Socii - Knowledge (XXG)

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the Lucani are recorded as having joined Hannibal in operations outside their own territory. The rest were solely concerned with defending their own territory against Roman counter-attacks and were unwilling to join Hannibal's operations elsewhere. During the period from 214 to 203, the Romans deployed the equivalent of at least seven consular armies (c. 140,000 men) in southern Italy year-round (and sometimes as many as ten armies – 200,000 men). Each consular army-equivalent of c. 20,000 was probably as large as Hannibal's entire "mobile" army of Carthaginians and Gauls. This massive standing force proved an insurmountable obstacle for Hannibal. The multiple Roman armies could attack Hannibal's allies at several points simultaneously, while his own mobile army (Carthaginians and Gauls) was not large enough to intervene in more than a couple of theatres at once. In addition, his mobile army's supply lines were constantly threatened along their whole length, severely restricting its operational range. All the while, Hannibal faced a slow but inexorable shrinkage of his mobile army as he was unable to fully replace his campaign losses. Reinforcements by land from the North, whether of Gauls or other Carthaginians from Spain, were successfully blocked by the Romans, most importantly when they defeated Hannibal's brother

2654:: i.e. releasing captured Latin soldiers without ransom and sparing the colonies' territory from devastation. The closest any Latin colonies came to mutiny was in 209 BC (after eight years of war), when 12 colonies sent a delegation to Rome to inform the Senate that they had run out of men and money and could supply no more troops. But even this was not a defection to the enemy, but an attempt to pressure the Senate into making peace. The inhabitants of the colonies were descendants of Romans and original Latins and were bound to Rome by ethnic solidarity (although they had nominally lost their citizenship, they could automatically regain it by moving to Roman territory). In addition, the colonists occupied land seized from the neighbouring Italic tribes, which the latter were keen to regain. They therefore had little to gain and everything to lose by joining Hannibal's Italic coalition. (None even joined the Italian coalition in the 1560:

nature of the damage, claiming that it took a long time for Rome to recover. Cornell, however, argues that the ancients greatly exaggerated the effects and cites the lack of archaeological evidence for major destruction, the early resumption of an aggressive expansionist policy and the building of the "Servian" Wall as evidence that Rome recovered swiftly. The Wall, whose 11 km-circuit enclosed 427 hectares (an increase of 50% over the Tarquinian city) was a massive project which would have required an estimated five million man-hours to complete, implying plentiful financial and labour resources. Against this, Eckstein argues that the history of Rome in the 50 years subsequent to 390 appears a virtual replay of the previous century. There were wars against the same enemies except Veii (i.e. the Volsci, Aequi and Etruscans) in the same geographical area, and indeed against other Latin city-states, such as

1087:, who had the power to veto Senatorial decrees (494); and the opening of the Consulship to plebeians (367). By 338, the privileges of the patricians had become largely ceremonial (such as the exclusive right to hold certain state priesthoods). But this does not imply a more democratic form of government. The wealthy plebeians who had led the "plebeian revolution" had no more intention of sharing real power with their poorer and far more numerous fellow-plebeians than did the patricians. It was probably at this time (around 300 BC) that the population was divided, for the purposes of taxation and military service, into seven classes based on an assessment of their property. The two top classes, numerically the smallest, accorded themselves an absolute majority of the votes in the main electoral and legislative assembly. Oligarchy based on birth had been replaced by oligarchy based on wealth. 1690:(1979), is that the Roman state was an exceptionally martial society, whose every class from the aristocracy downwards was militarised and whose economy was based on the spoils of annual warfare. Rome's neighbouring peoples, on the other hand, were seen as essentially passive victims who strove, ultimately unsuccessfully, to defend themselves against Roman aggression. More recently, however, Harris' theory of Roman "exceptionalism" has been challenged by A. M. Eckstein, who points out that Rome's neighbours were equally militaristic and aggressive and that Rome was just one competitor for territory and hegemony in a peninsula whose interstate relations were largely anarchic and lacking effective mechanisms for resolution of interstate disputes. It was a world of continuous struggle for survival, of 2665:, Hannibal largely failed to win over the central Italians. The Etruscans and the Umbrian-speaking tribes (Marsi, Marrucini, Paeligni and Frentani) remained loyal. In the later years of the war, the Romans suspected some Etruscan city-states of plotting treachery and took limited military precautions, but no substantial revolt ever materialised. Etruscan ancestral fear of Hannibal's Gallic allies was probably the decisive factor, plus intense rivalry between individual city-states. The central Italians' loyalty to Rome was a critical strategic obstruction to Hannibal, as it reinforced the belt of Roman territory through central Italy that cut off his southern alliance from his Gallic allies in the Po valley, preventing the latter from sending him reinforcements. 1471:) and other ex-Magistrates, virtually all members of the wealthy classes. Within this elite, charismatic personalities, who might challenge senatorial supremacy by allying with the commoners, were neutralised by various devices, such as the virtual abolition of "iteration", the re-election of consuls for several successive terms, a practice common before 300 BC. (In the period from 366 to 291, eight individuals held the consulship four or more times, while from 289 to 255, none did, and few were even elected twice. Iteration was temporarily resorted to again during the emergency conditions of the Second Punic War). The Roman polity exhibited, in the words of T. J. Cornell, an historian of early Rome, "the classic symptoms of 2700:

the dissident aristocrats favoured a "democracy", in which power was exercised by a popular assembly, which they could then manipulate to establish their own ascendancy. Since Rome supported oligarchies, similar to their own system, the senates of cities such as Capua and Tarentum were largely pro-Roman. Carthaginian society was itself even more oligarchic than Rome's. But by necessity, rather than from ideological conviction, the Carthaginians backed the anti-Roman democratic factions. Tarentum (212 BC) was delivered to Hannibal by the local democratic faction. (After the war, Hannibal himself supported democratic reform at Carthage, but whether he would have done so had Carthage won the war cannot be determined).

1495:, which lay the foundations for the Roman military alliance. According to the sources, this was a bilateral treaty between the Romans and the Latins. It provided for a perpetual peace between the two parties; a defensive alliance by which the parties pledged mutual assistance in case of attack; a promise not to aid or allow passage to each other's enemies; the equal division of spoils of war (half to Rome, half to the other Latins) and provisions to regulate trade between the parties. In addition, the treaty may have provided for the Latin armed forces levied under the treaty to be led by a Roman commander. These terms served as the basic template for Rome's treaties with all the other Italian 2720:

Roman fleets at the same time. Thus, if one assumes that fresh recruits reaching military age were cancelled out by campaign losses, about 60% of the confederation's available manpower was under arms continuously. This barely left enough to tend the fields and produce the food supply. Even then, emergency measures were often needed to find enough recruits. Livy implies that, after Cannae, the minimum property qualification for legionary service was largely ignored. In addition, the normal ban on criminals, debtors and slaves serving in the legions was lifted. Twice the wealthy class were forced to contribute their slaves to man the fleets and twice boys under military age were enlisted.

