58:
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relationship of wild-type channels, concomitant with an increase in cGMP affinity. The other mutations show either increased (S435F) or decreased (F525N) surface expression but also with increased affinity for cAMP and cGMP. It is the increased affinity for cGMP and cAMP in these mutants that is likely the disorder-causing change. Such increased affinity will result in channels that are insensitive to the slight concentration changes of cGMP due to light input into the retina.
769:), which receives information from the parvocellular pathway involved in color processing. It is most frequently caused by physical trauma, hemorrhage or tumor tissue growth. If there is unilateral damage, a loss of color perception in only half of the visual field may result; this is known as hemiachromatopsia. Cerebral achromats usually do not experience the other major symptoms of congenital achromatopsia, since
3349:
3359:
2723:
242:. The nystagmus becomes less noticeable with age but the other symptoms of the syndrome become more relevant as school age approaches. Visual acuity and stability of the eye motions generally improve during the first six to seven years of life â but remain near 20/200. Otherwise the syndrome is considered stationary and does not worsen with age.
348:
409:) conditions will be absent. The mesopic level is approximately a hundred times lower than the clinical level used for the typical high level electroretinogram. When as described; the condition is due to a saturation in the neural portion of the retina and not due to the absence of the photoreceptors per se.
1386:
Thiadens, Alberta A.H.J.; Phan, T. My Lan; Zekveld-Vroon, Renate C.; Leroy, Bart P.; van den Born, L. Ingeborgh; Hoyng, Carel B.; Klaver, Caroline C.W.; Roosing, Susanne; Pott, Jan-Willem R.; van
Schooneveld, Mary J.; van Moll-Ramirez, Norka; van Genderen, Maria M.; Boon, Camiel J.F.; den Hollander,
911:
Thiadens, Alberta A.H.J.; den
Hollander, Anneke I.; Roosing, Susanne; Nabuurs, Sander B.; Zekveld-Vroon, Renate C.; Collin, Rob W.J.; De Baere, Elfride; Koenekoop, Robert K.; van Schooneveld, Mary J.; Strom, Tim M.; van Lith-Verhoeven, Janneke J.C.; Lotery, Andrew J.; van Moll-Ramirez, Norka; Leroy,
624:
was the first to use the eyeborg in early 2004, which allowed him to start painting in color. He has since acted as a spokesperson for the technology, namely in a 2012 TED Talk. A 2015 study suggests that achromats who use the
Eyeborg for several years exhibit neural plasticity, which indicates the
585:
is a technique for injecting functional genes into the cells that need them, replacing or overruling the original alleles linked to achromatopsia, thereby curing it â at least in part. Achromatopsia has been a focus of gene therapy since 2010, when achromatopsia in dogs was partially cured. Several
867:
Kohl, Susanne; Marx, Tim; Giddings, Ian; JÀgle, Herbert; Jacobson, Samuel G.; Apfelstedt-Sylla, Eckhart; Zrenner, Eberhart; Sharpe, Lindsay T.; Wissinger, Bernd (July 1998). "Total colourblindness is caused by mutations in the gene encoding the α-subunit of the cone photoreceptor cGMP-gated cation
554:
that catalyzes the conversion of cGMP to GMP, thereby reducing current through CNG3 channels. As this process is absolutely vital for proper color processing it is not surprising that mutations in GNAT2 lead to achromatopsia. The known mutations in this gene, all result in truncated proteins.
529:
The three missense mutations that have received further study show a number of aberrant properties, with one underlying theme. The R403Q mutation, which lies in the pore region of the channel, results in an increase in outward current rectification, versus the largely linear current-voltage
489:
While some mutations in CNGA3 result in truncated and, presumably, non-functional channels this is largely not the case. While few mutations have received in-depth study, at least one mutation does result in functional channels. Curiously, this mutation, T369S, produces profound alterations when
480:
Molecular diagnosis can be established by identification of biallelic variants in the causative genes. Molecular genetic testing approaches used in achromatopsia can include targeted analysis for the common CNGB3 variant c.1148delC (p.Thr383IlefsTer13), use of a multigenerational panel, or
501:
When mutant T369S channels coassemble with CNGB3, however, the only remaining aberration is increased calcium permeability. While it is not immediately clear how this increase in Ca leads to achromatopsia, one hypothesis is that this increased current decreases the signal-to-noise ratio. Other
260:. In general, symptoms of incomplete achromatopsia are attenuated versions of those of complete achromatopsia. Individuals with incomplete achromatopsia have reduced visual acuity with or without nystagmus or photophobia. Incomplete achromats show only partial impairment of cone cell function.
2199:
2184:
2165:
814:
Term to describe both normal and pathological conditions related to the oculomotor system. In the current context, it is a pathological condition involving an uncontrolled oscillatory movement of the eyes during which the amplitude of
1129:
Farahbakhsh, Mahtab; Anderson, Elaine J; Maimon-Mor, Roni O; Rider, Andy; Greenwood, John A; Hirji, Nashila; Zaman, Serena; Jones, Pete R; Schwarzkopf, D Samuel; Rees, Geraint; Michaelides, Michel; Dekker, Tessa M (24 August 2022).
502:
characterized mutations, such as Y181C and the other S1 region mutations, result in decreased current density due to an inability of the channel to traffic to the surface. Such loss of function will undoubtedly negate the
710:
Blue cone monochromacy (BCM) is another genetic condition causing monochromacy. It mimics many of the symptoms of incomplete achromatopsia and before the discovery of its molecular biological basis was commonly referred to as
439:. When expressed alone, CNGB3 cannot produce functional channels, whereas this is not the case for CNGA3. Coassembly of CNGA3 and CNGB3 produces channels with altered membrane expression, ion permeability (
1932:"Achromatopsia-associated mutation in the human cone photoreceptor cyclic nucleotide-gated channel CNGB3 subunit alters the ligand sensitivity and pore properties of heteromeric channels"
1073:"Achromatopsia-associated Mutation in the Human Cone Photoreceptor Cyclic Nucleotide-gated Channel CNGB3 Subunit Alters the Ligand Sensitivity and Pore Properties of Heteromeric Channels"
964:
TrÀnkner, Dimitri; JÀgle, Herbert; Kohl, Susanne; Apfelstedt-Sylla, Eckart; Sharpe, Lindsay T.; Kaupp, U. Benjamin; Zrenner, Eberhart; Seifert, Reinhard; Wissinger, Bernd (2004-01-07).
655:
To manage the low visual acuity that is typical of achromatopsia, achromats may use telescopic systems, specifically when driving, to increase the resolution of an object of interest.
