1158:
1524:
1072:, faced profound problems. The wars of independence had disrupted the economy. The entire mining industry was in decline because of the destruction, flooding, and abandonment of mines. Lack of investment and labor scarcity contributed to a sharp drop in silver production. Agricultural production was low, and Bolivia had to import food, even the basic staples consumed by the Indian population. The government had serious financial difficulties because of the huge military expenditures and debt payments to Peru as compensation for the army of liberation. All these problems were aggravated by the isolation of the new republic from the outside world and the difficulties of securing its borders.
573:
731:
719:
712:
2429:
2022:
1268:
1482:
983:
746:
1239:
1251:
2398:
1991:
2211:
1001:
954:
2639:
2614:
2236:
1507:
130:
1666:(1848–55) emerged as the most powerful figure in Bolivia. Unlike his predecessors, Belzu sought the support of the masses. To gain the backing of the Indians, he started a campaign against the aristocratic landowners, seized their land, and incited the Indians to destroy the homes of the landowners. He also hoped to get the support of the artisans who the free-trade policies of Ballivián had hurt by restricting the role of foreign merchants in Bolivia and limiting imports.
1018:
163:
940:
1841:
1536:
1107:
2710:
214:
33:
2412:
2005:
414:
2663:". Although the Liberals resented the long rule of the Conservatives, the main reasons for the revolt were regionalism and federalism. The Liberal Party drew most of its support from the tin-mining entrepreneurs in and around La Paz. In contrast, Conservative governments had ruled with an eye on the interests of the silver mine owners and great landowners in
3125:
1767:. Relying primarily on the military, he remained in power for more than six years despite his mismanagement, drunkenness, corruption, and constant intrigues against him. Hoping to improve the economy by opening up the country to foreigners, Melgarejo signed a series of free trade treaties with Chile and Peru. In an 1867 treaty with
1065:, formally installed as Bolivia's first elected president after the General Constituent Assembly convened in May and elected him. Sucre convened the Constituent Assembly in Chuquisaca to determine the region's future. Almost all delegates wanted an independent Upper Peru and rejected attachment to Argentina or Peru.
2274:(1884–88), leader of the Democratic Party and one of Bolivia's richest mine owners. During this time, only 30,000 Bolivians had the right to vote. After Pachecho's term, fraudulent elections resulted in Liberal revolts in October 1888, May 1890, and 1892. Although the Liberal Party was allowed to win seats in the
2743:
military mission. German officers led the School of War and
Military College from 1901. German and French artillery was purchased between 1901 and 1907. French military officers were invited between 1907 and 1910 and then again followed by Germans. In 1907, compulsory military service was introduced.
1949:
Despite these differences, both parties were primarily interested in political and economic modernization, and their ideological outlooks were similar. Civilian politicians reorganized, reequipped, and professionalized the discredited armed forces and tried to subject them to civilian control. Still,
2843:
Because taxes and fees from tin production were critically important to national revenues, Patiño, Aramayo, and
Hochschild exercised considerable influence over government policy. Unlike the silver-mining entrepreneurs of the Conservative period, the tin-mining magnates did not directly intervene in
1075:
During Sucre's three-year rule, the government tried to solve its grave financial problems, aggravated by the lack of foreign credit. Sucre reformed the existing tax structure to finance public expenditures and tried to revive silver mining by attracting foreign capital and technology. In one of the
2818:
in the 1890s made tin mining a highly profitable business. The decline in
European tin production also contributed to the Bolivian tin boom at the beginning of the 20th century. With the development of huge mines in southern Oruro and northern Potosí, La Paz eclipsed Potosí as the mining industry's
2790:
with Chile, under which it officially ceded
Bolivia's former territory on the Pacific coast in return for indemnification of US$ 8.5 million, less the value of the Bolivian section of a new railroad that Chile would construct from La Paz to the Pacific Coast at Arica. The payment was used to expand
1872:
imposed a 10-cent tax on every 100 pounds of nitrates exported from
Bolivia. British and Chilean-owned Nitrates and Railroad Company of Antofagasta objected. Daza initially suspended the tax instead of an annual fee but decided to reimpose the tax. Chileans responded by mobilizing their fleet. When
1546:
For the next 40 years, Bolivia was characterized by a chaotic political situation and a declining economy. The country relied on taxes paid by the
Indians as its main source of income. Although some of the government's leaders during this period tried to reform the country, most fit the description
1057:
Despite his efforts at reform, Bolívar was outspoken about his doubts about the ability of
Bolivians to govern themselves. He was careful to avoid recognizing Bolivia's independence, constantly referring to the country as Upper Peru and signing his decrees as dictator of Peru. Only in January 1826,
2822:
Tin production in
Bolivia came to be concentrated in the hands of Bolivian nationals, although the regimes encouraged foreign investment. At first, foreign interests and Bolivians with foreign associations took the major share. This changed, however, when Bolivian tin-mining entrepreneurs realized
2813:
Perhaps the most significant development of the
Liberal era was the dramatic rise of Bolivian tin production. Since the colonial period, tin had been mined in the Potosí region; nonetheless, Bolivia historically lacked the transportation system necessary to ship large quantities of tin to European
2859:
Liberal governments at first did not face any serious opposition because the
Conservative Party remained weak after its overthrow in 1899. By 1915 a faction of Liberals (including ex-president Pando) who were opposed to the loss of national territory, split from the Liberal party and formed the
1192:
The potential power of this confederation aroused the opposition of Argentina and Chile; both nations declared war on the confederation. In the initial round of hostilities, Santa Cruz managed to repel an attack by Argentina and surrounded Chilean forces at Paucarpata, where he forced the Vice
1037:
triumphantly on August 8, 1825. During his brief rule of less than five months, he issued a flood of decrees, resolutions, and orders reflecting his ideas about government. He declared the equality of all citizens and abolished the tribute payments, replacing them with a "direct contribution"
1905:
The War of the Pacific was a turning point in Bolivian history. Bolivian politicians were able to rally Bolivians by blaming the war on Chilean aggression. Bolivian writers were convinced that Chile's victory would help Bolivia to overcome its backwardness because the defeat strengthened the
2748:, became the head of the General staff and later Minister of War. Kundt became involved with the Republican Party and provided it with the army's loyalty during the 1920 coup, after which he purged many Liberal officers. He was later recalled to Bolivia in 1932 to lead the army during the
1125:, had a brilliant military career fighting for independence in the armies of Bolívar. His close connection with Bolívar had led to a short interlude as the president of Peru in 1826. After Sucre's resignation, it also made him a strong candidate to become Bolivia's new president.