2647:(which were mainly Italic tribes wholly annexed to the Roman state) Hannibal scored one major success: the defection of most of the Campanians. This was the most surprising of the defections, as the Campanians had been loyal allies of Rome since the 340's BC, when they requested Roman protection from Samnite incursions. They had also remained loyal during the Pyrrhic invasion, as Pyrrhus was the champion of the Campanians' other main rivals, the Italiote Greeks. The deciding factor in Capua's defection from Rome appears to have been the prospect of replacing Rome as Italy's leading city. 1729:, the Etruscan city-states to the north existed, like the Latin states, in a state of "militarised anarchy", with chronic and fierce competition for territory and hegemony. The evidence is that every Etruscan city until 500 BC was sited on virtually impregnable hilltops and cliff edges. Despite these natural defences, they all acquired walls by 400. Etruscan culture was highly militaristic. Graves with weapons and armour were common and captured enemies were often offered as human sacrifice and their severed heads displayed in public, as happened to 300 Roman prisoners at 1033:. The establishment of this Etruscan "dynasty" has led some dated historians to claim that late regal Rome was occupied by troops from Tarquinii militarily and culturally Etruscanised. But this theory has been dismissed as a myth by Cornell and other more modern historians, who point to the extensive evidence that Rome remained politically independent, as well as linguistically and culturally a Latin city. In relation to the army, the Cornell faction argue that the introduction of heavy infantry in the late regal era followed Greek, not Etruscan, models. 2874:

that the central motivation for the rest was the opportunity for Capua to replace Rome as the leading city of Italy. Livy states that many Capuan senators had intermarried with Roman noble families, which might seem a reason for loyalty. But this very link may have resulted in even greater resentment of Capua's subordinate role. In addition, the senate's power had been compromised by a bloodless democratic coup led by a pro-democratic senator called Calavius. Nevertheless, there remained significant opposition to the defection amongst senators.

1918:(c) However, the Romans generally did not annex the whole of the conquered enemy territory, but only selected portions. The defeated peoples generally retained the major part of their territory and their political autonomy. Their sovereignty was only limited in the fields of military and foreign policy, by a treaty with Rome which often varied in detail but always required them to provide troops to serve under Roman command and to "have the same friends and enemies as Rome" (in effect prohibiting them from waging war on other 2070: 2054: 135: 1702: 1589: 1356:), despite being a small minority of the population. Their precise proportion is unknown, but was most likely under 5% of the citizen-body. These classes supplied a legion's cavalry, just 6.6% of the unit's total effectives (300 of 4,500), which is probably greater than their proportionate share, as the lowest class was excluded from legionary service. Overall, votes were allocated in inverse proportion to population. Thus the lowest social echelon (the 2539:, the Samnites, Lucani and Bruttii. But the revolt was far from universal. The Campanians and Apulians largely remained loyal to Rome. This was probably due to their long-standing antagonism to the Samnites and Tarentines respectively. Neapolis, the key Greek city on the Tyrrhenian, also refused to join Pyrrhus, due to its rivalry with Tarentum. This demonstrates a critical element in the success of Rome's military confederation: the 1805:(a) Since the inhabitants of Latium Vetus were the Romans' fellow-tribesmen, there was no reluctance to grant them full citizenship. But annexations outside Latium Vetus soon gathered pace. The Romans then encountered the problem that their new subjects could, if granted full Roman citizenship, outnumber original Latins in the citizen body, threatening Rome's ethnic and cultural integrity. The problem as solved by introducing 2690:— Rhegium and Neapolis — also refused to defect and remained staunchly loyal to Rome after Cannae. The Neapolitans had an intense rivalry with the Campanians, while the Rhegians had long struggled for survival against Hannibal's Bruttian allies. Also, for both cities, Tarentine hegemony was anathema. Neapolis was the main seaport of Campania, which in turn was the principal theatre of war. Rhegium controlled one shore of the 979:). Also, few scholars today dispute that Rome was ruled by kings in its archaic period, although whether any of the seven names of kings preserved by tradition are historical remains uncertain (Romulus himself is generally regarded as mythical). It is also likely that there were several more kings than those preserved by tradition, given the long duration of the regal era (even if it did start in 625 rather than 753). 2166:, was anathema to the Roman senatorial elite. Livy relates how after Cannae, as the Senate ranks were depleted by the deaths of 80 senators in the battle, a proposal was put forward that the vacancies should be filled by leaders of the Latin colonies. It was indignantly rejected quasi-unanimously. Livy adds that a similar proposal had been made previously by the Latin colonists themselves, with the same result. 971:'s once-fashionable theory that Rome was an insignificant settlement until c. 500 (and that, consequently, the Republic was not established before c. 450). There is now no doubt that Rome was a major city in the period from 625 to 500 BC, when it had an area of c. 285 hectares and an estimated population of 35,000. This made it the second-largest in Italy (after Tarentum) and about half the size of contemporary 2704:

zero complete Greeks and the total rebel Italian manpower was c. 150,000 men, to which must be added Hannibal's own Carthaginian army and Gallic allies. In contrast, the Romans could draw upon c. 650,000 Romans and Allies of undisputed loyalty. Of these, at 50,000 perished in Rome's great military disasters of 218–206 BC. The remaining 600,000 were roughly six times the maximum manpower Hannibal had in Italy.

1577: 1907:). Also colonies would be sited to provide a defensive barrier between Rome and her allies and potential enemies, as well as to separate those enemies from each other and keep watch on their activity: a divide-and-rule strategy. Thus Rome's string of colonies and eventual annexation of a belt of territory across the centre of the Italian peninsula was driven by the strategic aim of separating the 1994:, an emergency levy of all able-bodied men, even men over 46 years of age (who were normally exempt from military service). During the third century BC, the confederation successfully repulsed the invasion of Pyrrhus and of Hannibal, which threatened to subject the whole peninsula to Greek and Punic domination respectively. The last such levy was as late as 60 BC, on the eve of Julius Caesar's 36: 1520: 2582: 1615:) grew enormously in size, from c. 5,500 to 27,000 km, c. 20% of peninsular Italy. The Roman citizen population nearly tripled, from c. 350,000 to c. 900,000, c. 30% of the peninsular population. Latin colonies probably comprised a further 10% of the peninsula (about 12,500 km). The remaining 60% of the peninsula remained in the hands of other Italian 2045:, at some periods, primarily the more powerful or aggressive nations that could aspire to Italian hegemony themselves (Samnites, Capua, Tarentum), the costs appeared too high, and these repeatedly took the opportunity to rebel. Others, for whom the benefits of security from aggressive neighbours and external invaders outweighed the burdens, remained loyal. 723:("Greater Greece") for that reason. The Greek colonies had the most advanced civilisation in the Italian peninsula, much of which was adopted by the Romans. Their language, although Indo-European, was quite different from Latin. As maritime cities, the Greeks' primary military significance was naval. They invented the best warship of the ancient world, the 1809:("non-voting citizenship"), a second-class status which carried all the rights and obligations of full citizenship except the right to vote. By this device, the Roman republic could enlarge its territory without losing its character as a Latin city-state. The most important use of this device was the incorporation of the Campanian city-states into the 2838:). But in view of their distinctive identity and the fact that they went over to Hannibal after Cannae, it is useful to separate them. According to Livy, the Campanians registered fit for service were 30,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry in 216 BC. However, these figures, quoted in a speech to the Capuan senate by the defeated consul 1749:, 343–290 BC), during which they suffered many severe reverses, to subjugate the Samnites. Even after this, the Samnites remained implacable enemies of Rome, seizing every opportunity to throw off the Roman yoke. They rebelled and joined both Pyrrhus and Hannibal when these invaded Italy (275 and 218 BC respectively). In the 2716:(207 BC). Reinforcements by sea were severely restricted by Roman sea power (although some reinforcements did get through by sea). For these reasons, Hannibal proved unable to prevent the Romans from reducing his Italian allied city-states one by one, despite his continuing success in virtually all battlefield encounters. 1077:, against the patrician monopoly of power. The plebeian leadership had the advantage that they represented the vast majority of the population, therefore also the majority of the Roman levy and of their own growing wealth. Milestones in their ultimately successful struggle are the establishment of a plebeian assembly (the 959:, the denomination used by Livy to define the centuriate property thresholds, did not exist until then. But this argument is regarded as weak by some historians, as Livy may simply have converted older values). Despite this, the broad trends of early Roman history as related by the ancient authors are reasonably accurate. 2850:

According to Livy, the Bruttians attacked Croton with 15,000 men in 215 BC and this figure will be assumed as their total strength in 225. As for the Greek cities, it is believed that their population had suffered severe diminution due to attacks by their Italic neighbours in the period from 350 to 275 BC, and as Rome's

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Romans' admiration of Greek culture and the fact that most of the cities contained pro-Roman aristocracies whose interests coincided with the Romans'. By the brutal standards of pre-hegemonic Italy, therefore, the Romans were relatively generous to their defeated foes, a further reason for their success.

