. For comparison, radiation levels inside the
2002:
335:(NIST) strongly discourages Americans from expressing doses in rem, in favor of recommending the SI unit. The NIST recommends defining the rem in relation to the SI in every document where this unit is used.
1982:
283:(Sv) is the normal unit outside the United States, and is increasingly encountered within the US in academic, scientific, and engineering environments, and have now virtually replaced the rem.
409:(RBE) for various types of radiation. In practice, the unit of rem was used to denote that an RBE factor had been applied to a number which was originally in units of rad or roentgen.
948:
458:
1987:
303:
252:(ARS), possibly leading to death within weeks if left untreated. Note that the quantities that are measured in rem were not designed to be correlated to ARS symptoms. The
998:
In the United States, we measure radiation doses in units called rem. Under the metric system, dose is measured in units called sieverts. One sievert is equal to 100 rem.
1420:
413:
180:
31:
287:
might fluctuate to levels thousands of times higher for a brief period of time, without infringing on the annual total exposure limits. The annual conversions to a
1992:
1709:
1103:
332:
1868:
267:), which is one thousandth of a rem, is often used for the dosages commonly encountered, such as the amount of radiation received from medical x-rays and
451:
1249:
1398:
401:
2033:
1606:"Evolution of dosimetric quantities of International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP): Impact of the forthcoming recommendations"
1319:
1282:
1205:
1012:"Evolution of dosimetric quantities of International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP): Impact of the forthcoming recommendations"
444:
348:
equivalent and effective dose. To avoid confusion, deterministic effects are normally compared to absorbed dose in units of rad, not rem.
1997:
1977:
1702:
50:
2108:
1071:
Recommendations of the
International Commission on Radiological Protection and of the International Commission on Radiological Units
406:
219:
2103:
2018:
1107:
901:
380:
1424:
1800:
896:
66:
279:
The rem and millirem are CGS units in widest use among the U.S. public, industry, and government. However, the SI unit the
2083:
2028:
2023:
1695:
485:
417:
376:
375:
are 85 mrem/yr (0.85 mSv/yr), close to the regulatory limit, because of the uranium content of the granite structure. The
2118:
886:
343:
Ionizing radiation has deterministic and stochastic effects on human health. The deterministic effects that can lead to
1306:
306:(ICRP) once adopted fixed conversion for occupational exposure, although these have not appeared in recent documents:
2123:
2071:
1810:
793:
364:
188:
2128:
1757:
396:
of high-voltage x-radiation." Using data available at the time, the rem was variously evaluated as 83, 93, or 95
2067:
2054:
2049:
1675:
1585:. National Bureau of Standards Handbook. Vol. 59. US Department of Commerce. 24 September 1954. p. 31
1166:
400:/gram. Along with the introduction of the rad in 1953, the ICRP decided to continue the use of the rem. The US
352:
344:
249:
207:
288:
2075:
1972:
1905:
1399:"Total Body Irradiation » Radiation Oncology » College of Medicine » University of Florida"
891:
1308:
2010 recommendations of the ECRR : the health effects of exposure to low doses of ionizing radiation
1274:
Effects of ionizing radiation : UNSCEAR 2006 report to the
General Assembly, with scientific annexes
1134:"Metric System of Measurement: Interpretation of the International System of Units for the United States"
383:
of full body radiation, or total body radiation (TBR), allowed for radiation workers 5,000 mrem (5 rem).
2113:
2079:
1888:
1458:
372:
1900:
1893:
1732:
1718:
268:
218:. There is no universally applicable conversion constant from rad to rem; the conversion depends on
1915:
1825:
1373:
1195:
1762:
1752:
1747:
1541:
1222:
579:
196:
238:
1133:
1805:
1645:
1627:
1577:
1559:
1502:
1315:
1278:
1201:
1051:
1033:
921:
551:
493:
1946:
1941:
1635:
1617:
1549:
1533:
1494:
1041:
1023:
1840:
1815:
1471:
1234:
985:
725:
612:
393:
234:
184:
154:
100:
82:
43:
39:
35:
233:
outside the United States. Earlier definitions going back to 1945 were derived from the
1931:
1878:
1795:
1742:
1640:
1605:
1554:
1521:
1046:
1011:
192:
1272:
1077:. National Bureau of Standards Handbook. Vol. 47. US Department of Commerce. 1950
2097:
1785:
648:
253:
211:
195:, which are dose measures used to estimate potential health effects of low levels of
1910:
1830:
1767:
1197:
The 2007 Recommendations of the
International Commission on Radiological Protection
1069:
522:
421:
132:
248:
Doses greater than 100 rem received over a short time period are likely to cause
1951:
1883:
1820:
1097:
658:
620:
360:
1305:
European
Committee on Radiation Risk (2010). Busby, Chris; et al. (eds.).
1271:
United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2008).