1822:, as brutal and incompetent as Melgarejo. He faced many insurrections, a massive demonstration by artisans in Sucre, and widespread opposition. Hoping to gather the support of nationalist Bolivians to strengthen his internal position, Daza involved his country in the disastrous
364:, the army of Confederation was defeated. This was the turning point in Bolivian history; for the next 40 years, coups and short-lived regimes dominated Bolivian politics. Plagued by a vicious economic and political crisis, Bolivia's weakness was further demonstrated during the
1895:(1880–84) to come to the aid of Peru, Bolivia's war ally, was unsuccessful, and Chile defeated the combined armies in May 1880. Having lost its entire coastal territory, Bolivia withdrew from the war, while the war between Chile and Peru continued for three more years.
1778:, ostensibly to improve agricultural production. He decreed that Indians could become owners of their parcels if they paid a hefty fee within sixty days. If they failed to do so, their land would be auctioned off. The resulting land sales increased the size of the
2851:
The tin boom also contributed to increased social tensions. Indian peasants, who provided most of the labor for the mines, moved from their rural communities to the rapidly growing mining towns, where they lived and worked in precarious situations. Bolivia's
2831:
background and started as a mining apprentice. By 1924, he owned 50% of the national production and controlled the European refining of Bolivian tin. Although Patiño lived permanently abroad by the early 1920s, the two other leading tin-mining entrepreneurs,
1927:, a vocal opponent of the War of the Pacific. Conservatives favored reaching a quick peace settlement with Chile, including a financial indemnity for the lost territories and enabling Bolivia to construct a railroad for continued mining exports. The
1939:, and was more hawkish, as it denounced the pacifism of the Conservatives and any peace treaty with Chile. Liberals also resented the dependence of the mining industry on Chilean and British capital and hoped to attract United States investments.
1864:. In the mid-1860s, the two nations came to the brink of war because of disagreement over their boundaries there. In 1874, Chile agreed to fix the border at a latitude of 24° south in return for Bolivia's promise not to increase taxes on Chilean
1580:
The eviction of the Bolivian troops in the south of Peru would be achieved by the greater availability of material and human resources of Peru, the Bolivian Army did not have enough troops to maintain the occupation. In the district of Locumba -
2301:
combined to create a period of relative prosperity. The Conservative governments encouraged the mining industry by developing a rail network to the Pacific coast. The growth of commercial agriculture, such as developing Bolivia's natural
1180:
to invade Bolivia, had made Sucre's military intervention in a Peruvian civil war in 1835 a matter of life and death for Bolivia. After winning several battles in Peru, Santa Cruz reorganized that country into two autonomous states—the
2354:
at the expense of the free Indian communities resulted in numerous uprisings. It forced many Indians to work for their landlords or to migrate to the cities. As a result of this migration, the census of 1900 noted an increase in the
1914:
After the war, a vigorous debate among the civilian elites spawned the development of two new political parties. Silver mining entrepreneurs, who had become the most important economic group in the country, created the
1201:
in January 1839, coupled with revolts in both Bolivia and Peru, resulted in the breakup of the confederation and ended the career of Bolivia's ablest nineteenth-century president. Santa Cruz went into exile in Ecuador.
1884:, Bolivia declared war on Chile on March 14, but Bolivia's troops in the coastal territory were quickly defeated partly because of Daza's military incompetence. On December 27, 1879, a coup led by Colonel
2335:. The railroad extension drastically reduced the cost of transporting minerals to the Pacific coast. Economic growth was skewed, as railroads that were built to export minerals started to bring imported
2688:
The Federal Revolution differed from previous revolts in Bolivia in that Indian peasants actively participated in the fighting. Indian discontent had increased because of the massive assault on their
1091:
turned away when his reforms threatened to challenge the economic and social patterns of the colonial past. As opposition increased, the local nationalist elite came to resent the leadership of their
499:
This conflict of authority resulted in a local power struggle in Upper Peru between 1808 and 1810 and constituted the first phase of the efforts to achieve independence. In 1808, the president of the
345:
enjoyed the most successful period of its early history with significant social and economic reforms. Santa Cruz got involved in Peruvian politics and succeeded in unifying Peru and Bolivia into the
1645:, consumed almost exclusively by the Indian population. Although nearly 90 percent of all Bolivians lived in rural areas, according to the 1846 census, agriculture generated little revenue. Most
1150:) industry, and reduced the mining tax, thereby increasing mining output. In addition, Santa Cruz codified the country's laws and enacted Latin America's first civil and commercial codes. The
1627:
The Treaty of Puno officially ended the war on June 7, 1842. However, the tension between Lima and La Paz continued until 1847, when the signing of a Peace and Trade Treaty became effective.
711:
295:
proclaimed an independent state in Upper Peru in the name of King Ferdinand VII. During the following seven years, Upper Peru became the battleground between the armed forces of independent
1197:
to sign a peace treaty. However, the Chilean government rejected the treaty and launched a second offensive against the Confederation. Santa Cruz's decisive defeat by Chilean forces in the
1604:, Peruvian militias formed by the commander Juan Buendía defeated a detachment led by Colonel José María García, who died in the confrontation. Bolivian forces subsequently retreated from
1080:
never recovered the powerful role that it had held. Import duties and taxes on the internal movement of goods were also important state revenue sources. In addition, Sucre reestablished
545:
and proclaimed an independent state in Upper Peru in the name of Ferdinand VII. The loyalty to Ferdinand was a pretense used to legitimize the independence movement. By November 1809,
730:
2783:
rivers totaling 5,200 square kilometers, the equivalent of US$ 10 million, and the use of a railroad to be constructed around the rapids of the Madeira in Brazilian territory.