514:
While very few mutations in CNGB3 have been characterized, the vast majority of them result in truncated channels that are presumably non-functional. This will largely result in
245:
If the light level during testing is optimized, achromats may achieve corrected visual acuity of 20/100 to 20/150 at lower light levels, regardless of the absence of color. The
652:
To alleviate photophobia stemming from hemeralopia, dark red or plum colored filters as either sunglasses or tinted contacts are very helpful at decreasing light sensitivity.
366:
506:'s ability to respond to visual input and produce achromatopsia. At least one other missense mutation outside of the S1 region, T224R, also leads to loss of function.
2975:
462:
Mutations tend to result in the loss of CNGB3 function or gain of functionâoften increased affinity for cGMPâof CNGA3. cGMP levels are controlled by the activity of the
4525:
3922:
2136:
633:
While gene therapy and the
Eyeborg may currently have low uptake with achromats, there are several more practical ways for achromats to manage their condition:
4594:
4520:
586:
clinical trials on humans are ongoing with mixed results. In July 2023, a study found positive but limited improvements on congenital CNGA3 achromatopsia.
555:
Presumably, then, these proteins are non-functional and, consequently, cone opsin that has been activated by light does not lead to altered cGMP levels or
1715:
Bright, S. R.; et al. (2005). "Disease-associated mutations in CNGB3 produce gain of function alterations in cone cyclic nucleotide-gated channels".
641:. By comparing the luminosity of a color with and without a filter (or between two different filters), the color can be estimated. This is the premise of
550:
activity polypeptide 2 (GNAT2). This causes the release of the activated α-subunit from the inhibitory ÎČ/Îł-subunits. This α-subunit then activates a
5101:
679:
caused by a typhoon and ensuing famine in the 1770s, which killed all but about twenty islanders, including one who was heterozygous for achromatopsia.
3395:
3126:
1865:"Transmembrane S1 mutations in CNGA3 from achromatopsia 2 patients cause loss of function and impaired cellular trafficking of the cone CNG channel"
1469:
Sundin, Olof H.; Yang, Jun-Ming; Li, Yingying; Zhu, Danping; Hurd, Jane N.; Mitchell, Thomas N.; Silva, Eduardo D.; Maumenee, Irene
Hussels (2000).
1023:"Transmembrane S1 Mutations in CNGA3 from Achromatopsia 2 Patients Cause Loss of Function and Impaired Cellular Trafficking of the Cone CNG Channel"
469:, GNAT2. Mutations in GNAT2 tend to result in a truncated and, presumably, non-functional protein, thereby preventing alteration of cGMP levels by
3534:
1021:
Patel, Kirti A.; Bartoli, Kristen M.; Fandino, Richard A.; Ngatchou, Anita N.; Woch, Gustaw; Carey, Jannette; Tanaka, Jacqueline C. (2005-07-01).
185:
form that exhibits milder symptoms, including residual color vision. Achromatopsia is estimated to affect 1 in 30,000 live births worldwide.
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4537:
4362:
3116:
2345:
2110:
1278:
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involves having difficulty recognizing colors, while still being able to perceive them as measured by a color matching or categorizing task.
522:
fashion. The most prevalent ACHM3 mutation, T383IfsX12, results in a non-functional truncated protein that does not properly traffic to the
4402:
1568:
4515:
3192:
2214:
421:
312:
293:
4510:
4397:
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In general, the molecular pathomechanism of achromatopsia is either the inability to properly control or respond to altered levels of
4125:
2046:
1979:
1781:
1773:
384:
4265:
1971:
4230:
3137:
576:
473:. There is a positive correlation between the severity of mutations in these proteins and the completeness of the achromatopsia
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4323:
4235:
3362:
3316:
1869:
4225:
3954:
3132:
3121:
668:
491:
413:
620:. This allows achromats (or even the totally blind) to perceive â or estimate â the color of an object. Achromat and artist
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3197:
1235:
4716:
4407:
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2038:
692:
397:
The hemeralopic aspect of achromatopsia can be diagnosed non-invasively using electroretinography. The response at low (
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3000:
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2434:
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4328:
4302:
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4255:
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435:. Native retinal CNGs are composed of 2 α- and 2 ÎČ-subunits, which are CNGA3 and CNGB3, respectively, in
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3998:
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4352:
4197:
3944:
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Bart P.; van den Born, L. Ingeborgh; Hoyng, Carel B.; Cremers, Frans P.M.; Klaver, Caroline C.W. (August 2009).
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4250:
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2378:
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1737:
Brody, J. A.; et al. (1970). "Hereditary blindness among
Pingelapese people of Eastern Caroline Islands".
90:
3172:
3167:
3162:
494:. Others include the introduction of a sub-conductance, altered single-channel gating kinetics, and increased
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649:. In some US states, achromats can use a red filter while driving to determine the color of a traffic light.
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273:
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735:. As a recessive x-linked condition, BCM disproportionately affects males, unlike typical achromatopsia.
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As achromatopsia is linked to only a few single-gene mutations, it is a good candidate for gene therapy.
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4933:
4609:
3111:
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2410:
2331:
1991:"Homozygosity mapping reveals PDE6C mutations in patients with early-onset cone photoreceptor disorders"
914:"Homozygosity Mapping Reveals PDE6C Mutations in Patients with Early-Onset Cone Photoreceptor Disorders"
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Complete lack of the perception of color in a subject, seeing only in black, white, and shades of grey.
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Alfaro, Arantxa; Bernabeu, Ăngela; AgullĂł, Carlos; Parra, Jaime; FernĂĄndez, Eduardo (14 April 2015).
1192:
1022:
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518:, though in some cases the truncated proteins may be able to coassemble with wild-type channels in a
222:
1388:
675:, approximately five percent of the atoll's 3,000 inhabitants are affected. This is the result of a
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1236:"Gene therapy to restore color vision in complete achromatopsia patients shows modest improvement"
157:. Historically, the name referred to monochromacy in general, but now typically refers only to an
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1995:
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The people of this region have termed achromatopsia "maskun", which literally means "not see" in
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305:
66:
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Achromatopsia is a relatively uncommon disorder, with a prevalence of 1 in 30,000 people.
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McKyton, Ayelet; Marks Ohana, Devora; Nahmany, Einav; Banin, Eyal; Levin, Netta (July 2023).
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The syndrome is typically first noticed in children around six months of age due to their
197:
162:
153:, is a medical syndrome that exhibits symptoms relating to five conditions, most notably
2144:â an archive of information about Achromatopsia and advice on coping with the condition.
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1389:"Clinical Course, Genetic Etiology, and Visual Outcome in Cone and ConeâRod Dystrophy"
424:(CNGs). Decreasing the concentration of cGMP results in closure of CNGs and resulting
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1132:"A demonstration of cone function plasticity after gene therapy in achromatopsia"
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is quite noticeable and the frequency of the oscillation tends to be quite low.