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Nevertheless, the Hannibalic War stretched Roman military manpower to the limit. Of their 400,000 available manpower, the Romans kept at least 200,000 men in the field, in Italy and overseas, continuously in the period 214–203 (and 240,000 in the peak year). In addition, c. 30,000 were serving in the

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of southern Italy: Bruttii and Lucani, as well as the minority of the Greek city-states. The adherence of much of southern Italy gave Hannibal a relatively stable power-base that sustained his military presence in Italy for 13 years after Cannae. The Samnites, Bruttii and Lucani were, as demonstrated

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withstood the military challenges it faced in the two and a half centuries of its existence (338–88 BC). The challenges may be divided into three broad periods: (1) 338 to 281 BC, when the confederation was tested mainly by challenges from other Italian powers, especially the Samnites; (2) 281 to 201

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The Italian allies enjoyed complete autonomy outside the fields of military and foreign policy. They maintained their traditional forms of government, language, laws, taxation and coinage. None were even required to accept a Roman garrison on their territory (except for the special cases of the Greek

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population outnumbered the Romans by roughly two to one, but normally provided roughly the same number of troops to the confederate levy. During the Samnite Wars, the burden on Romans was extremely onerous. The standard levy was raised from two to four legions and military operations took place every

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e.g. in 326 BC. By the end of the Samnite Wars in 290, the Senate enjoyed complete control over virtually all aspects of political life: finance, war, diplomacy, public order and the state religion. The rise of the Senate's role was the inevitable consequence of the increasing complexity of the Roman

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Polybius does not give figures for the Greeks or the Bruttii allies in southern Italy. This was probably because the Greeks were normally called on to supply crews for the fleets and the Bruttii were perhaps too far away (or too unreliable) to be asked to contribute to the defence against the Gauls.

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Even among those city-states of southern Italy that did defect, opinion was often bitterly divided by a class struggle between the aristocracy and the commoners, led by dissident charismatic aristocrats. The local aristocracies tried to retain a monopoly of political power (i.e. an oligarchy), while

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fighting unit adopted by the Romans. Like the Romans, their national symbol was a wolf, but a male wolf on the prowl, not a she-wolf suckling babies. All graves of male Samnites contain weapons. Livy several times describes the barbarity of their raids into Campania. Their military effectiveness was

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As we do not know the nature of the Tarquinian hegemony over the Latins, we cannot tell how the terms of the Cassian treaty differed from those imposed by the Tarquins. But it is likely that Tarquin rule was more onerous, involving the payment of tribute, while the Republican terms simply involved a

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The confederation did not maintain standing or professional military forces, but levied them, by compulsory conscription, as required for each campaigning season. They would then be disbanded at the end of a conflict. To spread the burden, no man was required to serve more than 16 campaign seasons.

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was now prohibited, inter-social disputes were settled by negotiation or, ever more frequently, by Roman arbitration. The confederation also acted as the peninsula's defender against external invasion and domination. Gallic invasions from the North were, from 390 BC when the Senones destroyed Rome,

1926:

A good case-study of how the Romans employed sophisticated divide-and-rule strategies in order to control potentially dangerous enemies is the political settlement imposed on the Samnites after three gruelling wars. The central aim was to prevent a restoration of the Samnite League, a confederation

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The new Romano-Latin military alliance proved strong enough to repel the incursions of the Italic mountain tribes, but it was a very tough struggle. Intermittent wars, with mixed fortunes, continued until c. 395 BC. The Sabines disappear from the record in 449 (presumably subjugated by the Romans),

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advisory council whose members served at the pleasure of the Consuls. While no doubt influential as a group of friends and confidants of the Consuls, as well as experienced ex-Magistrates, the Senate had no formal or independent existence. Power rested with the Consuls, acting with the ratification

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population with Etruscan elements. The Samnites had conquered the Greek and Etruscan city-states in the period 450–400 BC. Speaking the Oscan language, they developed a distinctive culture and identity. Although partly of Samnite blood, they came to regard the mountain Samnites that surrounded them

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Despite the Capuan senate's traditional pro-Roman posture, it seems that after Cannae, the majority of senators were won over to Hannibal's cause. It is possible that many pro-Roman senators had fallen fighting in that battle (as did some 80 Roman senators). From Livy's lengthy account, it appears

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suggests that Tarentum's army, probably at its peak around 300 BC, amounted to 30,000 foot and 4,000 horse. At that time, Tarentum controlled a much larger territory and thus its manpower in 225 was probably considerably lower. The Strabo figures for Tarentum are therefore assumed to represent the

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But in reality, Hannibal's position was even weaker than this. Rome's Italian confederates were organised in the regular structures of the military confederation under unified Roman command. Hannibal's Italian allies, on the other hand, served in their own units and under independent command. Only

2677:, Tarentum would certainly have defected immediately after Cannae if it hadn't been under the control of a Roman garrison, placed there in 218 BC to prevent precisely such an event. The Tarentines eventually succeeded in allowing in Hannibal's army in 212, although the Romans continued to hold the 1922:

and from conducting independent diplomacy). In some cases, no territory was annexed. For example, after the defeat of Pyrrhus in 275 BC, the Greek city-states of the South were accepted as Roman allies without any loss of territory regardless of whether they had backed Pyrrhus. This was due to the

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had established the city's hegemony over both sets of rivals. The city's army of 30,000 foot and 4,000 cavalry was then the largest in the peninsula. Tarentine cavalry was renowned for its quality and celebrated in the city's coins, which often showed youths on horseback placing wreaths over their

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in 390 BC, the Roman army fled to Veii, leaving their city at the mercy of the Gauls, who proceeded to ransack it and then demand a huge ransom in gold to leave. The effects of this disaster on Roman power are a matter of controversy between scholars. The ancient authors emphasize the catastrophic

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The establishment of a hereditary oligarchy obviously excluded wealthy non-patricians from political power and it is this class that led plebeian opposition to the early Republican settlement. The early Republic (510–338 BC) saw a long and often bitter struggle for political equality, known as the

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were supposedly designed to organise the military levy, but would have resulted in the majority of the total levy being raised from the two top property classes, which were also the smallest numerically, a result that is clearly nonsensical. Instead, the reform must date from much later, certainly

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Ancient historians' accounts of the history of Rome before it was destroyed by the Gauls in 390 BC are regarded as highly unreliable by modern historians. Livy, the main surviving ancient source on the early period, himself admits that the earlier period is very obscure and that his own account is

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Using the military manpower figures given in the table above, the Italian forces available to Hannibal can be estimated. Assuming that two-thirds of the Lucani and Bruttii and one-third of the Apulians and little under one third of Campanians and a fifth of the Samnites were on his side, they had

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were so divided by mutual antagonisms, often regarding their neighbours as far greater threats than the Romans, that they were never able to stage a universal revolt. The pattern is similar to that of the next great foreign challenge, Hannibal's invasion of Italy (see below). The central Italians

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The 19 Latin colonies founded in the period 338–263 outnumbered the Roman ones by four to one. This is because they involved a mixed Roman/original Latin/Italian allied population, and so could more easily attract the necessary number of settlers. But because of the mix, the settlers did not hold

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The rise of Roman hegemony by three main means: (a) direct annexation of territory and incorporation of the existing inhabitants; (b) the foundation of Latin colonies on territory confiscated from defeated peoples; and (c) the binding of defeated peoples to Rome by treaties of perpetual alliance.