50:
1679:
speeches, Belzu completely alienated the Bolivian establishment with his reign of terror. As efforts to overthrow him increased, he resigned in 1855 and left for Europe.
2794:
Liberal governments also changed the seat of government and the nature of church-state relations. The presidency and the Congress were moved to La Paz, which became the
1950:
both Conservatives and Liberals initially supported military candidates for the presidency. The governments in power from 1880 to 1920—elected by a small, literate, and
1669:
Belzu's effort succeeded in one sense because he fended off forty-two coup attempts during his rule. "Tata" Belzu, as he was called by the Indians (like the head of the
1569:(1828, 1829, 1839–41, and 1848), who tried to control the political intrigues and maneuvering between the supporters and opponents of Santa Cruz. After failing to repel
1585:, a column between Peruvian soldiers and peasants defeated a Bolivian regiment in the so-called Battle of Los Altos de Chipe (Locumba). In the district of Sama and in
524:, refusing to recognize the junta because they wanted independence, took to the streets. The authorities soon put down this revolt, one of the first in Latin America.
322:
in Spain, Olañeta, convinced that revolution threatened the traditional royal authority, refused to join the royalist forces or the rebel armies under the command of
640:. Olañeta did not relinquish his command even after the Peruvian royalists included him and his forces in the capitulation agreement following their defeat in the
330:. Olañeta did not relinquish his command even after the Peruvian royalists included him and his forces in the capitulation agreement following their defeat in the
1154:
in La Paz was founded during his rule. Although Santa Cruz approved a democratic constitution, he ruled virtually as a dictator and did not tolerate opposition.
1103:
and an assassination attempt in April 1828 led to Sucre's resignation. Sucre left the country for voluntary exile, convinced that "the solution was impossible".
520:
philosophy and refused to recognize the authority of the junta because they saw it as a product of a rebellion. On May 25, 1809, tensions grew when the radical
1689:(1855–57), and became the first civilian president. Linares reversed Belzu's protective policies and encouraged free trade and foreign investment, mainly from
1633:(1841–1847) is remembered for restoring relative calm to the nation between 1842 and 1847. Reversing Santa Cruz's protectionist policies, Ballivián encouraged
1730:
communities during the 19th century, despite repeated assaults on their common landholdings by various governments. The tax burden on the Indians resulted in
1589:, the Peruvian Colonel José María Lavayén organizes a troop that manages to defeat the Bolivian forces of Colonel Rodríguez Magariños, dislodging the port of
2428:
2021:
1267:
242:
648:
war until Sucre's forces defeated his forces, and he was killed by his men on April 1, 1825, in a battle that effectively ended Spanish rule in Upper Peru.
1029:. Five days later, the assembly, hoping to placate Bolívar's reservations about the independence of Upper Peru, resolved to name the new nation after him.
632:
in Spain. Olañeta, convinced that these measures threatened royal authority, refused to join the royalist forces or the rebel armies under the command of
460:, who were suddenly confronted with several conflicting authorities. Most remained loyal to Bourbons. Taking a wait-and-see attitude, they supported the
1157:
1128:
Santa Cruz created a relatively stable economic, social, and political order in Bolivia. To overcome Bolivia's isolation, Santa Cruz opened the port of
585:
296:
2361:
population. Still, Bolivia remained a predominantly Indian and rural nation, in which the Spanish-speaking minority continued to exclude the Indians.
1792:(1871–1872) continued Melgarejo's ruling style despite his promise of "more liberty and less government". Morales was killed by his nephew in 1872.
334:
in 1824, the final battle of the wars of independence in Latin America. Olañeta continued his resistance until his men killed him on April 2, 1825.
97:
2736:
Like their Conservative predecessors, the Liberals controlled the presidential elections but left the elections for the Congress relatively free.
69:
1782:, and massive Indian uprisings against his rule became more violent. Opposition against Melgarejo mounted in all sectors of society as the term
2253:
1087:
Sucre's attempts at reform were only partially successful because Bolivia lacked the administration to carry them out. Many Conservative Party
517:
379:
An increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late 1800s under the
202:
3145:
2787:
1899:
441:
268:
1744:
The overthrow of Linares by a military coup in 1861 initiated one of the most violent periods in Bolivian history under the rule of General
1523:
1076:
most radical attacks on the church anywhere in Latin America, he confiscated church wealth in Bolivia and closed down many monasteries. The
572:
506:
76:
2755:
Liberal administrations gave priority to the settlement of border disputes. Bolivia's inability to protect and integrate the frontier with
2328:
1026:
2632:
1118:
1110:
2263:
The Conservatives ruled Bolivia from 1880 until 1899. In 1880, the Constitution of 1878 was reaffirmed and remained in force until 1938.
197:
192:
1709:
1624:. The battles of Motoni and Orurillo expelled Bolivian forces from Peruvian territory and put Bolivia at risk of a Peruvian invasion.
1570:
1151:
83:
1121:(1829–39), the first native-born president, who was sworn into office in May 1829 after a series of short-term rulers. Santa Cruz, a
1771:
to secure water rights to the Atlantic Ocean, he ceded 102,400 square kilometers of territory, hoping to break Bolivia's isolation.
116:
3005:
319:
2721:
Pando, however, reneged on his promises and allowed the assault on Indian land to continue. The government suppressed a series of
1566:
474:. While some liberals eagerly welcomed the reforms of colonial rule promised by Joseph Bonaparte, others supported the claims of
235:
65:
1169:
346:
2320:
2267:
1906:"national soul". Even today, the landlocked Bolivia has not relinquished the hope of regaining an outlet to the Pacific Ocean.
2884:
1641:. Nonetheless, the main income continued to come from the taxes paid by rural Indians. These included a head tax and a tax on
1096:
2872:, and agricultural production decreased because of severe droughts. In 1917, the Republicans were defeated at the polls when
1058:
when he turned the country over to Sucre, did he promise that the Peruvian legislature would approve Bolivia's independence.
54:
2678:
has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries. Through diplomatic channels in 1909, it lost the basin of the
2671:. The immediate cause of the conflict was the Liberal demand to move the capital from Sucre to the more developed La Paz.