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causes the exchange of GDP for GTP in the guanine nucleotide binding protein (
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277:
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1428:"Hereditary blindness among Pingelapese people of Eastern Caroline Islands"
1412:
1331:
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1089:
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1007:
947:
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1038:
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406:
398:
1569:"Behavioral Deficits and Cortical Damage Loci in Cerebral Achromatopsia"
1471:"Genetic basis of total colourblindness among the Pingelapese islanders"
4872:
4815:
4357:
4164:
4095:
4065:
4055:
3662:
3106:
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has allowed people to perceive color through sound waves. This form of
601:
595:
495:
490:
expressed without CNGB3. One such alteration is decreased affinity for
448:
405:) light levels will be normal but the response under high light level (
402:
2157:
4975:
3877:
3854:
3574:
3329:
2932:
2922:
2188:
2169:
1426:
Brody, Jacob A.; Hussels, Irena; Brink, Edward; Torres, Jose (1970).
728:
724:
470:
440:
1181:"Seeing color following gene augmentation therapy in achromatopsia"
4947:
2957:
2952:
2942:
2912:
2383:
2354:
2058:"Molecular basis of an inherited form of incomplete achromatopsia"
1486:
966:"Molecular Basis of an Inherited Form of Incomplete Achromatopsia"
323:
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3589:
2947:
2927:
2907:
2777:
2694:
2310:
2282:
2219:
1470:
1071:
Peng, Changhong; Rich, Elizabeth D.; Varnum, Michael D. (2003).
881:
451:), relative efficacy of cAMP/cGMP activation, decreased outward
331:
327:
311:
Known genetic causes of this include mutations in the cone cell
5032:
4428:
3831:
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3377:
2327:
2323:
2314:
1770:
Foundations of low vision: clinical and functional perspectives
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609:
341:
1112:
1110:
1108:
2141:
2035:
Genetic etiology and clinical consequences of cone disorders
804:
Reduced visual capacity in bright light, i.e. day-blindness.
173:
is usually the only common symptom. The conditions include:
308:
transducin (GNAT2, ACHM4), and the last remains unknown.
362:
577:
Gene therapy for color blindness § Achromatopsia
193:
The five symptoms associated with achromatopsia are:
2147:
625:
sensory substitution has become intuitive for them.
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757:. Damage is most commonly localized to visual area
616:experienced through bone conduction according to a
357:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
109:
97:
85:
65:
45:
37:
32:
1567:Bouvier, Seth E.; Engel, Stephen A. (2006-02-01).
1343:
1341:
1265:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
455:, current flickering, and sensitivity to block by
4521:arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)
2976:Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate
1829:"Pingelap and Mokil Atolls: historical genetics"
1296:"Hearing colors: an example of brain plasticity"
1027:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science
690:to the island for which he wrote his 1997 book,
637:Some colors can be estimated through the use of
845:(born 1990), Israeli Paralympic goalball player
723:. BCM stems from mutations or deletions of the
315:CNGA3 (ACHM2) and CNGB3 (ACHM3), the cone cell
1538:The island of the colorblind; and Cycad island
276:), as achromats exhibit a complete absence of
3528:
3389:
2339:
1968:eCulture: cultural content in the digital age
749:Cerebral achromatopsia is a form of acquired
8:
4595:Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
829:Avoidance of bright light by those who have
612:perceived by a camera worn on the head to a
3923:Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy
1989:Thiadens, A. A. H. J.; et al. (2009).
686:. This unusual population drew neurologist
600:Since 2003, a cybernetic device called the
5029:
4793:
4582:
4573:
4451:
4438:
4425:
4032:
3850:
3841:
3828:
3579:
3570:
3557:
3535:
3521:
3513:
3396:
3382:
3374:
3358:
3150:
2895:
2738:
2368:
2346:
2332:
2324:
2311:
2148:
1793:"Pingelap and Mokil Atolls: achromatopsia"
56:
29:
2082:
2015:
1948:
1881:
1845:
1809:
1321:
1311:
1155:
1088:
997:
937:
385:Learn how and when to remove this message
369:, without removing the technical details.
3127:International Commission on Illumination
1456:
1387:Anneke I.; Bergen, Arthur A.B. (2012).
859:
292:of achromatopsia, two of which involve
3117:Color Association of the United States
1522:
1116:
918:The American Journal of Human Genetics
249:of the eye appears completely normal.
1666:"A century of cerebral achromatopsia"
420:as its level controls the opening of
367:make it understandable to non-experts
181:. The syndrome is also present in an
7:
4403:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy
1791:Hussels, I. E.; et al. (1972).
1373:
1066:
1064:
959:
957:
422:cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels
313:cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels
294:cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels
165:. The term is also used to describe
4526:non-arteritic anterior (NAION)
4363:Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
1827:Morton, N. E.; et al. (1972).
252:Achromatopsia can be classified as
4398:Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis
2981:Blueâgreen distinction in language
2056:TrÀnkner, D.; et al. (2004).
1899:Pearlman, E. (2015). "I, Cyborg".
1863:Patel, K. A.; et al. (2005).
1348:Windsor, Richard; Windsor, Laura.
1234:Jackson, Justin; Xpress, Medical.
319:, GNAT2 (ACHM4), subunits of cone
288:lighting. There are at least four
268:Achromatopsia is sometimes called
25:
5102:Visual disturbances and blindness
4126:Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy
1768:Corn, A. N.; et al. (2010).
1300:Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience
4231:Central retinal artery occlusion
3357:
3348:
3347:
3138:International Colour Association
2721:
1616:"Clinical Management of Agnosia"
753:that is caused by damage to the
346:
4236:Branch retinal artery occlusion
3965:Terrien's marginal degeneration
1870:Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.
1620:Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation
1077:Journal of Biological Chemistry
481:comprehensive genomic testing.
4266:Bietti's crystalline dystrophy
4226:Central retinal vein occlusion
3955:Pellucid marginal degeneration
3133:International Color Consortium
3122:International Colour Authority
2075:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3883-03.2004
2033:Thiadens, A. A. H. J. (2011).
1930:Peng, C.; et al. (2003).
982:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3883-03.2004
492:Cyclic guanosine monophosphate
216:â with the subject exhibiting
89:Congenital malfunction of the
1:
4319:Vitelliform macular dystrophy
4210:Posterior vitreous detachment
4076:Persistent pupillary membrane
3198:List of Crayola crayon colors
1753:10.1016/s0140-6736(70)91740-x
1444:10.1016/S0140-6736(70)91740-X
304:), a third involves the cone
175:monochromatic color blindness
4806:Leber's congenital amaurosis
4717:Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
4408:Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease
4393:Persistent fetal vasculature
4324:Leber's congenital amaurosis
2039:Erasmus University Rotterdam
1405:10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.10.011
693:The Island of the Colorblind
416:; particularly important in
3605:Meibomian gland dysfunction
3001:Traditional colors of Japan
2778:Achromatic colors (Neutral)
2661:Multi-primary color display
2435:Spectral power distribution
1632:10.1310/N13K-YKYQ-3XX1-NFAV
1259:Ronchi, Alfredo M. (2009).