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after Cannae, probably exclude the Campanians already serving in the legions. These would have suffered losses in the battles of Trebia, Trasimene and Cannae proportionate to the Romans'. Since these amounted to c. 60,000, the Campanians may have suffered c. 8,000 losses (15% of the Roman total,

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and thus hindered Hannibal's communications with Carthaginian forces in Sicily. For these reasons, Hannibal's failure to take these two strategic ports greatly complicated the reinforcement and resupply of his army from Africa. Finally, all four of the major Samnite tribes, refused to join their

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The modern term "Roman confederation" used by some historians to describe the Roman military alliance is misleading, as it implies some form of common political structure. Instead, there were no federal political institutions, and indeed not even formal procedures for effective consultation. Any

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in 275 saw a further round of annexation, of substantial territories in southern Italy at the expense of the Lucani and Bruttii. The Bruttii lost large forest lands, whose timber was needed to build ships and the Lucani lost their most fertile land, the coastal plain on which the Latin colony of

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neighbours of Latium assailed the Latins, the Samnites invaded and subjugated the Greco-Etruscan cities of Campania, while the Messapii, Lucani and Bruttii in the South attacked the Greek coastal cities, crippling Tarentum and reducing the independent Greek cities on the Tyrrhenian coast to just

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dynasty, established its hegemony over its Latin neighbours. The fall of the Roman monarchy was followed by a war with the Latins, who probably took advantage of the political turmoil in Rome to attempt to regain their independence. This war was brought to an end in 493 BC by the conclusion of a

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of the First Property Class. In the rare event of a majority not being attained, the Second Class was called, but it was hardly ever necessary to consult the lowest classes." Also in its legislative capacity, the popular assembly offered little scope for democratic action. For this purpose, the

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From the start, the rebels' prime target was to capture the Latin colonies. These had been deliberately located to disrupt communications between powerful tribal groups and their territories constituted some of most fertile land in the interior (which had been taken away from the tribes now in

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set specific criteria for such appointments or removals (although these are not precisely known). The result was that the Senate now became a formal constitutional entity. Its members now held office for life (or until expelled by the Censors), and were thus freed from control by the Consuls.

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related by Livy, and that they were replaced by some form of collegiate rule. It is likely that the revolution that overthrew the Roman monarchy was engineered by the patrician caste and that its aim was not, as rationalised later by ancient authors, the establishment of a democracy, but of a

2788:(literally "supports") whose role, training and equipment were the same as the legionaries', except that they provided most of the imperial army's cavalry, archers and other specialists. But, like the legionaries, the auxiliaries were full-time, long-service professionals, mainly volunteers. 2634:

The loose federation's gravest trial came with the Second Punic War and Hannibal's invasion of Italy (218–201 BC). This was not only because the Romans suffered a string of devastating defeats, but also because Hannibal's entire war strategy was to break up the confederation by inducing the

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in 753 BC. However, the vast amount of archaeological evidence uncovered since the 1970s suggests that Rome did not assume the characteristics of a united city-state (as opposed to a group of separate hilltop settlements) before around 625. The same evidence, however, has also conclusively

1002:. Most kings were non-Romans brought in from abroad, doubtless as a neutral figure who could be seen as above patrician factions. Although blood relations could succeed, they were still required to submit to election. The position and powers of a Roman king were thus similar to those of 1927:

of these warlike tribes which had proved hugely dangerous. After 275 BC, the League's territory was split into three independent cantons: Samnium, Hirpinum and Caudium. A broad belt of Samnite territory was annexed, separating the Samnites from their neighbours to the north - the

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seen as the most serious danger and continued into the first century BC. Many were so large that they could only realistically be turned back by a common effort of all Italians, organised by the confederation. The Romans even coined a specific term for such a mobilisation: the

1970:: the loss of substantial territory, the loss of freedom of action in foreign relations, heavy military obligations and a complete lack of say in how those military contributions were used. Against these, however, must be set the very important advantages of the system for the 1568:, just 30 miles away. In addition, a treaty concluded with Carthage c. 348 seems to describe Rome's sphere of control as much the same area as in a previous treaty signed in the first years of the Republic 150 years earlier: just the Latium Vetus, and not even all of that. 1125:). The Consuls, who combined both civil and military functions, had equal authority and the right to veto each other's decisions. The main policy-making institution, the Senate, was an unelected body composed mostly of Roman aristocrats but its decrees could not contravene 1745:

greatly enhanced by the formation of the Samnite League by the four Samnite tribal cantons (the Caudini, Hirpini, Caraceni and Pentri). This brought their forces under the unified command of a single general in times of crisis. It took the Romans three gruelling wars (the

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as a major threat, leading them to ask for Roman protection from 340 BC onwards. City-states with territories. As plains-dwellers, horses played an important role for the Campanians and their cavalry was considered the best in the peninsula. Their main city was

1045:. The proverbial "arrogance" and "tyranny" of the Tarquins, epitomised by the Lucretia incident, is probably a reflection of the patricians' fear of the Tarquins' growing power and their erosion of patrician privilege, most likely by drawing support from the 1099:

had attained its evolved structure, which remained essentially unchanged for three centuries. In theory, Rome's republican constitution was democratic, based on the principle of the sovereignty of the Roman people. It had also developed an elaborate set of

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by the two parties on the basis of an equal contribution to the annual military levy, which was probably under Roman overall command. The terms of the treaty were probably more acceptable to the Latins than the previous type of Roman hegemony, that of the

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But these constitutional arrangements were far less democratic than they might appear, as elections were rigged heavily in favour of the wealthiest echelon of society. The centuriate organisation of the Roman citizen-body may be summarised as follows:

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based on legend rather than written documentation, as the few written documents that did exist in the earlier period were mostly lost in the Gallic sack. There is a tendency among ancient authors to create anachronisms. For example, Rome's so-called "

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Because of the poverty of the sources, only the bare outline of Rome's external relations in the early period can be reliably discerned. It appears likely that Rome in the period 550–500, conventionally known as the period it was ruled by the

2061:. Note the patchwork political configuration. The Roman possessions (in grey-blue) straddle the strategic centre of the Italian peninsula and the Tyrrhenian coastal plain. Latin colonies (dark red) are scattered in strategic locations. Other 390:

to Rome. Beyond this, the central, and in most cases sole, obligation on the ally was to contribute to the confederate army, on demand, a number of fully equipped troops up to a specified maximum each year, to serve under Roman command.