2853:
2275:
1916:
1238:
883:
629:
610:
408:
380:
311:
162:
2775:
in 1903, Bolivia relinquished its claims to 191,000 square kilometers of Acre territory in return for two areas on the
602:, or zones of insurrection. In these zones, local patriotism would eventually develop into the fight for independence.
2397:
1990:
1487:
976:
228:
142:
2873:
2515:
1347:
1250:
617:
315:
1050:
in politics. Most of his decrees could not be implemented during his short tenure. Still, they were included in the
2861:
2660:
1796:
1162:
396:
182:
2868:). Republican support increased when mineral exports declined because of the crisis in international trade before
1599:
90:
43:
3119:
3096:
2545:
2526:
2142:
2123:
1413:
1394:
1069:
841:
2879:
The rule of the Liberals, one of the most stable periods in Bolivian history, ended when the Republicans led by
2856:
met in La Paz in 1912, and the mining centers witnessed an increasing number of strikes in the following years.
1954:-speaking electorate of less than 30,000—brought Bolivia its first relative political stability and prosperity.
2799:
1594:
353:
1745:
1713:
1682:
1062:
990:
959:
806:
637:
327:
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resources, also contributed to a stronger economy. Agricultural production in the highlands increased as the
1675:
in pre-Columbian times), has been seen as the precursor of Andean populism. Attempting to stir the masses in
1577:; after the victory, Bolivia invaded Perú, and several fronts of struggle were opened in the Peruvian south.
2417:
2010:
1946:
and made Roman Catholicism the state religion, while Liberals championed a secular and federal state model.
1928:
1693:
and Chile. During his presidency, mining output increased because of technological innovations, such as the
1256:
1176:'s expansion to the north. This threat, together with the constant turmoil in Peru and repeated attempts by
1051:
830:
388:
338:
1803:(1873–1874), did not last long because of constant intrigues. Under their rule, Bolivia opened the port of
745:
1528:
1311:
1194:
1186:
1182:
471:
282:
2729:(Willka), was one of the largest Indian rebellions in the history of the republic, frightened whites and
2327:
who managed to stay in power only through repression. His main economic accomplishment was to extend the
1117:
Despite the fall of his government, Sucre's policies formed the basis for the following ten-year rule of
2953:
Maria Luise Wagner. "Construction of Bolivia: Bolívar, Sucre, and Santa Cruz". In Hudson & Hanratty.
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177:
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Maria Luise Wagner. "Political instability and economic decline (1839-79)". In Hudson & Hanratty.
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1898:
Bolivia officially ceded the coastal territory to Chile only twenty-four years later, under the 1904
1663:
1630:
1539:
1335:
1323:
1168:
Santa Cruz continued his political ambitions in Peru while president of Bolivia. He established the
3116:
2837:
2679:
2656:
2447:
2112:
2032:
1800:
1753:
1738:
1278:
1189:—and joined them with Bolivia in the Peru-Bolivia Confederation with himself as Supreme protector.
1077:
945:
589:
584:
During the following seven years, Upper Peru became the battleground for forces of the independent
483:
300:
2791:
the transportation system in Bolivia. By 1920, most major Bolivian cities were connected by rail.
1752:", the massacre of seventy-one Belzú supporters (Belcistas), including General Córdova by Colonel
1017:
794:
633:
323:
3083:
3035:
Maria Luise Wagner. "Reconstruction and the rule of the Conservatives". In Hudson & Hanratty.
1849:
1835:
1823:
1685:(1857–1861), a member of the elite that had opposed Belzu, overthrew Belzu's son-in-law, General
641:
577:
475:
437:
365:
331:
264:
172:
151:
2824:
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remained in Sucre. Liberal presidents canceled the special privileges officially granted to the
1789:
1613:
1371:
1177:
1100:
566:
129:
17:
2880:
1760:
1720:
Although the mining sector improved, it failed to stimulate agricultural production, and most
1359:
818:
557:
had joined Murillo. Although the revolt was put down by royalist forces sent to La Paz by the
433:
260:
2376:
2271:
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in 1824, the final battle of the wars of independence in Latin America. Olañeta continued a
625:
449:
361:
2411:
2004:
1573:
by Gamarra, Velasco was overthrown. Gamarra was killed in November 1841 near La Paz in the
2403:
2064:
1996:
1892:
1786:
came to signify amoral militarism; in 1871, he was overthrown and later murdered in Lima.
1535:
558:
445:
2726:
2833:
2815:
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550:
501:
488:
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3065:
Maria Luise Wagner. "The Liberal Party and the rise of tin". In Hudson & Hanratty.
1106:
356:, Chilean and Peruvian rebel armies were forced to sign the peace treaty known as the
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2740:
2714:
2703:
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2259:, one of Bolivia's most important mine owners, served as President from 1884 to 1888.
1943:
1775:
1690:
1137:
462:
395:
policies throughout the first two decades of the 20th century before the coup of the
392:
277:
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to distribute land, preferably to Indians, and tried to reduce the influence of the
2768:
2764:
2316:
2088:
2037:
1694:
1638:
1042:) that amounted to less than half of the previous payments. Bolívar also decreed a
598:
2709:
2702:(1899–1904), when he promised to improve their situation. His follower, President
2619:
1500:
387:
replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of
2806:; in 1905, they legalized public worship by other faiths, and in 1911, they made
1888:
overthrew Daza, who fled to Europe with a sizable portion of Bolivia's treasury.
2869:
2760:
1874:
1642:
1133:
1043:
32:
2771:
and, after three years of small-scale fighting, were annexed by Brazil. In the
2739:
They also continued to professionalize the Bolivian military with the aid of a
3075:
2745:
2452:
2344:
1724:
continued in relative stagnation. This malaise contributed to the survival of
1634:
593:
546:
514:
509:, demanded affiliation with the Junta Central. The conservative judges of the
467:
457:
272:
1942:
Conservatives adopted a new Constitution of Bolivia in 1878, which created a
1763:(1864–1871) seized the presidency and became the most notorious of Bolivia's
2749:
2324:
2308:
1808:
1676:
1652:
1647:
1549:
1092:
645:
493:
2664:
1708:
554:
413:
3112:
2929:
Maria Luise Wagner. "Struggle for independence". In Hudson & Hanratty.