970:The Journal of Neuroscience
210:â uncorrectable with lenses
5128:
4329:Birdshot chorioretinopathy
4303:Central serous retinopathy
4121:Focal choroidal excavation
3994:Corneal neovascularization
3811:Subconjunctival hemorrhage
2008:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.06.016
930:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.06.016
742:
703:
593:
574:
560:membrane hyperpolarization
538:Upon activation by light,
330:(ACHM6, OMIM 610024), and
301:
297:
177:, poor visual acuity, and
5041:
5028:
4796:
4712:Convergence insufficiency
4585:
4454:
4437:
4424:
4353:Primary juvenile glaucoma
4198:Cytomegalovirus retinitis
3840:
3827:
3613:
3569:
3556:
3547:Diseases of the human eye
3343:
2861:Color realism (art style)
2719:
2519:Evolution of color vision
2321:
2142:The Achromatopsia Network
1614:Burns, Martha S. (2004).
1535:Sacks, Oliver W. (1997).
1271:10.1007/978-3-540-75276-9
1205:10.1016/j.cub.2023.06.041
326:(ACHM5, OMIM 613093) and
4222:Ocular ischemic syndrome
3178:List of colors (compact)
2996:Color in Chinese culture
2646:Digital image processing
2379:Electromagnetic spectrum
1682:10.1093/brain/113.6.1721
1541:. New York: A.A. Knopf.
1313:10.3389/fnsys.2015.00056
717:sex-linked achromatopsia
91:Visual phototransduction
4722:One and a half syndrome
4476:Foster Kennedy syndrome
3183:List of colors by shade
765:(the major part of the
230:operating abnormalities
4961:Argyll Robertson pupil
3761:Periorbital cellulitis
3188:List of color palettes
1966:Ronchi, A. M. (2009).
1950:10.1074/jbc.M305102200
1090:10.1074/jbc.M305102200
745:cerebral achromatopsia
739:Cerebral achromatopsia
721:atypical achromatopsia
713:x-linked achromatopsia
706:Blue cone monochromacy
700:Blue cone monochromacy
667:However, on the small
334:(ACHM7, OMIM 616517).
274:blue cone monochromacy
167:cerebral achromatopsia
163:color vision condition
4934:Scintillating scotoma
4600:KearnsâSayre syndrome
4543:Toxic and nutritional
4516:posterior (PION)
3999:KayserâFleischer ring
3112:Color Marketing Group
2867:On Vision and Colours
2800:Tinctures in heraldry
2411:Structural coloration
1585:10.1093/cercor/bhi096
1148:10.1093/brain/awac226
1119:, pp. 1141â1150.
677:population bottleneck
4707:Conjugate gaze palsy
4578:Paralytic strabismus
4511:anterior (AION)
4293:Retinitis pigmentosa
4288:Macular degeneration
4061:Intermediate uveitis
3977:Keratoconjunctivitis
3435:Intraocular pressure
3193:List of color spaces
3085:Tint, shade and tone
2968:Cultural differences
2783:Polychromatic colors
2768:Complementary colors
2756:Monochromatic colors
1915:10.1162/PAJJ_a_00264
1883:10.1167/iovs.05-0179
1191:(16): 3489â3494.e2.
1039:10.1167/iovs.05-0179
773:is still functions.
629:Other accommodations
606:Sensory substitution
5012:Childhood blindness
4991:Parinaud's syndrome
4561:Extraocular muscles
4349:Ocular hypertension
4313:Epiretinal membrane
4298:Retinal haemorrhage
4153:Congenital cataract
3173:List of colors: NâZ
3168:List of colors: GâM
3163:List of colors: AâF
1943:(36): 34533â34540.
1747:(7659): 1253â1257.
1525:, pp. 277â289.
1459:, pp. 304â309.
1438:(7659): 1253â1257.
1197:2023CBio...33E3489M
1083:(36): 34533â34540.
843:Elham Mahamid Ruzin
731:genes, both on the
618:sonochromatic scale
282:electroretinography
159:autosomal recessive
104:Electroretinography
4538:Leber's hereditary
4205:Retinal detachment
4158:Childhood cataract
3970:Post-LASIK ectasia
3751:Orbital cellulitis
3700:Lacrimal apparatus
3220:List of web colors
3215:List of RAL colors
2621:Color reproduction
2586:LĂŒscher color test
2423:Color of chemicals
2252:External resources
2113:2020-02-23 at the
1996:Am. J. Hum. Genet.
1834:Am. J. Hum. Genet.
1798:Am. J. Hum. Genet.
1354:achromatopsia.info
516:haploinsufficiency
189:Signs and symptoms
18:Rod monochromatism
5107:Visual perception
5069:
5068:
5063:
5062:
5059:
5058:
5024:
5023:
5020:
5019:
4966:Marcus Gunn pupil
4942:
4941:
4863:Visual impairment
4730:
4729:
4636:
4635:
4623:Fourth-nerve (IV)
4551:
4550:
4488:Optic disc drusen
4420:
4419:
4416:
4415:
4134:
4133:
4022:
4021:
3928:Corneal dystrophy
3823:
3822:
3819:
3818:
3694:
3693:
3510:
3509:
3371:
3370:
3311:
3310:
3093:
3092:
2885:
2884:
2875:Theory of Colours
2717:
2716:
2629:Color photography
2581:Color preferences
2524:Impossible colors
2514:Color vision test
2509:Color temperature
2487:Color calibration
2416:Animal coloration
2308:
2307:
1280:978-3-540-75273-8
1240:medicalxpress.com
1142:(11): 3803â3815.
552:phosphodiesterase
520:dominant negative
428:and cessation of
426:hyperpolarization
418:visual perception
395:
394:
387:
321:phosphodiesterase
144:
143:
99:Diagnostic method
27:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
5119:
5030:
4794:
4785:Vision disorders
4744:Refractive error
4686:Brown's syndrome
4642:Other strabismus
4628:Sixth-nerve (VI)
4618:Oculomotor (III)
4590:Ophthalmoparesis
4583:
4574:
4565:Binocular vision
4498:Optic neuropathy
4464:optic papillitis
4452:
4439:
4426:
4315:(Macular pucker)
4033:
4014:Band keratopathy
3851:
3842:
3829:
3756:Orbital lymphoma
3643:Blepharophimosis
3633:Blepharochalasis
3580:
3571:
3558:
3537:
3530:
3523:
3514:
3475:Opponent process
3398:
3391:
3384:
3375:
3361:
3360:
3351:
3350:
3151:
3017:Color dimensions
3006:Human skin color
2896:
2773:Analogous colors
2739:
2725:
2651:Color management
2568:Color psychology
2534:Opponent process
2450:Color perception
2369:
2348:
2341:
2334:
2325:
2312:
2149:
2096:
2086:
2052:
2029:
2019:
1985:
1962:
1952:
1926:
1895:
1885:
1876:(7): 2282â2290.