711:

in the northeast. They gave their name to the region they inhabited, Venetia, a name chosen centuries afterwards for the new founded capital of the allied people of the Venetian Lagoon, who would become the Most Serene Republic of

1049:(commoners). To ensure patrician supremacy, the autocratic power of the kings had to be fragmented and permanently curtailed. Thus, the replacement of a single ruler by a collegiate administration, which soon evolved into two 1602:

in southern Italy, c. 500 BC. The coin is incuse i.e. reverse side is mirror image of obverse. Obverse shows hero Phalanthos riding a dolphin, the traditional symbol of the city, with legend ΤΑΡΑΣ (TARAS), the Greek name for

1503:

military alliance. The impetus to form such an alliance was probably provided by the acute insecurity caused by a phase of migration and invasion of the lowland areas by Italic mountain tribes in the period after 500 BC. The

2685:

in the north of Apulia, the rest of the Apulians and the Messapii mostly remained loyal to Rome, as they had done during the Pyrrhic invasion and for the same reason: fear of Tarentine expansionism. The Greek cities on the

2532:(281–275 BC), with 25,000 troops, brought the Romans into conflict with a Hellenistic professional army for the first time. Pyrrhus had been invited by Tarentum, which had been alarmed by Roman encroachment in Lucania. 1368:, despite being probably the largest. As Livy himself puts it: "Thus every citizen was given the illusion of wielding power through the right to vote, but in reality the aristocracy remained in full control. For the 1057:, with equal powers and limited terms of office (one year, instead of the life tenancy of the kings). In addition, power was further fragmented by the establishment of further collegiate offices, known to history as 2560:), although in these they inflicted such heavy casualties on the enemy that the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined. The defeat at Beneventum forced Pyrrhus to withdraw in 275, but it was not until 272 that the rebel 2547:

In the event, the Roman forces surprised Pyrrhus by proving a good match for his own, which was unexpected, given that the Romans were temporary levies pitted against professionals. The Romans won one major battle

2544:(Etruscans and Umbrians) remained loyal, while the southern Italians, with significant exceptions, rebelled. The exceptions were also the similar, save for the Campanians, who joined Hannibal in the later episode. 2681:, which reduced the value of the gain for Hannibal. Thurii, Heraclea, Metapontum, Locri and Croton did defect after Cannae. But even in the South, defections to Hannibal were by no means universal. Apart from the 2241:

Polybius states that the Romans and their allies could draw on a grand total of 770,000 men fit to bear arms (of which 70,000 met the property requirement for cavalry) in 225 BC, shortly before the start of the

818:(conventionally 753–509 BC). The Etruscans had originally dominated the Po Valley, but had been progressively displaced from this region by the Gauls in the 4th century BC, separating them the Etruscan-speaking 558:

i.e. non-citizens (except for the Latin colonists, who could regain their citizenship by moving to Roman territory). The Roman military confederation now became a victim of its own success in forging a united

2471:

were called upon to support the Rome's imperialist expansion outside Italy. Elements of all three phases overlap: for example, Gallic invasions of the peninsula from the North recurred throughout the period.

2250:. Polybius' subtotals, however, are garbled, as he divides them into two sections, troops actually deployed and those registered as available. It is mostly believed that Polybius' figures refer to adult male 1104:

to prevent the excessive concentration of power. The two Consuls, together with other republican Magistrates, were elected annually by the Roman citizenry (male citizens over 14 years old only) voting by

1475:, a system of government that depends on rotation of office within a competitive elite, and the suppression of charismatic individuals by peer-group pressure, usually exercised by a council of elders." 641:

In this article, to avoid confusion, only group (1) will be referred to as "Latins". Group (2) will be called "Latin colonies or colonists" and group (3) will be referred to as "Italian confederates".

2467:

BC, when the main threat to the confederation was intervention in Italy by non-Italian powers i.e. Pyrrhus' invasion (281 to 275 BC) and Hannibal's invasion (218 to 203 BC); (3) 201 to 90 BC when the

1879:

would frequently consist of some of the defeated people's best agricultural land, since the social function of colonies was to satisfy the Romans' land-hungry peasantry. But the choice of site for a

2746:

Indeed, even within the newly reconstituted top tier of the system there was a slightly camouflaged inequality, as the newly enfranchised Italians were only added to eight out of thirty-five of the

2823:

The most important problem is that by listing those troops deployed separately from those registered, Polybius is probably double-counting the former. Therefore, the figures for Romans and general

2843:

comparing Varro's to Polybius' figures) of which c. 1,000 cavalry (12%, the same as in Varro's figures). Therefore, the total Campanian capacity was probably c. 37,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry.

814:) today. The Etruscans spoke a non Indo-European language which today is largely unknown and a distinctive culture. Some scholars believe Rome may have been an Etruscan city at the time of the 591:

were defeated on the battlefield, they gained their main demand. By the end of the war in 87 BC, all inhabitants of peninsular Italy had been granted the right to apply for Roman citizenship.

2528:

Phase II (281–203 BC) saw even greater trials of the confederation's cohesion by external invaders with large and sophisticated armies. The intervention in southern Italy of the Epirote king

1938:

The final feature of Roman hegemony was the construction of a number of paved highways all over the peninsula, revolutionising communication and trade. The most famous and important was the

2831:

deployed, (Etruscans/Sabines and Umbrians/Sarsinates) probably refer to their registered totals (the Sabines were Roman citizens by this time, so the former total refers to Etruscans only).

2750:, their effective political power thus being severely limited. This was one of the causes of residual unrest among some sections of the Italians, manifested in their marked support for the 2854:(naval allies) in the First Punic War. Most were now very small (e.g. Croton with under 2,000 citizens), save for Tarentum and Neapolis. Tarentum was still the most powerful Greek city. 1852:("foreigners"), although they could recover their citizenship by returning to Roman territory. The question arises as to why the Latin colonists were not simply accorded citizenship 360:

by Rome to provide land for Roman/Latin colonists. The latter, although Roman citizens, were required to give up their citizen rights on joining a colony, and accept the status of

1834:(state-owned land) and rented out to Roman tenant-farmers. The rest would be returned to the defeated enemy in return for the latter's adherence to the Roman military alliance. 1441:, the Consuls were gradually reduced to executive servants of the Senate. The concentration of power in the hands of the Senate is exemplified by its assumption of the power of 1036:

In addition, it seems certain that the kings were overthrown c. 500 BC, probably as a result of a much more complex and bloody revolution than the simple drama of the rape of

1611:

in 264 saw an explosion of Roman expansion and the subjugation of the entire peninsula to Roman political hegemony, achieved by virtually incessant warfare. Roman territory (

2192:

sole treaty obligation to Rome was to supply to the confederate army, on demand, a number of fully equipped troops up to a specified maximum each year. The vast majority of

2010:

single year. This implies that c. 16% of all Roman adult males spent every campaigning season under arms in this period, rising to 25% during emergencies. Nevertheless, the

1352:(knights, including the six centuriae probably reserved for patricians), together with the first property class, were allocated an absolute majority of the votes (98 of 193 1740:

To the South, the Samnites had a reputation for martial ferocity unrivalled in the peninsula. Tough mountain-dwelling pastoralists, they are believed to have invented the

1463:

The Senate's monopoly of power in turn entrenched the political supremacy of the wealthiest echelon. The 300 members of the Senate were mostly a narrow, self-perpetuating

441:. Most importantly, they were freed from the constant threat of aggression from their neighbours that had existed in the anarchic centuries prior to the imposition of the 683:

tribes, that dominated central and southern Italy, as well as northeastern Italy. These included the original Latins and a large number of other tribes, most notably the

986:, did not resemble a medieval monarchy. It was not hereditary and based on "divine right", but elective and subject to the ultimate sovereignty of the people. The king ( 2225:, or about 20,000 men (17,500 infantry and 2,400 cavalry). In times of emergency, a Consul might be authorised to raise a double-strength army of four legions and four 2014:

were allowed to share the spoils of war, the main remuneration of Republican levy soldiers (since pay was minimal), on an equal basis with Roman citizens. This allowed

2846:

Polybius' "Iapygians/Messapians" (i.e. Apulians) are given an improbably large cavalry. It is possibly a copying error, and should perhaps be 6,000 instead of 16,000.