2216:
2795:
1804:
1617:
537:
2733:, who once again successfully isolated the Indians from national life.
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1853:
1726:
1698:
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369:
342:
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controlled most of the countryside, where they formed six significant
2756:
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and the territory of the Purus in the Amazon, yielding 250,000 km to
2340:
2303:
2286:
2282:
2266:
General Campero completed his legal term in office and presided over
2229:
1146:
1141:
1129:
1034:
542:
479:
421:
1873:
Daza canceled the company's mining contract, Chile landed troops in
1061:
Bolívar transferred his authority over Upper Peru to his lieutenant
3021:
Maria Luise Wagner. "War of the Pacific". In Hudson & Hanratty.
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By 1817, Upper Peru was relatively quiet and under the control of
580:
was the final battle of the wars of independence in Latin America.
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562:
453:
412:
373:
128:
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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uprisings and executed the leaders. One of these revolts, led by
1136:
the silver currency to finance government activities, instituted
2683:
2655:
In 1899, the Liberal Party overthrew the Conservative president
2294:
2290:
1881:
1621:
606:
2823:
that smelters in competing countries depended on Bolivian tin.
360:, which included their unconditional surrender. Still, in 1839
2298:
1811:
by train and steamship on Lake Titicaca to the Pacific coast.
384:
281:, a government which ruled in the name of the overthrown king
26:
3097:
For la Patria: Politics and the Armed Forces in Latin America
2827:
was the most successful of these tin magnates. He had a poor
1958:
Reconstruction under the rule of the Conservatives, 1880-1899
1935:) was founded in 1883 by the former chief of staff, General
592:. Although the royalists repulsed four Argentine invasions,
2844:
politics but employed politicians and lawyers—known as the
569:, Upper Peru was never again entirely controlled by Spain.
1054:
he wrote for Bolivia after his departure in January 1826.
624:
native, who refused to accept the measures by the Spanish
466:(Central Junta) in Spain, a government in the name of the
1860:
over sovereignty of the mineral-rich coastal area of the
1716:
was one of the most violent periods in Bolivia's history.
1542:
restored relative calm to Bolivia between 1842 and 1847.
368:(1879–1883), when it lost access to the ocean and the
2876:(1917–20) was elected as the last Liberal president.
2706:(1904–1909 and 1913–1917) dominated the Liberal era.
1818:(1876–1879) seized power and became another military
1807:, reducing the country's isolation by connecting the
1206:
Political instability and economic decline, 1839–1879
2814:
markets. However, the extension of the rail link to
2577:
2567:
2555:
2539:
2525:
2509:
2497:
2485:
2473:
2461:
2446:
2438:
2371:
2278:, it had no chance to win a presidential election.
2174:
2164:
2152:
2136:
2122:
2106:
2094:
2082:
2070:
2058:
2046:
2031:
1964:
1445:
1435:
1423:
1407:
1393:
1377:
1365:
1353:
1341:
1329:
1317:
1305:
1293:
1277:
1212:
903:
893:
880:
868:
854:
840:
824:
812:
800:
788:
776:
766:
658:
628:(legislature) to conciliate the colonies after the
57:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2339:from Chile; in 1890, Chilean wheat was cheaper in
1084:payments to solve the country's financial crisis.
1068:The new republic, created in the territory of the
2433:Bolivian territorial losses between 1867 and 1938
2281:Under the Conservatives, the high world price of
2026:Bolivian territorial losses between 1867 and 1938
1774:Melgarejo started a formidable assault on Indian
1565:Santa Cruz was succeeded in June 1839 by General
1272:Bolivian territorial losses between 1867 and 1938
541:(those of mixed European and Indian ancestry) in
456:throne tested the loyalty of the local elites in
2365:The Liberal Party and the rise of tin, 1899–1920
1844:Territorial changes after the War of the Pacific
652:Creating Bolivia: Bolívar, Sucre, and Santa Cruz
2347:. The open economy also hurt local industries.
1172:in 1836, justifying his act with the threat of
2744:The former head of Germany's mission, Colonel
424:, claiming an independent state in Upper Peru.
492:(persons of pure Spanish descent born in the
236:
8:
1868:enterprises for twenty-five years. In 1878,
1748:(1861–64). Achá is remembered for the 1861 "
1659:) and coca leaves increased in the valleys.
1025:On August 6, 1825, the assembly adopted the
1637:. He also promoted the colonization of the
1113:was Bolivia's first locally-born president.
275:mainly remained loyal to Spain, supporting
2427:
2368:
2020:
1961:
1662:After the overthrow of Ballivián in 1847,
1266:
1209:
744:
655:
243:
229:
136:
2319:(1888–1892), although elected legally in
337:During the 1829-39 presidency of Marshal
291:in 1808-10 began a local power struggle.
117:Learn how and when to remove this message
1910:Rise of Conservative and Liberal parties
267:'s forces proved to be critical for the
2913:
586:United Provinces of the Río de la Plata
297:United Provinces of the Río de la Plata
150:
139:
3111:Rex A. Hudson and Dennis M. Hanratty.
1651:stagnated, and only the collection of
496:) wanted independence for Upper Peru.
442:independence struggle in South America
269:independence struggle in South America
3061:
3031:
3029:
3027:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2925:
2923:
2921:
2919:
2917:
2883:seized the presidency in a bloodless
2786:In 1904, Bolivia finally concluded a
2576:
2566:
2562:
2538:
2534:
2524:
2508:
2496:
2484:
2472:
2468:
2460:
2173:
2163:
2159:
2135:
2131:
2121:
2105:
2093:
2081:
2069:
2057:
2053:
2045:
1531:between Bolivia and Chile (1825-1879)
1444:
1434:
1430:
1406:
1402:
1392:
1376:
1364:
1352:
1340:
1328:
1316:
1304:
1300:
1292:
902:
892:
879:
875:
853:
849:
839:
823:
811:
799:
787:
783:
775:
7:
3059:
3057:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3049:
3047:
3045:
3043:
3041:
3017:
3015:
3013:
2993:Albarracín: La portentosa Heroicidad
2977:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2767:movement in the eastern province of
1795:Two presidents with high integrity,
1756:, the military commander in La Paz.