1859:
1849:
1823:
1813:
1787:
1764:
1733:
1702:
1701:
1676:(6): 1721â1777.
1658:
1652:
1651:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1448:
1447:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1383:
1377:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1350:"Driving Issues"
1345:
1336:
1335:
1325:
1315:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1246:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1176:
1170:
1169:
1159:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1103:
1102:
1092:
1068:
1059:
1058:
1033:(7): 2282â2290.
1018:
1012:
1011:
1001:
961:
952:
951:
941:
908:
902:
901:
864:
643:monocular lenses
390:
383:
379:
376:
370:
350:
349:
342:
270:rod monochromacy
151:rod monochromacy
149:, also known as
140:
139:
138:
134:
130:
129:
127:
126:
123:
120:
61:
60:
41:Rod Monochromacy
30:
21:
5127:
5126:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5118:
5117:
5116:
5087:Channelopathies
5072:
5071:
5070:
5065:
5064:
5055:
5037:
5016:
4995:
4938:
4907:
4867:
4821:Color blindness
4787:
4779:
4726:
4700:Other binocular
4695:
4632:
4604:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4547:
4492:
4445:
4433:
4412:
4368:Ocular hypotony
4333:
4193:Chorioretinitis
4174:
4130:
4114:Chorioretinitis
4090:
4071:Rubeosis iridis
4049:
4018:
3989:Corneal opacity
3945:Corneal ectasia
3872:
3836:
3815:
3801:Pseudopterygium
3765:
3727:
3690:
3657:
3653:Ankyloblepharon
3609:
3565:
3552:
3551:
3541:
3511:
3506:
3458:Color blindness
3444:
3411:
3402:
3372:
3367:
3339:
3307:
3224:
3142:
3099:
3089:
3012:
2991:Blue in culture
2962:
2881:
2828:Secondary color
2804:
2761:black-and-white
2733:
2726:
2713:
2615:
2601:National colors
2596:Political color
2576:Color symbolism
2562:
2492:Color constancy
2470:Color blindness
2444:
2401:Spectral colors
2358:
2352:
2317:
2309:
2304:
2303:
2247:
2246:
2160:
2128:Merriam-Webster
2115:Wayback Machine
2104:
2099:
2055:
2049:
2032:
1988:
1982:
1965:
1929:
1898:
1862:
1826:
1790:
1784:
1767:
1736:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1613:
1612:
1608:
1573:Cerebral Cortex
1566:
1565:
1561:
1551:
1549:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1521:
1517:
1507:
1505:
1475:Nature Genetics
1468:
1467:
1463:
1455:
1451:
1425:
1424:
1420:
1385:
1384:
1380:
1372:
1368:
1358:
1356:
1347:
1346:
1339:
1293:
1292:
1288:
1281:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1244:
1242:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1185:Current Biology
1178:
1177:
1173:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1115:
1106:
1070:
1069:
1062:
1020:
1019:
1015:
963:
962:
955:
910:
909:
905:
870:Nature Genetics
866:
865:
861:
857:
852:
839:
826:
811:
801:
791:
785:
771:photopic vision
755:cerebral cortex
751:color blindness
747:
741:
708:
702:
662:
639:colored filters
631:
598:
592:
579:
573:
568:
536:
512:
487:
457:L-cis-diltiazem
391:
380:
374:
371:
363:help improve it
360:
351:
347:
340:
338:Pathophysiology
272:(as opposed to
266:
198:Color blindness
191:
136:
132:
131:
124:
121:
118:
117:
115:
114:
113:
55:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5125:
5123:
5115:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5074:
5073:
5067:
5066:
5061:
5060:
5057:
5056:
5054:
5053:
5051:Onchocerciasis
5048:
5042:
5039:
5038:
5033:
5026:
5025:
5022:
5021:
5018:
5017:
5015:
5014:
5009:
5003:
5001:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4952:
4950:
4944:
4943:
4940:
4939:
4937:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4915:
4913:
4909:
4908:
4906:
4905:
4903:Quadrantanopia
4900:
4899:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4877:
4875:
4869:
4868:
4866:
4865:
4852:
4851:
4850:
4848:Oguchi disease
4840:
4839:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4797:
4791:
4781:
4780:
4778:
4777:
4772:
4763:
4758:
4757:
4756:
4751:
4740:
4738:
4732:
4731:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4703:
4701:
4697:
4696:
4694:
4693:
4691:Duane syndrome
4688:
4683:
4678:
4677:
4676:
4671:
4661:
4656:
4646:
4644:
4638:
4637:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4614:
4612:
4606:
4605:
4603:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4586:
4580:
4571:
4553:
4552:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4529:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4502:
4500:
4494:
4493:
4491:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4479:
4478:
4468:
4467:
4466:
4459:Optic neuritis
4455:
4449:
4435:
4434:
4429:
4422:
4421:
4418:
4417:
4414:
4413:
4411:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4388:Phthisis bulbi
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4341:
4339:
4335:
4334:
4332:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4284:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4271:Coats' disease
4268:
4263:
4261:of prematurity
4258:
4253:
4248:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4219:
4214:
4213:
4212:
4202:
4201:
4200:
4195:
4184:
4182:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4172:
4170:Ectopia lentis
4167:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4144:
4142:
4136:
4135:
4132:
4131:
4129:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4117:
4116:
4106:
4100:
4098:
4092:
4091:
4089:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4052:
4050:
4048:
4047:
4042:
4036:
4030:
4028:Vascular tunic
4024:
4023:
4020:
4019:
4017:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3985:
3984:
3974:
3973:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3942:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3914:
3913:
3911:Photokeratitis
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3882:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3865:
3859:
3857:
3848:
3838:
3837:
3832:
3825:
3824:
3821:
3820:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3792:
3791:
3784:Conjunctivitis
3781:
3775:
3773:
3767:
3766:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3737:
3735:
3729:
3728:
3726:
3725:
3720:
3718:Dacryocystitis
3715:
3710:
3708:Dacryoadenitis
3704:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3692:
3691:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3667:
3665:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3586:
3584:
3577:
3567:
3566:
3561:
3554:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3543:
3542:
3540:
3539:
3532:
3525:
3517:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3472:
3471:
3470:
3468:Köllner's rule
3465:
3454:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3421:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3393:
3386:
3378:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3365:
3355:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3321:
3319:
3313:
3312:
3309:
3308:
3306:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3234:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3159:
3157:
3148:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3103:
3101:
3095:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3033:
3032:
3031:
3020:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2987:Color history
2985:
2984:
2983:
2972:
2970:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2904:
2902:
2893:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2880:
2879:
2871:
2870:(Schopenhauer)
2863:
2858:
2855:Color analysis
2852:
2850:Color triangle
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2814:
2812:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2747:
2745:
2736:
2728:
2727:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2656:Color printing
2653:
2648:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2625:
2623:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2591:Kruithof curve
2588:
2583:
2578:
2572:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2553:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2505:
2504:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2477:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2463:Sonochromatism
2454:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2375:
2373:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2343:
2336:
2328:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2315:
2306:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2290:
2279:
2268:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2249:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2233:
2222:
2211:
2196:
2181:
2161:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2152:Classification
2146:
2145:
2139:
2130:
2121:
2103:
2102:External links
2100:
2098:
2097:
2069:(1): 138â147.