1835:
706:
425:
215:
203:
1631:
1351:
1037:
1873:
1790:
1737:
1622:
1325:
1028:
984:
Office of Air and
Radiation; Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (May 2007).
503:
1649:
1563:
1506:
1055:
1423:. Argonne National Laboratory: US Atomic Energy Commission. Archived from
17:
1936:
593:
1967:
1850:
1687:
1545:
850:
812:
803:
773:
744:
735:
589:
436:
The following table shows radiation quantities in SI and non-SI units:
356:
280:
230:
226:
163:
1498:
144:
1537:
1485:
Parker, H.M. (1950). "Tentative Dose Units for Mixed
Radiations".
666:
242:
140:
1691:
928:. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 31 August 2015
680:
397:
71:
1099:
402:
National
Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurements
351:
Stochastic effects are those that occur randomly, such as
225:
The rem has been defined since 1976 as equal to 0.01
206:
biological risk of ionizing radiation, which is primarily
320:
Therefore, for occupation exposures of that time period,
202:
Quantities measured in rem are designed to represent the
1665:, 2nd edition, 2002, Andrew Holmes-Siedle and Len Adams
947:
Morris, Jim; Hopkins, Jamie Smith (11 December 2015),
1579:
Permissible Doses from
External Sources of Radiation
2042:
2011:
1960:
1924:
1859:
1776:
1725:
304:
International Commission on Radiological Protection
150:
128:
106:
96:
88:
78:
65:
60:
1314:(Regulators' ed.). Aberystwyth: Green Audit.
1250:"How to Understand and Communicate Radiation Risk"
1350:Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program.
988:. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p. 2
256:, measured in rad, is a better indicator of ARS.
414:International Committee for Weights and Measures
1104:National Institute of Standards and Technology
333:National Institute of Standards and Technology
1703:
1419:Cantrill, S.T; H.M. Parker (5 January 1945).
452:
8:
49:For the light metro system of Montreal, see
1869:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring
1096:Thompson, Ambler; Taylor, Barry N. (2008).
259:A rem is a large dose of radiation, so the
1710:
1696:
1688:
1189:
1187:
1127:
1125:
459:
445:
438:
57:
38:. For the historical equivalent of modern
1680:. US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2009.
1639:
1621:
1553:
1045:
1027:
913:
214:, which in the CGS system has the unit
1522:"Units of Radiation and Radioactivity"
1467:
1456:
1230:
1220:
1200:. ICRP publication 103. Vol. 37.
440:Ionizing radiation related quantities
2034:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960
922:"RADInfo Glossary of Radiation Terms"
7:
241:, a German scientist who discovered
210:. These quantities are derived from
1374:"Information for Radiation Workers"
1167:"§ 20.1004 Units of radiation dose"
1102:(2008 ed.). Gaithersburg, MD:
420:still permits the use of the units
83:Health effect of ionizing radiation
1132:Hebner, Robert E. (28 July 1998).
229:, which is the more commonly used
25:
407:relative biological effectiveness
220:relative biological effectiveness
110:
1520:Anderson, Elda E. (March 1952).
1110:from the original on 16 May 2008
986:"Radiation: Risks and Realities"
1248:Peck, Donald J.; Samei, Ehsan.
902:Orders of magnitude (radiation)
1801:Computed tomography dose index
1352:"Radiation in the Environment"
972:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons
897:Health threat from cosmic rays
363:effects, and the modelling of
1:
1663:Handbook of Radiation Effects
418:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
298:0.1141 mrem/h = 1,000 mrem/yr
1354:. US Army Corps of Engineers
1277:. New York: United Nations.
887:Roentgen equivalent physical
432:Radiation-related quantities
51:Réseau express métropolitain
949:"The First Line of Defense"
381:annual total effective dose
2145:
2065:
1610:Journal of Medical Physics
1016:Journal of Medical Physics
974:, Revised ed., US DOD 1962
327:0.5 mrem/h = 1,000 mrem/yr
48:
30:This article is about the
29:
2063:
1758:Radioactive contamination
792:
724:
647:
578:
492:
124:
2109:Radiation health effects
2066:See also the categories
2055:Radiation-induced cancer
2050:Acute radiation syndrome
353:radiation-induced cancer
345:acute radiation syndrome
324:1 mrem/h = 2,000 mrem/yr
295:1 mrem/h = 8,766 mrem/yr
250:acute radiation syndrome
237:, which was named after
208:radiation-induced cancer
2104:Units of radiation dose
1623:10.4103/0971-6203.35719
1604:Pradhan, A. S. (2007).
1029:10.4103/0971-6203.35719
1010:Pradhan, A. S. (2007).
405:recommending values of
173:roentgen equivalent man
61:roentgen equivalent man
1906:Semiconductor detector
1862:measurement techniques
892:Banana equivalent dose
842:röntgen equivalent man
765:röntgen equivalent man
1925:Protection techniques
1889:Scintillation counter
1526:Public Health Reports
1106:. p. 10. SP811.