1027:Bolivian Declaration of Independence
1021:Bolivian Declaration of Independence
55:adding citations to reliable sources
513:were influenced, however, by their
478:, Ferdinand's sister, who governed
271:, during which the local elites of
66:"History of Bolivia" 1809–1920
2854:First National Congress of Workers
1558:), a term used by Bolivian writer
440:'s forces proved critical for the
25:
2991:Cavagnaro Orellana, Luis (2002).
1593:. On January 7, 1842, during the
1119:Andrés de Santa Cruz y Calahumana
1111:Andrés de Santa Cruz y Calahumana
3123:
3086:from the original on 2021-12-21.
2840:, resided primarily in Bolivia.
2763:. In 1900, they began an active
2637:
2612:
2410:
2396:
2234:
2209:
2003:
1989:
1852:resulted from a dispute between
1616:in February 1842, regrouping in
1505:
1480:
1249:
1237:
1078:Roman Catholic Church in Bolivia
999:
981:
952:
938:
729:
717:
710:
212:
161:
31:
3076:"Territorial losses of Bolivia"
2848:—to represent their interests.
2759:had led to the encroachment of
1152:Higher University of San Andrés
760: Territories later claimed
133:Map of Peru and Bolivia in 1836
42:needs additional citations for
18:Republic of Bolivia (1839–1879)
2819:financial and service center.
2698:supported the Liberal leader,
1900:Treaty of Peace and Friendship
1562:for inept and corrupt rulers.
1132:on the Pacific coast. He also
484:Prince Regent John of Portugal
1:
2897:List of presidents of Bolivia
1877:harbor on February 14, 1879.
1567:José Miguel de Velasco Franco
3146:History of Bolivia by period
2995:. Archivo regional de Tacna.
2285:and increased production of
2276:National Congress of Bolivia
1697:, and the discovery of huge
1655:bark (for the production of
884:Bolivian War of Independence
507:Ramón García León de Pizarro
409:Bolivian War of Independence
2487:• 1904-1909/1913-1917
2329:Antofagasta-Calama Railroad
1488:Peru-Bolivian Confederation
1170:Peru–Bolivian Confederation
977:Peru-Bolivian Confederation
347:Peru–Bolivian Confederation
3162:
3006:A Brief History of Bolivia
2761:Brazilian rubber gatherers
2717:dominated the Liberal era.
2312:expanded in some regions.
1833:
1163:Peru-Bolivia Confederation
406:
3120:Federal Research Division
2591:
2587:
2563:
2551:
2535:
2521:
2469:
2426:
2392:
2387:
2188:
2184:
2160:
2148:
2132:
2118:
2054:
2019:
1985:
1980:
1459:
1455:
1431:
1419:
1403:
1389:
1301:
1265:
1233:
1228:
917:
913:
876:
864:
850:
836:
784:
743:
706:
701:
588:and royalist troops from
436:between 1807 and 1808 by
403:Struggle for independence
299:and royalist troops from
3113:Bolivia: a country study
1799:(1872–1873) and General
1705:(in present-day Chile).
1140:in support of the local
1099:by the Peruvian general
754: Bolivian territory
618:Pedro Antonio de Olañeta
354:War of the Confederation
316:Pedro Antonio de Olañeta
1891:The attempt of General
444:. The overthrow of the
318:. During the 1820–1823
2718:
2579:• Disestablished
2380:
2270:that brought to power
2260:
2176:• Disestablished
1973:
1845:
1759:In late 1864, General
1717:
1543:
1532:
1529:Atacama border dispute
1447:• Disestablished
1312:Jose Miguel de Velasco
1221:
1195:Manuel Blanco Encalada
1187:Republic of South Peru
1183:Republic of North Peru
1165:
1114:
1022:
905:• Disestablished
581:
531:led another revolt by
472:Ferdinand VII of Spain
425:
420:led an 1809 revolt in
283:Ferdinand VII of Spain
134:
2874:José Gutiérrez Guerra
2804:Roman Catholic Church
2712:
2690:communal landholdings
2516:José Gutiérrez Guerra
2456:presidential republic
2350:The expansion of the
2255:
2041:presidential republic
1843:
1711:
1538:
1526:
1288:military dictatorship
1284:Presidential republic
1160:
1109:
1095:-born president. The
1063:Antonio José de Sucre
1048:Roman Catholic Church
1020:
807:Antonio José de Sucre
771:Presidential republic
638:Antonio José de Sucre
575:
529:Pedro Domingo Murillo
448:and the placement of
418:Pedro Domingo Murillo
416:
328:Antonio José de Sucre
293:Pedro Domingo Murillo
263:from 1807 to 1808 by
178:Pre-Columbian Bolivia
132:
2773:Treaty of Petropolis
2674:Since independence,
2381:República de Bolivia
2315:Another millionaire
1974:República de Bolivia
1797:Tomás Frías Ametller
1664:Manuel Isidoro Belzu
1571:yet another invasion
1336:Manuel Isidoro Belzu
1222:República de Bolivia
1040:contribución directa
831:Andrés de Santa Cruz
692:República de Bolivia
680:República de Bolívar
673:Republic of Bolívar
667:Estado del Alto Perú
660:State of Upper Peru
391:governments applied
339:Andrés de Santa Cruz
51:improve this article
3117:Library of Congress
3080:Portal EducaBolivia
2866:Partido Republicano
2838:Mauricio Hochschild
2680:Madre de Dios River
2569:• Established
2373:Republic of Bolivia
2166:• Established
1966:Republic of Bolivia
1921:Partido Conservador
1437:• Established
1214:Republic of Bolivia
1097:invasion of Bolivia
1070:Audencia of Charcas
946:Viceroyalty of Peru
895:• Established
686:Republic of Bolivia
590:Viceroyalty of Peru
486:, and many radical
310:who had formed the
301:Viceroyalty of Peru
2719:
2661:Federal Revolution
2261:
1917:Conservative Party
1850:War of the Pacific
1846:
1836:War of the Pacific
1830:War of the Pacific
1824:War of the Pacific
1718:
1712:The presidency of
1683:José María Linares
1595:Battle of Tarapacá
1544:
1533:
1348:José María de Achá
1166:
1138:protective tariffs
1115:
1023:
642:Battle of Ayacucho
630:liberal revolution
616:supported General
611:Conservative Party
582:
578:Battle of Ayacucho
565:by the viceroy of
527:On July 16, 1809,
482:with her husband,
438:Napoleon Bonaparte
426:
381:Conservative Party
366:War of the Pacific
332:Battle of Ayacucho
320:liberal revolution
314:supported General
312:Conservative Party
265:Napoleon Bonaparte
219:Bolivia portal
135:
3122:(December 1989).