2053:
2047:
2030:
2002:(2): 240â247.
1986:
1980:
1963:
1937:J. Biol. Chem.
1927:
1896:
1860:
1840:(3): 277â289.
1824:
1804:(3): 304â309.
1788:
1782:
1765:
1734:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1703:
1653:
1606:
1579:(2): 183â191.
1559:
1527:
1515:
1481:(3): 289â293.
1461:
1449:
1418:
1399:(4): 819â826.
1378:
1376:, p. 233.
1366:
1337:
1286:
1279:
1251:
1226:
1171:
1121:
1104:
1060:
1013:
976:(1): 138â147.
953:
924:(2): 240â247.
903:
876:(3): 257â259.
858:
856:
853:
851:
848:
847:
846:
838:
835:
834:
827:
822:
820:
812:
807:
805:
802:
797:
795:
792:
787:
784:
781:
743:Main article:
740:
737:
704:Main article:
701:
698:
661:
658:
657:
656:
653:
650:
630:
627:
622:Neil Harbisson
594:Main article:
591:
588:
575:Main article:
572:
569:
567:
564:
535:
532:
511:
508:
498:permeability.
486:
483:
401:) and median (
393:
392:
354:
352:
345:
339:
336:
290:genetic causes
265:
262:
232:
231:
225:
220:
211:
204:
190:
187:
142:
141:
111:
107:
106:
101:
95:
94:
87:
83:
82:
69:
63:
62:
49:
43:
42:
39:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5124:
5113:
5112:Visual system
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5097:Rare diseases
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5079:
5077:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5043:
5040:
5036:
5031:
5027:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5002:
4998:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4971:Adie syndrome
4969:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4953:
4951:
4949:
4945:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4910:
4904:
4901:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4883:
4882:
4879:
4878:
4876:
4874:
4870:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4853:
4849:
4846:
4845:
4844:
4841:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4826:Achromatopsia
4824:
4823:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4798:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4767:
4766:Anisometropia
4764:
4762:
4759:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4746:
4745:
4742:
4741:
4739:
4737:
4733:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4698:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4666:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4651:
4648:
4647:
4645:
4643:
4639:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4611:
4607:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4587:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4569:Accommodation
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4508:
4507:
4504:
4503:
4501:
4499:
4495:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4483:Optic atrophy
4481:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4472:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4461:
4460:
4457:
4456:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4427:
4423:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4383:Keratomycosis
4381:
4379:
4378:Globe rupture
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4336:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4308:Macular edema
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4243:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4217:Retinoschisis
4215:
4211:
4208:
4207:
4206:
4203:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4190:
4189:
4186:
4185:
4183:
4181:
4177:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4150:
4149:
4146:
4145:
4143:
4141:
4137:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4115:
4112:
4111:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4104:Choroideremia
4102:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4093:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4081:Iridodialysis
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4037:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4025:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4009:Arcus senilis
4007:
4005:
4004:Haab's striae
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3983:
3980:
3979:
3978:
3975:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3947:
3946:
3943:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3930:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3918:Corneal ulcer
3916:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3896:acanthamoebic
3894:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3887:
3884:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3875:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3860:
3858:
3856:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3846:Fibrous tunic
3843:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3776:
3774:
3772:
3768:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3738:
3736:
3734:
3730:
3724:
3723:Xerophthalmia
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3701:
3697:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3660:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3628:Lagophthalmos
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3615:
3612:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3559:
3555:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3538:
3533:
3531:
3526:
3524:
3519:
3518:
3515:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3495:Tetrachromacy
3493:
3491:
3490:Pentachromacy
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3463:Achromatopsia
3461:
3460:
3459:
3456:
3455:
3453:
3451:
3447:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3425:Accommodation
3423:
3422:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3409:visual system
3406:
3399:
3394:
3392:
3387:
3385:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3364:
3356:
3354:
3346:
3345:
3342:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3318:
3314:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3156:
3152:
3149:
3145:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3100:organizations
3096:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3046:
3042:
3041:Pastel colors
3039:
3038:
3037:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3022:
3021:
3019:
3015:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2971:
2969:
2965:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2877:
2876:
2872:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2823:Primary color
2821:
2820:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2790:Light-on-dark
2788:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2729:
2724:
2710:
2709:Color mapping
2707:
2705:
2702:
2696:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2688:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2634:Color balance
2632:
2631:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2612:
2611:Chromotherapy
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2554:
2552:
2551:Tetrachromacy
2549:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2503:
2500:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2475:Achromatopsia
2473:
2472:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2458:Chromesthesia
2456:
2455:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2381:
2380:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2372:Color physics
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:Color science
2361:
2356:
2349:
2344:
2342:
2337:
2335:
2330:
2329:
2326:
2320:
2316:Achromatopsia
2313:
2300:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2267:
2263:
2262:
2258:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2243:
2239:
2238:
2234:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2216:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2162:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2133:Achromatopsia
2131:
2129:
2125:
2124:Achromatopsia
2122:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2108:Achromatopsia
2106:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2050:
2048:9789461690579
2044:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1981:9783540752738
1977:
1973:
1969:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
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1783:9780891288831
1779:
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1772:. Arlington:
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1754:
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1746:
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1735:
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1727:
1724:: 1141â1150.