373:United States Capitol
2084:Radiation protection
1901:Radiation monitoring
1894:Proportional counter
1779:quantities and units
1733:Background radiation
1719:Radiation protection
1421:"The Tolerance Dose"
428:alongside SI units.
2119:Non-SI metric units
1916:Whole-body counting
1826:Mean glandular dose
1763:Radioactive sources
1427:on 30 November 2012
466:
199:on the human body.
119:... is equal to ...
1753:Internal dosimetry
1748:Ionizing radiation
439:
197:ionizing radiation
160:
152:
138:
130:
2091:
2090:
2072:Radiation effects
2043:Radiation effects
1806:Counts per minute
1466:Missing or empty
1321:978-1-897761-16-8
1284:978-92-1-142263-4
1207:978-0-7020-3048-2
878:
877:
849:100 ergâ‹…g Ă—
772:100 ergâ‹…g Ă—
169:
168:
107:Conversions
16:(Redirected from
2136:
2129:Equivalent units
1947:Radon mitigation
1942:Potassium iodide
1860:Instruments and
1712:
1705:
1698:
1689:
1682:
1681:
1672:
1666:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1643:
1625:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1584:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1557:
1517:
1511:
1510:
1499:10.1148/54.2.257
1482:
1476:
1475:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1454:
1443:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1330:
1324:. Archived from
1313:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1232:
1228:
1226:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1191:
1182:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1141:Federal Register
1138:
1129:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1093:
1087:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1076:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1049:
1031:
1007:
1001:
1000:
995:
993:
981:
975:
969:
963:
962:
961:
959:
944:
938:
937:
935:
933:
918:
701:
699:
643:
641:
630:
628:
573:
572:
569:
545:
536:
534:
467:
461:
454:
447:
161:
153:
139:
131:
58:
21:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2134:
2133:
2124:Wilhelm Röntgen
2094:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2086:
2068:Medical physics
2059:
2038:
2007:
1956:
1920:
1861:
1855:
1816:Equivalent dose
1778:
1772:
1721:
1716:
1686:
1685:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1661:
1657:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1588:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1538:10.2307/4588064
1519:
1518:
1514:
1484:
1483:
1479:
1465:
1455:
1445:
1444:
1440:
1430:
1428:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1382:
1380:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1334:
1332:
1331:on 21 July 2012
1328:
1322:
1311:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1255:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1229:
1219:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1193:
1192:
1185:
1175:
1173:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1150:
1148:
1136:
1131:
1130:
1123:
1113:
1111:
1095:
1094:
1090:
1080:
1078:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1009:
1008:
1004:
991:
989:
983:
982:
978:
970:
966:
957:
955:
946:
945:
941:
931:
929:
920:
919:
915:
910:
883:
867:
858:
829:
820:
781:
752:
726:Equivalent dose
714:100 ergâ‹…g
697:
695:
639:
637:
626:
624:
570:
567:
565:
543:
532:
530:
465:
434:
389:
341:
277:
239:Wilhelm Röntgen
185:equivalent dose
159:
155:SI derived unit
151:
137:
129:
54:
47:
44:roentgen (unit)
36:equivalent dose
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2142:
2140:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2096:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2015:
2013:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1932:Lead shielding
1928:
1926:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1879:Geiger counter
1876:
1871:
1865:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1811:Effective dose
1808:
1803:
1798:
1796:Committed dose
1793:
1788:
1782:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1743:Health physics
1740:
1735:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1715:
1714:
1707:
1700:
1692:
1684:
1683:
1677:10 CFR 20.1003
1667:
1655:
1596:
1569:
1532:(3): 293–297.
1512:
1493:(2): 257–262.