940:

in c. 550 BC, but archaeology and a note in Livy himself show that the wall was built after the sack of Rome by the Gauls. Servius Tullius was also credited with the

699:. The Italic tribes were mostly tough hill-dwelling pastoralists, who made superb infantrymen, especially the Samnites. It is believed that the latter invented the 1406:

Further, the period of the Samnite wars saw the emergence of the Senate as the predominant political organ at Rome. In the early Republic, the Senate had been an

735:) had been subjugated by the neighbouring Italic tribes and become Oscan-speaking in the period up to 264 BC. The surviving Greek cities in 264 were all coastal: 671:

dialects had displaced Lepontic, Raetic, Etruscan and N. Picene in that region. Raetic survived in the Alps. Note the tiny area occupied by the original Latins

2202:("naval allies"), whose obligation was to provide either partly or fully crewed warships to the Roman fleet. Little is known about the size of contingent each 675:

The Italian peninsula at this time was a patchwork of different ethnic groups, languages and cultures. These may be divided into the following broad nations:

398:. From 338 to 88 BC, Roman legions were invariably accompanied on campaign by roughly the same numbers of confederated troops organised into two units called 1789:, the Greek goddess of Victory. A famous status of Nike which stood in the city centre was ultimately transferred to the Senate House in Rome by the emperor 1421:(promulgated sometime in the period from 339 to 318 BC), which transferred authority to appoint (and remove) members of the Senate from the Consuls to the 426:

raised by Rome in any given year, they had no say in how those troops were used. Foreign policy and war were matters exclusively in the hands of the Roman

2221:(literally: "wings", because they were always posted on the flanks of the Roman line of battle). A normal consular army would contain two legions and two 1338:

were assigned to naval service while Livy simply states that they were exempt from military service. In both cases, Polybius is to be preferred, as 1,100

944:

organisation of the Roman citizen body which again scholars agree cannot have been established by Servius in the form described by Livy in book I.43. His

1391:) put before them by the convening Magistrate. No amendments or motions from the floor were admissible. In modern terms, the legislative activity of the 541:

overseas, in Spain, Africa and the Balkans. Despite the fact that the alliance was no longer acting defensively, there was virtually no protest from the

1768:

in Italy and a fertile hinterland, it was faced from the start with fierce competition from the other Greek colonies and resistance from the indigenous

599:

The Romans themselves used the term "Latin" loosely, and this can be confusing. The term was used to describe what were actually three distinct groups:

3831: 2492:

during this period appears to have remained largely solid. There were sporadic revolts: in 315, 306, 269, and 264 BC by some Campanian cities, the

2085:, the two-faced god. (Reverse) prow of a warship, a common motif of coins of this period, and virtually a symbol of the Roman Republic (c. 240 BC) 1817:

were several tribes on the fringes of Latium Vetus that had until that time been long-time enemies of Rome: the Aurunci, Volsci, Sabini and Aequi.

2743:. For the inhabitants of Rome's possessions outside Italy mostly remained non-citizens, and their numbers grew rapidly as Rome's empire expanded. 1694:

for the Romans, a phrase from Livy that Eckstein uses to describe the politico-military situation in the peninsula before the imposition of the

382:

with the Roman Republic. This would require the ally to "have the same friends and enemies as Rome", effectively prohibiting war against other

475:. Moreover, the military burden was only half that shouldered by Roman citizens, as the latter numbered only about half the population of the 1342:

seems too high a figure for destitute individuals and it is likely that the Roman military would have made use of the manpower of this group.

447:. In addition, the Roman alliance protected the Italian peninsula from external invasion, such as the periodic and devastating incursions of 2774:). But outside Italy, Roman citizenship remained limited, although it spread over time. It has been estimated that in the time of emperor 2639:

to rebel against Rome's hegemony and join a counter-alliance under Hannibal's overall command. In the event, he had only mixed success:

1842:("Latin rights") held by original Latins before their incorporation into the citizen body. In essence, these rights were similar to the 998:

originally), although there is strong evidence that the process was in practice controlled by the patricians, a hereditary aristocratic

949:

after 400 BC and probably after 300. (Indeed, it has even been suggested that the centuriate organisation was not introduced before the

795:, a confederation of the Greek cities in Italy. But its military capability was crippled by the Romans, who defeated Tarentum by 272 BC. 1828:) became the property of the Roman state. Some would be allocated to the members of a new Roman or Latin colony. Some would be held as 2650:

Not a single Latin colony defected to Hannibal, despite the latter's policy of treating the Latin colonists in the same way as other

2621: 2564:

were reduced. The surviving accounts for this later phase of the war are thin, but its scale is clear from Rome's celebration of 10

119: 2778:(ruled AD 14–37), only c. 10% of the Roman empire's 60–70 million inhabitants were citizens. Emulating the republican model of the 370: 1642:

and the Campanians themselves; and eastwards across the centre of the peninsula towards the Adriatic coast, incorporating the

2132: 1813:, bringing the most fertile agricultural land in the peninsula and a large population under Roman control. Also incorporated 1626:(338 BC) and the annexation of most of Latium Vetus. Subsequently, the main thrusts of expansion were southwards towards the 374:. The defeated state would be allowed to keep the rest of its territory in return for binding itself to Rome with an unequal 57: 2018:

soldiers to return home at the end of each campaigning season with substantial capital and was important in reconciling the

1460:

state due to its expansion, which made government by short-term officers such as the Consuls and by plebiscite impractical.

1679:

in 268. By 264, Rome controlled the entire Italian peninsula, either directly as Roman territory or indirectly through the

2549: 2603: 2592: 2257:

There are a number of difficulties with Polybius' figures, which are discussed in detail in P. A. Brunt's seminal study,

291:

in central Italy as they were located in colonies throughout the peninsula. This tripartite organisation lasted from the

2784: 2508:. Most importantly, when in 297–3 Rome faced its gravest threat in this period, a coalition of Samnites and Gauls, the 1856:. The answer is probably for reasons of military security. Classified as non-citizens, the Latins served in the allied 1904: 1871:

The post-338 Latin colonies comprised 2,500–6,000 adult male settlers (average 3,700) based on an urban centre with a

2770:(northern Italy) had also been granted citizenship (and the province of Cisalpine Gaul abolished and integrated into 2154:

and the policy-making body, the Senate. There existed Italian precedents for a federal political structure e.g. the

1698:. The reasons for the Romans' ultimate triumph was their superior manpower and political and military organisation. 545:, most likely because the latter benefited equally in the enormous amounts of war booty yielded by these campaigns. 356:

was extended to about 150 other tribes and city-states. When a state was defeated, a part of its territory would be

100: 1485: 1030: 2655: 2196:

were required to supply land troops (both infantry and cavalry), although most of the coastal Greek colonies were

2058: 1750: 1536:

while campaigns against the Aequi and Volsci seem to have reached a turning point with the major Roman victory on

703:

infantry formation and the use of javelins and oblong shields, which were adopted by the Romans at the end of the

663:

Linguistic map of Italy in the sixth century BC. Gallic tribes (in dark blue) had already colonised the region of