1723:
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1487:10.1038/77162
1484:
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1393:Ophthalmology
1390:
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863:
860:
854:
849:
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841:
840:
836:
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828:
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821:
818:
813:
810:
806:
803:
800:
796:
793:
790:
786:
782:
780:
778:
777:Color agnosia
774:
772:
768:
767:colour center
764:
763:visual cortex
760:
756:
752:
746:
738:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
707:
699:
697:
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689:
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623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
597:
589:
587:
584:
578:
570:
565:
563:
561:
558:
557:photoreceptor
553:
549:
545:
541:
533:
531:
527:
525:
524:cell membrane
521:
517:
509:
507:
505:
499:
497:
493:
484:
482:
478:
476:
472:
468:
465:
460:
458:
454:
453:rectification
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
410:
408:
404:
400:
389:
386:
378:
368:
364:
358:
355:This section
353:
344:
343:
337:
335:
333:
329:
325:
322:
318:
314:
309:
307:
306:photoreceptor
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
280:activity via
279:
275:
271:
263:
261:
259:
255:
250:
248:
243:
241:
237:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
215:
212:
209:
208:visual acuity
205:
203:
199:
196:
195:
194:
188:
186:
184:
180:
179:day-blindness
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
147:Achromatopsia
112:
108:
105:
102:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
81:
77:
76:Day blindness
73:
70:
68:
64:
59:
53:
52:Ophthalmology
50:
48:
44:
40:
36:
33:Achromatopsia
31:
19:
5092:Color vision
4861: /
4857: /
4836:Monochromacy
4825:
4768: /
4664:Heterophoria
4652: /
4351: /
4347: /
4251:hypertensive
4224: /
4045:Ciliary body
3960:Keratoglobus
3868:Episcleritis
3746:Enophthalmos
3741:Exophthalmos
3686:Trichomegaly
3681:Distichiasis
3583:Inflammation
3485:Monochromacy
3462:
3450:Color vision
3440:Visual field
3073:Fluorescence
3036:Colorfulness
3029:Dichromatism
2873:
2865:
2835:Chromaticity
2818:Color mixing
2810:Color theory
2743:Color scheme
2606:Chromophobia
2555:
2474:
2292:
2281:
2270:
2259:
2235:
2224:
2213:
2198:
2183:
2164:
2066:
2063:J. Neurosci.
2061:
2034:
1999:
1994:
1967:
1940:
1935:
1909:(2): 84â90.
1906:
1900:
1873:
1868:
1837:
1832:
1801:
1796:
1769:
1744:
1738:
1721:
1716:
1673:
1669:
1656:
1623:
1619:
1609:
1576:
1572:
1562:
1550:. Retrieved
1537:
1530:
1518:
1506:. Retrieved
1478:
1474:
1464:
1457:Hussels 1972
1452:
1435:
1431:
1421:
1396:
1392:
1381:
1369:
1357:. Retrieved
1353:
1303:
1299:
1289:
1261:
1254:
1243:. Retrieved
1239:
1229:
1188:
1184:
1174:
1139:
1135:
1124:
1080:
1076:
1030:
1026:
1016:
973:
969:
921:
917:
906:
873:
869:
862:
789:Monochromacy
775:
748:
733:X chromosome
720:
716:
712:
709:
691:
688:Oliver Sacks
681:
666:
663:
660:Epidemiology
632:
599:
583:Gene therapy
580:
571:Gene therapy
537:
528:
513:
500:
488:
479:
461:
411:
396:
381:
375:October 2022
372:
356:
310:
269:
267:
257:
253:
251:
244:
233:
202:monochromacy
192:
182:
171:monochromacy
155:monochromacy
150:
146:
145:
72:Monochromacy
4986:Cycloplegia
4929:Photophobia
4924:Hemeralopia
4881:Hemianopsia
4859:Vision loss
4770:Aniseikonia
4761:Astigmatism
4681:Cyclotropia
4659:Hypertropia
4471:Papilledema
4443:Optic nerve
4276:Sickle cell
4256:Purtscher's
4241:Retinopathy
4109:Choroiditis
3950:Keratoconus
3771:Conjunctiva
3648:Xanthelasma
3600:Blepharitis
3500:Trichromacy
3210:Color chart
3068:Iridescence
2900:Basic terms
2891:Color terms
2845:Color wheel
2840:Color solid
2704:Color space
2690:subtractive
2673:Color model
2544:Unique hues
2440:Colorimetry
2406:Chromophore
2272:GeneReviews
2261:MedlinePlus
2119:MedicineNet
1662:Zeki, Semir
1523:Morton 1972
1117:Bright 2005
882:10.1038/935
831:hemeralopia
824:Photophobia
817:oscillation
799:Hemeralopia
783:Terminology
684:Pingelapese
669:Micronesian
548:transducing
236:photophobia
218:photophobia
214:Hemeralopia
161:congenital
80:Photophobia
38:Other names
5076:Categories
5035:Infections
4956:Anisocoria
4919:Asthenopia
4912:subjective
4896:homonymous
4891:bitemporal
4843:Nyctalopia
4831:Dichromacy
4775:Presbyopia
4736:Refraction
4557:Strabismus
4447:Optic disc
3806:Pinguecula
3671:Trichiasis
3480:Dichromacy
3405:Physiology
3230:Shades of:
3063:Brightness
2795:Web colors
2751:Color tool
2734:philosophy
2639:Color cast
2539:Afterimage
2529:Metamerism
2502:Color code
2497:Color task
2480:Dichromacy
2237:DiseasesDB
1970:. Berlin:
1626:(1): 1â9.
1432:The Lancet
1359:21 October
1245:2023-08-28
868:channel".
850:References
566:Management
540:cone opsin
467:transducin
437:cone cells
317:transducin
258:incomplete
200:â usually
183:incomplete
5007:Nystagmus
4981:Mydriasis
4855:Blindness
4801:Amblyopia
4789:Blindness
4749:Hyperopia
4674:Exophoria
4669:Esophoria
4654:Exotropia
4650:Esotropia
4188:Retinitis
3886:Keratitis
3863:Scleritis
3796:Pterygium
3676:Madarosis
3623:Ectropion
3618:Entropion
3595:Chalazion
3080:Grayscale
3053:Lightness
3048:Luminance
2857:(fashion)
2557:The dress
1774:AFB Press
1718:Mol. Vis.
1690:0006-8950
1640:1074-9357
1593:1460-2199
1552:18 August
1547:473230128
1508:18 August
1374:Corn 2010
1221:259504295
1047:1552-5783
990:0270-6474
855:Footnotes
809:Nystagmus
671:atoll of
608:maps the
544:G-protein
504:cone cell
475:phenotype
464:cone cell
430:glutamate
278:cone cell
240:nystagmus
238:or their
223:Nystagmus
169:, though
110:Frequency
47:Specialty
5046:Trachoma
4811:Diplopia
4506:Ischemic
4431:Pathways
4345:Glaucoma
4246:diabetic
4148:Cataract
4086:Synechia
3938:Meesmann
3906:Exposure
3891:herpetic
3789:allergic
3779:Chemosis
3713:Epiphora
3353:Category
3335:Lighting
3058:Darkness
2878:(Goethe)
2678:additive
2666:Quattron
2294:Orphanet
2111:Archived
2093:14715947
2026:19615668
1972:Springer
1959:12815043
1923:57562971
1892:15980212
1730:16379026
1664:(1990).