2881:Bautista Saavedra
2798:capital, but the
2700:José Manuel Pando
2653:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2625:
2624:
2541:• 1899-1920
2511:• 1917-1920
2504:Eliodoro Villazón
2499:• 1909-1913
2480:José Manuel Pando
2475:• 1899-1904
2321:elections of 1888
2268:elections of 1884
2250:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2222:
2221:
2138:• 1880-1899
2108:• 1896-1899
2096:• 1892-1896
2084:• 1888-1892
2072:• 1884-1888
2060:• 1880-1884
1880:In alliance with
1761:Mariano Melgarejo
1521:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1513:
1512:
1493:
1492:
1409:• 1839-1879
1379:• 1876-1879
1367:• 1871-1872
1360:Mariano Melgarejo
1355:• 1864-1871
1343:• 1861-1864
1331:• 1848-1855
1319:• 1841-1847
1307:• 1839-1841
1015:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1007:
1006:
969:
968:
826:• 1829-1836
819:Pedro Blanco Soto
814:• 1828-1829
802:• 1825-1828
609:. After 1820 the
434:Iberian Peninsula
383:. In about 1907,
358:Paucarpata Treaty
261:Iberian Peninsula
253:
252:
127:
126:
119:
101:
16:(Redirected from
3153:
3127:
3126:
3099:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3072:
3066:
3063:
3036:
3033:
3022:
3019:
3008:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2988:
2982:
2979:
2954:
2951:
2930:
2927:
2862:Republican Party
2657:Severo Fernández
2641:
2640:
2629:
2628:
2616:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2593:
2592:
2431:
2414:
2400:
2369:
2343:than wheat from
2272:Gregorio Pacheco
2257:Gregorio Pacheco
2238:
2237:
2226:
2225:
2213:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2190:
2189:
2113:Severo Fernández
2101:Mariano Baptista
2077:Gregorio Pacheco
2024:
2007:
1993:
1962:
1937:Eliodoro Camacho
1925:Mariano Baptista
1886:Eliodoro Camacho
1801:Adolfo Ballivián
1769:Empire of Brazil
1750:murders of Yáñez
1701:deposits in the
1603:
1575:Battle of Ingavi
1560:Alcides Arguedas
1509:
1508:
1497:
1496:
1484:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1461:
1460:
1451:28 December 1879
1441:22 February 1839
1270:
1253:
1241:
1210:
1199:Battle of Yungay
1161:Location of the
1003:
1002:
985:
984:
973:
972:
956:
955:
942:
941:
935:
934:
919:
918:
759:
753:
748:
733:
721:
714:
696:
695:
684:
683:
671:
670:
656:
450:Joseph Bonaparte
397:Republican Party
362:Battle of Yungay
306:After 1820, the
245:
238:
231:
217:
216:
215:
165:
155:
137:
122:
115:
111:
108:
102:
100:
59:
35:
27:
21:
3161:
3160:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3150:
3136:
3135:
3124:
3108:
3103:
3102:
3095:
3091:
3074:
3073:
3069:
3064:
3039:
3034:
3025:
3020:
3011:
3004:
3000:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2980:
2957:
2952:
2933:
2928:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2893:
2810:a requirement.
2638:
2613:
2580:
2573:25 October 1899
2570:
2542:
2512:
2500:
2488:
2476:
2434:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2415:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2383:
2374:
2367:
2235:
2210:
2177:
2170:19 January 1880
2167:
2139:
2109:
2097:
2085:
2073:
2065:Narciso Campero
2061:
2027:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2008:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1976:
1967:
1960:
1933:Partido Liberal
1912:
1893:Narciso Campero
1838:
1832:
1790:Agustín Morales
1746:José María Achá
1714:José María Achá
1597:
1506:
1481:
1448:
1438:
1410:
1380:
1372:Agustín Morales
1368:
1356:
1344:
1332:
1320:
1308:
1273:
1261:
1260:
1259:
1254:
1246:
1245:
1242:
1224:
1215:
1208:
1178:Agustín Gamarra
1101:Agustín Gamarra
1000:
994:
982:
963:
953:
939:
909:28 October 1836
906:
896:
886:
857:
827:
815:
803:
791:
762:
761:
757:
755:
751:
739:
738:
737:
734:
726:
725:
722:
715:
697:
689:
688:
687:
685:
677:
675:
674:
672:
664:
662:
661:
654:
567:Río de La Plata
559:viceroy of Peru
446:Bourbon Dynasty
411:
405:
372:rich fields to
285:. Many radical
249:
213:
211:
153:
146:
123:
112:
106:
103:
60:
58:
48:
36:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3159:
3157:
3149:
3148:
3138:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3089:
3067:
3037:
3023:
3009:
2998:
2983:
2955:
2931:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2892:
2889:
2834:Carlos Aramayo
2808:civil marriage
2651:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2635:
2626:
2623:
2622:
2617:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2589:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2557:
2553:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2533:
2532:
2529:
2527:Vice President
2523:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2494:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2477:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2435:
2432:
2424:
2423:
2416:
2409:
2408:
2402:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2390:
2389:
2385:
2384:
2375:
2372:
2366:
2363:
2248:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2232:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2178:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2145:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2124:Vice President
2120:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2048:
2044:
2043:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2017:
2016:
2009:
2002:
2001:
1995:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1968:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1911:
1908:
1862:Atacama Desert
1834:Main article:
1831:
1828:
1703:Atacama Desert
1631:José Ballivián