580: 437:

Despite the loss of independence and heavy military obligations, the system provided substantial benefits for the

296: 72: 46: 1540:

in 431. In the same period, the Romans fought three wars against their nearest neighbouring Etruscan city-state,

1022: 719:, who had colonised the coastal areas of southern Italy from c. 700 BC onwards, which was known to the Romans as 2103:, the Roman god of war. (Reverse) horse rearing and legend ROMA. Note club on both sides, likely a reference to 1725:

did not end until 338 BC. This demonstrates that the other Latin cities were as martial as Rome itself. Before

851: 843: 728: 654: 518:

remained loyal, motivated primarily by antagonisms with neighbouring rebels. Even after Rome's disaster at the

395: 292: 1069:). Patrician supremacy was assured by limiting eligibility to hold the republican offices to patricians only. 607:

strictly speaking, to which the Romans themselves belonged. These were the inhabitants of Latium Vetus ("Old

79: 3826: 2797: 1741: 1537: 700: 696: 1721:

Eckstein points out that it took 200 years of warfare for Rome to subdue just its Latin neighbours, as the

775:. The most populous were Neapolis, Rhegium and Tarentum, all of which had large, strategic harbours on the 2713: 1074: 687:(actually a league of tribes) who dominated south central Italy. In addition to Latin, these tribes spoke 680: 490:

rebelled against the alliance whenever the opportunity arose. The best opportunities were provided by the

352:

In the fourth century BC, the original Latins were mostly granted Roman citizenship. But the terms of the

53: 2782:, Augustus recruited roughly half his army from these "second-class citizens", into a corps known as the 2737:

The granting of citizenship to Italians did not, however, end the two-class system of Roman citizens and

1981:

from the perpetual intertribal warfare of the pre-hegemonic peninsula. Endemic chaos was replaced by the

922:(an Indo-European language), these were in perpetual conflict over territory with the Greeks of Tarentum. 2771: 2069: 1713:, portrayed as an Etruscan foot warrior and a mounted warrior (mid-sixth century BC. Tomb of the Bulls, 604: 284: 2261:(1971): On the basis of Brunt's comments, Polybius' figures may be revised and reorganised as follows: 2053: 1544:, finally reducing the city in 396. Although the annexation of Veii's territory probably increased the 134: 86: 2246:. The Romans reportedly asked their allies for an urgent register of all "men fit to bear arms" for a 2185:

to Romans in a consular army could vary from 2:1 to 1:1, though it was normally closer to the latter.

2173:

units. For the 250 years between 338 BC and the Social War, legions were always accompanied by allied

1594: 2123:

for their silver currency. They were generally minted for Rome in the Greek cities of S. Italy (esp.

1130: 464: 2485: 2834:

The Campanians registered are included in the Roman total: correctly, as they were Roman citizens (

2484:, the result of which was the subjugation of the Romans' main military rival on the peninsula, the 1701: 1101: 2213:

The Roman and allied levies were kept in separate formations. Roman citizens were assigned to the

1753:, the Samnites were the core of the rebel coalition, and Samnite generals led the Italian forces. 907:), Italic, or Celtic (related to Gaulish). Most likely, they spoke a Celto-Italic hybrid language. 633:

All the Italian allies of Rome, not only the Latin colonies, but also the other non-Latin allies (

68: 3777: 2739: 2709: 2553: 2513: 1848: 903:, southwest of the Gauls. It is unclear whether their language was non Indo-European (related to 554: 2150:. Military and foreign policy lay entirely in the hands of the Roman executive authorities, the 1985:. Each socius' remaining territory was secure from aggression by neighbours. As warfare between 1860:, not the legions. There they could act as loyal "watchdogs" on potentially treacherous Italian 1838:

citizenship (the Romans among them lost their full citizenship). Instead, they were granted the

968: 394:

The Roman confederation had fully evolved by 264 BC and remained for 200 years the basis of the

1588: 479:, but provided around half the total levies. Despite this, allied troops were allowed to share 2691: 2557: 2529: 2041:

Thus the costs and benefits of membership of the confederation were finely balanced. For some

1966:

Incorporation into the Roman military confederation thus entailed significant burdens for the

1773: 1659: 1058: 919: 780: 495: 379: 319: 304: 2504:, respectively. But these were isolated cases and never turned into a general revolt of the 2243: 2230: 2114: 2100: 1995: 1786: 1491: 1113: 1084: 1079: 950: 904: 889: 764: 534: 530: 519: 403: 324: 203: 166: 17: 1935:. Two Latin colonies were founded in the heart of Samnite territory to act as "watchdogs". 1330:. There is a discrepancy in the minimum rating for legionary service between Polybius (400 872:) from c. 390 BC onwards. This region is now part of northern Italy, but until the rule of 2119: 2078: 1765: 1608: 1556: 1026: 955: 937: 792: 708: 623: 538: 918:

peninsula, in SE Italy. Believed from inscriptions to be speakers of a tongue related to

2516:(295), where a huge combined army of Samnites and Gauls suffered a crushing defeat, the 3821: 2767: 2687: 2159: 1864:, while the Romans/original Latins performed the same function in the legions on their 1118: 1096: 1011: 1007: 892:

group of Indo-European languages. Tribal-based territories with some city-like centres.

881: 776: 616: 568: 526:(by population) did not defect and Rome's military alliance was ultimately victorious. 507: 387: 329: 254: 2673:

above, the biggest losers in Rome's territorial expansion. Of the Greek cities of the

1686:

The prevailing explanation for this explosive expansion, as proposed in W. V. Harris'

1425:, two new Magistrates elected at 5-yearly intervals, whose specific job was to hold a 846:, probably the second-largest city in Italy at this time. Other important cities were 314:

served as the basic template for Rome's settlement with the large array of tribes and

3815: 2565: 2198: 1830: 1003: 994:, literally means simply "ruler") was elected for life by the people's assembly (the 834: 533:, Italy was rarely threatened by external invasion (save by the occasional Gallic or 280: 2181:, although, because of variations in the size of the respective units, the ratio of 2142:

that wished to make representations about policy could do so only by dispatching an

1824:(colony), both Roman and Latin. Under Roman law, the lands of a surrendering enemy ( 1576: 2481: 2214: 2177:

on campaign. Usually, a consular army would contain an equal number of legions and

2155: 2151: 2147: 1951: 1746: 1623: 1524: 1451:(mandate) of Consuls and other Magistrates beyond its single year. It appears that 1422: 1415:, a system described as "plebiscitary" by Cornell. This situation changed with the 1054: 1017:

According to Roman tradition, in 616 BC, an Etruscan named Lucumo from the town of

933: 704: 431: 427: 423: 407: 337: 263: 242: 93: 667:. By 400 BC, they had overrun much of the rest of the Po plain in the North, and 486:

The relationship between Rome and the Latin cities remained ambivalent, and many

2747: 1943: 1896: 1381:

could only meet when summoned by a Magistrate. Participants could only vote (by

815: 584: 564: 491: 333: 246: 138: 35: 2206:

was bound to provide, and whether it was proportional to population or wealth.