1477:
1438:
1411:
1390:
1365:
1342:
1320:
1297:
1283:
1263:
1252:. Image Wisely
1240:
1231:|journal=
1206:
1183:
1158:
1121:
1088:
1061:
1002:
976:
964:
939:
912:
911:
909:
906:
905:
904:
899:
894:
889:
882:
879:
876:
875:
874:0.010 Sv
872:
869:
863:
854:
847:
844:
838:
837:
834:
831:
825:
816:
809:
806:
801:
794:Effective dose
790:
789:
788:0.010 Sv
786:
783:
777:
770:
767:
761:
760:
757:
754:
748:
741:
738:
733:
722:
721:
720:0.010 Gy
718:
715:
712:
709:
703:
702:
693:
690:
687:
684:
677:
676:
673:
670:
664:
661:
656:
645:
644:
635:
632:
618:
615:
609:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
587:
576:
575:
563:
560:
557:
554:
548:
547:
540:
537:
528:
525:
519:
518:
515:
512:
509:
506:
501:
490:
489:
483:
480:
477:
474:
471:
464:
463:
456:
449:
441:
433:
430:
388:
385:
340:
339:Health effects
337:
329:
328:
325:
318:
317:
316:50 week = 1 yr
314:
311:
300:
299:
296:
276:
273:
193:committed dose
189:effective dose
167:
166:
157:
148:
147:
135:
126:
125:
122:
121:
116:
109:
108:
104:
103:
98:
94:
93:
90:
86:
85:
80:
76:
75:
69:
63:
62:
27:Radiation unit
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2141:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2076:Radioactivity
2073:
2069:
2062:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1961:Organisations
1959:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1786:Absorbed dose
1784:
1783:
1781:
1775:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
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313:40 h = 1 week
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2114:Radiobiology
2080:Radiobiology
1911:Survey meter
1845:
1831:Monitor unit
1777:Measurement
1768:Radiobiology
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1425:the original
1414:
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1326:the original
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642:10 C/kg
601:Câ‹…kg of air
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79:Unit of
55:
1952:Respirators
1884:Ion chamber
1589:14 November
1114:28 November
1081:14 November
958:18 December
932:18 December
546:10 Bq
488:equivalent
479:Derivation
424:, rad, and
361:teratogenic
310:8 h = 1 day
289:Julian year
112:1 rem
97:Named after
67:Unit system
2098:Categories
2012:Regulation
1453:(2). 1947.
1447:Nucleonics
1404:29 January
1383:29 January
1176:29 January
908:References
700:10 Gy
559:10 s
552:rutherford
269:background
204:stochastic
18:Rem (unit)
2024:NRC (USA)
1973:HPS (USA)
1874:Dosimeter
1791:Becquerel
1738:Dosimetry
1632:0971-6203
1487:Radiology
1233:ignored (
1223:cite book
1038:0971-6203
683:per gram
574: Bq
535:10 s
504:becquerel
470:Quantity
379:sets the
331:The U.S.
271:sources.
2029:ONR (UK)
2019:IRR (UK)
1998:SRP (UK)
1937:Glovebox
1841:Roentgen
1650:21157526
1564:14900367
1507:15403708
1108:Archived
1056:21157526
881:See also
836:SI unit
759:SI unit
675:SI unit
607:SI unit
594:kilogram
580:Exposure
517:SI unit
494:Activity
394:roentgen
261:millirem
181:CGS unit
101:roentgen
34:unit of
2003:UNSCEAR
1968:Euratom
1851:Sievert
1641:3000504
1555:2030726
1546:4588064
1378:NRC Web
1171:NRC Web
1047:3000504
926:EPA.gov
811:Jâ‹…kg Ă—
804:sievert
743:Jâ‹…kg Ă—
736:sievert
631:of air
629: g
613:röntgen
590:coulomb
476:Symbol
387:History
357:cardiac
281:sievert
231:SI unit
227:sievert
222:(RBE).
179:) is a
2082:, and
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1256:18 May
1213:17 May
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1054:
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1036:
992:23 May
689:ergâ‹…g
686:erg/g
243:X-rays
191:, and
114:in ...
89:Symbol
42:, see
1583:(PDF)
1542:JSTOR
1329:(PDF)
1312:(PDF)
1151:9 May
1137:(PDF)
1075:(PDF)
953:Slate
871:1971
833:1977
785:1971
756:1977
717:1953
692:1950
672:1974
634:1928
625:0.001
604:1974
598:C/kg
562:1946
539:1953
523:curie
514:1974
482:Year
473:Unit
422:curie
291:are:
275:Usage
162:0.01
74:units
40:kerma
1993:IRPA
1988:ICRP
1983:ICRU
1978:IAEA
1821:Gray
1646:PMID
1628:ISSN
1591:2012
1560:PMID
1503:PMID
1472:help
1433:2012
1406:2024
1385:2024
1360:2017
1337:2012
1316:ISBN
1292:2012
1279:ISBN
1258:2012
1235:help
1215:2012
1202:ISBN
1178:2024
1153:2012
1116:2012
1083:2012
1052:PMID
1034:ISSN
994:2012
960:2016
934:2016
846:rem
769:rem
711:rad
669:â‹…kg
659:gray
638:2.58
592:per
460:edit
453:talk
446:view
412:The
359:and
302:The
265:mrem
171:The
1846:Rem
1836:Rad
1636:PMC
1618:doi
1550:PMC
1534:doi
1495:doi
1042:PMC
1024:doi
808:Sv
740:Sv
707:rad
696:1.0
681:erg
663:Gy
627:293
621:esu
571:000
568:000
556:Rd
542:3.7
531:3.7
527:Ci
508:Bq
426:rem
398:erg
377:NRC
216:rad
183:of
177:rem
92:rem
72:CGS
32:CGS
2100::
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