1540:José Ballivián
1519:
1518:
1515:
1514:
1511:
1510:
1503:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1485:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1457:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1397:
1395:Vice President
1391:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1324:José Ballivián
1321:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1290:
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40:This article
38:
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29:
28:
19:
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2793:
2788:peace treaty
2785:
2765:secessionist
2754:
2738:
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2727:Pablo Zárate
2722:
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2654:
2602:Succeeded by
2601:
2596:
2583:12 July 1920
2418:Coat of arms
2356:
2351:
2349:
2317:Aniceto Arce
2314:
2307:
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2199:Succeeded by
2198:
2193:
2089:Aniceto Arce
2038:Conservative
2011:Coat of arms
1948:
1941:
1932:
1920:
1913:
1904:
1897:
1890:
1879:
1847:
1819:
1813:
1794:
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1784:melgarejismo
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1725:
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1695:steam engine
1681:
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1639:Beni savanna
1629:
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1579:
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1470:Succeeded by
1469:
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1257:Coat of arms
1191:
1167:
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1127:
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1116:
1088:
1086:
1074:
1067:
1060:
1056:
1052:constitution
1039:
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991:
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928:Succeeded by
927:
922:
856:• List
790:• 1825
736:Coat of arms
691:
690:
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613:
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203:1982–present
187:
113:
104:
94:
87:
80:
73:
61:
49:Please help
44:verification
41:
3106:Works cited
2870:World War I
2597:Preceded by
2194:Preceded by
1875:Antofagasta
1643:coca leaves
1598: [
1465:Preceded by
1044:land reform
923:Preceded by
889:25 May 1809
352:During the
152:History of
2903:References
2746:Hans Kundt
2713:President
2695:campesinos
2448:Government
2345:Cochabamba
2033:Government
1739:Copacabana
1635:free trade
1554:(barbaric
1279:Government
1093:Venezuelan
767:Government
594:guerrillas
563:Chuquisaca
547:Cochabamba
515:autocratic
458:Upper Peru
273:Upper Peru
107:April 2024
77:newspapers
2750:Chaco War
2723:campesino
2462:President
2388:1899–1920
2352:haciendas
2323:, was an
2309:haciendas
2047:President
1981:1880–1899
1923:) led by
1814:In 1876,
1809:Altiplano
1780:haciendas
1765:caudillos
1733:campesino
1727:campesino
1722:haciendas
1677:demagogic
1653:chinchona
1648:haciendas
1556:caudillos
1550:caudillos
1294:President
1229:1839–1879
995:Alto Perú
964:Alto Perú
777:President
702:1825–1836
511:audiencia
502:audiencia
494:New World
468:abdicated
399:in 1920.
198:1964–1982
193:1920–1964
188:1809–1920
183:1532–1809
3140:Category
3084:Archived
2891:See also
2796:de facto
2781:Paraguay
2779:and the
2731:mestizos
2659:in the "
2325:autocrat
1820:caudillo
1805:Mollendo
1618:Moquegua
1614:Tarapacá
1552:bárbaros
1286:under a
1193:Admiral
1185:and the
1134:devalued
1089:criollos
1033:entered
646:quixotic
614:criollos
538:mestizos
533:criollos
522:criollos
518:royalist
489:criollos
430:invasion
308:criollos
288:criollos
257:invasion
173:Overview
143:a series
141:Part of
2829:mestizo
2777:Madeira
2676:Bolivia
2633:Bolivia
2620:Bolivia
2556:History
2453:Liberal
2439:Capital
2377:Spanish
2358:mestizo
2230:Bolivia
2217:Bolivia
2153:History
1970:Spanish
1952:Spanish
1866:nitrate
1854:Bolivia
1735:revolts
1699:nitrate
1691:Britain
1657:quinine
1501:Bolivia
1424:History
1218:Spanish
1144:cloth (
1123:mestizo
1082:tribute
882:•
869:History
622:Charcas
561:and to
476:Carlota
454:Spanish
452:on the
432:of the
370:nitrate
343:Bolivia
259:of the
154:Bolivia
91:scholar
2757:Brazil
2741:German
2692:. The
2665:Potosí
2559:
2531:
2465:
2442:La Paz
2341:La Paz
2304:rubber
2297:, and
2287:copper
2283:silver
2156:
2128:
2050:
1612:, and
1427:
1399:
1297:
1147:tucuyo
1142:cotton
1130:Cobija
1035:La Paz
872:
846:
780:
758:
752:
676:(1825)
663:(1825)
626:Cortes
555:Potosí
553:, and
543:La Paz
480:Brazil
422:La Paz
145:on the
93:
86:
79:
72:
64:
2908:Notes
2846:rosca
2816:Oruro
2669:Sucre
2337:wheat
2333:Oruro
1858:Chile
1672:ayllu
1610:Arica
1606:Tacna
1602:]
1591:Arica
1587:Arica
1583:Tacna
1174:Chile
992:1828:
961:1828:
551:Oruro
470:king
374:Chile
98:JSTOR
84:books
2836:and
2769:Acre
2684:Peru
2667:and
2546:List
2404:Flag
2295:zinc
2291:lead
2143:List
1997:Flag
1882:Peru
1856:and
1848:The
1622:Puno
1620:and
1527:The
1414:List
1244:Flag
860:List
724:Flag
636:and
620:, a
607:Lima
576:The
535:and
428:The
326:and
255:The
70:news
2331:to
2299:tin
1737:in
1547:of
385:tin
53:by
3142::
3115:.
3082:.
3078:.
3040:^
3026:^
3012:^
2958:^
2934:^
2916:^
2887:.
2752:.
2379::
2293:,
2289:,
1972::
1902:.
1826:.
1741:.
1608:,
1600:es
1220::
549:,
505:,
376:.
349:.
341:,
303:.
3132:.
2864:(
1931:(
1919:(
1038:(
244:e
237:t
230:v
120:)
114:(
109:)
105:(
95:·
88:·
81:·
74:·
47:.
20:)
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