1648:14872395
1601:15858161
1503:22948732
1495:10888875
1413:22264887
1332:25926778
1262:eCulture
1213:37433300
1166:35998912
1099:12815043
1055:15980212
1008:14715947
948:19615668
898:12040233
837:See also
673:Pingelap
645:and the
407:photopic
399:scotopic
286:photopic
254:complete
206:Reduced
67:Symptoms
5082:Agnosia
4886:binasal
4873:Anopsia
4816:Scotoma
4610:palsies
4373:Red eye
4358:Floater
4165:Aphakia
4096:Choroid
4066:Hyphema
4056:Uveitis
3663:Eyelash
3407:of the
3317:Related
3278:Magenta
3203:history
3107:Pantone
2394:Visible
2389:Rainbow
2277:NBK1418
2231:D003117
2084:6729583
2017:2725240
1856:4537352
1847:1762283
1820:4555088
1811:1762260
1761:4192495
1708:Sources
1698:2276043
1323:4396351
1193:Bibcode
1157:9679164
999:6729583
939:2725240
890:9662398
761:of the
602:eyeborg
596:Eyeborg
590:Eyeborg
496:calcium
471:photons
433:release
403:mesopic
361:Please
137:0.0033%
128:
116:
93:pathway
4976:Miosis
4754:Myopia
4533:Kjer's
4281:photic
4180:Retina
3933:Fuchs'
3901:fungal
3878:Cornea
3855:Sclera
3638:Ptosis
3575:Eyelid
3563:Adnexa
3417:Vision
3330:Qualia
3325:Vision
3273:Purple
3268:Violet
3248:Yellow
3243:Orange
2938:Orange
2933:Purple
2923:Yellow
2357:topics
2266:001002
2220:216900
2209:368.54
2091:
2081:
2045:
2024:
2014:
1978:
1957:
1921:
1890:
1854:
1844:
1818:
1808:
1780:
1759:
1740:Lancet
1728:
1696:
1688:
1646:
1638:
1599:
1591:
1545:
1501:
1493:
1411:
1330:
1320:
1306:: 56.
1277:
1219:
1211:
1164:
1154:
1097:
1053:
1045:
1006:
996:
988:
946:
936:
896:
888:
729:OPN1MW
725:OPN1LW
647:SeeKey
247:fundus
133:Ă 100%
125:30,000
86:Causes
54:
5000:Other
4948:Pupil
4338:Other
3982:sicca
3834:Globe
3733:Orbit
3363:Index
3303:Black
3293:White
3288:Brown
3253:Green
3155:Lists
3147:Names
3129:(CIE)
3098:Color
2958:Brown
2953:White
2943:Black
2913:Green
2732:Color
2428:Water
2384:Light
2355:Color
2299:49382
2194:H53.5
1919:S2CID
1670:Brain
1499:S2CID
1217:S2CID
1136:Brain
894:S2CID
614:pitch
534:ACHM4
510:ACHM3
485:ACHM2
324:PDE6C
302:ACHM3
298:ACHM2
264:Cause
4140:Lens
4040:Iris
3590:Stye
3430:Gaze
3298:Gray
3283:Pink
3263:Blue
3258:Cyan
2948:Gray
2928:Pink
2908:Blue
2695:CMYK
2288:ACHM
2283:GARD
2226:MeSH
2215:OMIM
2204:9-CM
2179:9D44
2175:9B70
2137:NCBI
2089:PMID
2043:ISBN
2022:PMID
1976:ISBN
1955:PMID
1888:PMID
1852:PMID
1816:PMID
1778:ISBN
1757:PMID
1726:PMID
1694:PMID
1686:ISSN
1644:PMID
1636:ISSN
1597:PMID
1589:ISSN
1554:2022
1543:OCLC
1510:2022
1491:PMID
1409:PMID
1361:2022
1328:PMID
1275:ISBN
1209:PMID
1162:PMID
1095:PMID
1051:PMID
1043:ISSN
1004:PMID
986:ISSN
944:PMID
886:PMID
727:and
546:) α-
447:and
443:vs.
414:cGMP
332:ATF6
328:PDEH
228:Iris
3238:Red
3024:Hue
2918:Red
2683:RGB
2200:ICD
2185:ICD
2166:ICD
2135:at
2126:at
2117:at
2079:PMC
2071:doi
2012:PMC
2004:doi
1945:doi
1941:278
1911:doi
1902:PAJ
1878:doi
1842:PMC
1806:PMC
1749:doi
1745:295
1678:doi
1674:113
1628:doi
1581:doi
1483:doi
1440:doi
1436:295
1401:doi
1397:119
1318:PMC
1308:doi
1267:doi
1201:doi
1152:PMC
1144:doi
1140:145
1085:doi
1081:278
1035:doi
994:PMC
978:doi
934:PMC
926:doi
878:doi
719:or
610:hue
365:to
284:in
256:or
5078::
2297::
2286::
2275::
2264::
2242:83
2240::
2229::
2218::
2207::
2192::
2189:10
2177:,
2173::
2170:11
2087:.
2077:.
2067:24
2060:.
2041:.
2037:.
2020:.
2010:.
2000:85
1993:.
1974:.
1953:.
1934:.
1917:.
1907:37
1905:.
1886:.
1874:46
1867:.
1850:.
1838:24
1831:.
1814:.
1802:24
1795:.
1776:.
1755:.
1743:.
1722:11
1692:.
1684:.
1672:.
1668:.
1642:.
1634:.
1624:11
1622:.
1618:.
1595:.
1587:.
1577:16
1575:.
1571:.
1497:.
1489:.
1479:25
1477:.
1473:.
1434:.
1430:.
1407:.
1395:.
1391:.
1352:.
1340:^
1326:.
1316:.
1302:.
1298:.
1273:.
1238:.
1215:.
1207:.
1199:.
1189:33
1187:.
1183:.
1160:.
1150:.
1138:.
1134:.
1107:^
1093:.
1079:.
1075:.
1063:^
1049:.
1041:.
1031:46
1029:.
1025:.
1002:.
992:.
984:.
974:24
972:.
968:.
956:^
942:.
932:.
922:85
920:.
916:.
892:.
884:.
874:19
872:.
759:V4
715:,
696:.
562:.
526:.
477:.
459:.
449:Ca
441:Na
300:,
135:=
78:,
74:,
3536:e
3529:t
3522:v
3397:e
3390:t
3383:v
2347:e
2340:t
2333:v
2202:-
2187:-
2168:-
2158:D
2095:.
2073::
2051:.
2028:.
2006::
1984:.
1961:.
1947::
1925:.
1913::
1894:.
1880::
1858:.
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1751::
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