2005:, though heavy, amounted to only around half that on Roman citizens, since the 1820:(b) Alongside direct annexation, the second vehicle of Roman expansion was the 1519: 514:

tribes, who were Rome's most implacable enemy. At the same time, however, many

2827:

deployed should be stripped out. On the other hand, the figures for specified

2674: 2599: 2162:. But the idea of sharing power with the Latin colonists, let alone the other 2031: 1443: 1417: 1400: 1396: 826: 784: 768: 443: 364:. This was in order that Latin colonies could act as "watchdogs" on the other 342: 315: 2792: 2751: 1939: 1908: 1733:

in 358. It took the Romans a century and four wars (480–390) just to reduce

1730: 1722: 1714: 1561: 1472: 1066: 1046: 1042: 1018: 983: 799: 659: 480: 452: 195: 332:

with its neighbouring Latin city-states shortly after the overthrow of the

1551:

At this juncture, Rome was crushed by an invasion of central Italy by the

1141:

members only. The tribunes could also veto decisions made by the Consuls.

3729: 2775: 2763: 2520:

contingents actually outnumbered the 18,000 Romans (4 legions deployed).

2109: 2104: 2095: 1955: 1932: 1912: 1892: 1790: 1781: 1769: 1710: 1676: 1655: 1639: 1627: 1531:

stone blocks, was built just after Rome was sacked by the Gauls in 390 BC

1107: 1050: 1037: 941: 911: 873: 865: 855: 830: 819: 684: 664: 499: 498:

from 281 to 275 BC, and by the invasion of Italy by Carthaginian general

472: 402:(literally "wings", as confederated troops would always be posted on the 300: 3491:

Based on figures in Polybius II.24, with revisions based on Brunt (1971)

1942:, from Rome to Brundisium via Campania (opened 312 BC). Others were the 579:, including many that had remained steadfast in the past, launching the 2678: 2497: 2493: 2035: 2027: 1947: 1900: 1764:. They retained some of their founders' martial culture. With the best 1757: 1706: 1672: 1664: 1643: 1631: 1599: 1552: 1504: 1387: 1348: 1326:

were allocated to engineers, trumpeters et al., to make a total of 193

1287: 1121:

in Rome. The popular assemblies also had the right to promulgate laws (

1062: 976: 963: 900: 899:, occupying the region known to the Romans (and still called today) as 896: 885: 811: 772: 756: 748: 740: 724: 688: 668: 511: 411: 357: 346: 2462:

This section deals with how successfully the Rome's alliance with the

2855: 2535:

The arrival of Pyrrhus triggered a widespread revolt by the southern

2501: 2124: 1888: 1846:, except that the Latin colonists were technically not citizens, but 1761: 1647: 1635: 1512: 1426: 972: 915: 760: 736: 716: 608: 560: 288: 2233:

in 216 BC, where each Consul commanded an army of about 40,000 men.

2089: 1346:

The table shows that the richest two property classes combined, the

787:

respectively. Tarentum had, until c. 300 BC, been a major power and

3798:

Staveley, E. S. (1989): Rome and Italy in the early 3rd Century in

2839: 2088: 2082: 2068: 2052: 1928: 1915:

and interdicting a potential coalition of these powerful nations.

1700: 1651: 1587: 1581: 1575: 1565: 1518: 1508: 1138: 999: 861: 838: 807: 752: 744: 732: 692: 658: 612: 448: 3719: 2682: 1734: 1541: 1528: 877: 847: 803: 468: 455:. Although no longer in control of war and foreign policy, each 2022:

to service outside Italy, especially in the second century BC.

1780:(the heel of Italy). By around 350 BC, the Tarentine statesman 583:. But, unlike on previous occasions, their aim was to join the 2575: 1548:

by c. 65%, this seems a modest gain for a century of warfare.

837:. These were not a distinct ethnic group, but a mixed Samnite/ 460: 29: 3001:

Based on Polybius VI.19, 20; Livy I.43 and Cornell (1995) 380

2801:) granted citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. 1667:

was established in 273. In the North, the Romans annexed the

1129:, and motions in the Senate could be vetoed by any one of 10 2057:

Map of the Roman confederation in 100 BC, on the eve of the

1580:

Site of a typical Etruscan hill town. Civita di Bagnoregio,

548:

But, beneath the surface, resentment was building among the

1887:

were situated at key geographical points: the coasts (e.g.

1083:) with some legislative power and to elect officers called 233: 227: 218: 212: 184: 181: 175: 3773:

Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War and the Rise of Rome

1671:, a large stretch of plain on the Adriatic coast from the 1607:

The 75-year period between 338 BC and the outbreak of the

1334:) and Livy (1,100). In addition, Polybius states that the 178: 2658:

over a century later, when there was no external threat).

2217:, while the Latin and Italian allies were organised into 1785:

mount's head. The Tarentines' most important cult was to

864:, who had migrated into, and colonised, the plain of the 2169:

The Roman consular army brought together both Roman and

1527:

of Rome, on the Caelian Hill. The wall, made of massive

2568:, each implying the slaughter of at least 5,000 enemy. 587:

as equal citizens, not to secede from it. Although the

1776:-speaking people that occupied what the Romans called 876:

was not regarded as part of Italy at all, but part of

328:("Treaty of Cassius", 493 BC) signed by the fledgling 2602:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are 1619:

who were, however, forced to accept Roman supremacy.

1372:

of knights were summoned first to vote, and then the

410:

holding the centre). 75% of a normal consular army's

345:, as the latter had probably required the payment of 209: 206: 172: 3365: 3363: 3361: 1977:

By far the most important was the liberation of the

1883:

was primarily dictated by strategic considerations.

230: 224: 215: 3018: 3016: 2668:Hannibal won over most of the minor Oscan-speaking 2254:i.e. persons of military age (16–46 years of age). 2065:(pink) are concentrated in the mountainous interior 1622:The expansion phase started with the defeat of the 822:

in the Alpine region. City-states with territories.

245:and formed one of the three legal denominations in 221: 169: 60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3549: 3547: 3545: 510:-speakers of southern Italy, most prominently the 459:remained otherwise fully autonomous, with its own 953:and the currency reform of 211 BC. The sextantal 502:from 218 to 203 BC. During these invasions, many 2859:total land forces the Greek cities could deploy. 2480:Phase I (338–281 BC) was dominated by the three 829:, occupying the fertile plain between the river 271:, who were simultaneously special confederates ( 3563: 3561: 3559: 3517: 3515: 962:According to Roman legend, Rome was founded by 727:. Some of the original Greek colonies (such as 299:, when all peninsular inhabitants south of the 3469: 3467: 3465: 802:, who dominated the region between the rivers 2001:At the same time, the military burden on the 8: 2791:Finally, in AD 212, a decree of the emperor 1705:Etruscan tomb mural depicting the ambush of 1499:acquired over the succeeding two centuries. 1117:(electoral assembly), held each year on the 1091:Political organisation of the Roman Republic 378:, one that would forge a state of perpetual 2445:Campanians were technically Roman citizens 2269:(males 16–46 years) fit for service, 225 BC 2049:Military organisation of the Roman alliance 1958:(Arezzo), and the Via Cassia into Etruria. 884:("Gaul this side of the Alps"). They spoke 645:will refer to groups (2) and (3) combined. 537:horde) and Rome and her allies embarked on 1429:of Roman citizens and their property. The 1399:, and in no sense resembled the role of a 1010:in perpetuity in 44 BC, and indeed of the 287:) but did not coincide with the region of 2622:Learn how and when to remove this message 2512:of the time did not abandon Rome. At the 2458:Historical cohesion of the Roman alliance 2038:) at the start of the Second Punic War). 1150:ANALYSIS OF ROMAN CENTURIATE ORGANISATION 615:, whose inhabitants were speakers of the 120:Learn how and when to remove this message 3746:Briscoe, J. (1989): Second Punic War in 2598:Relevant discussion may be found on the 2263: 1455:could previously be granted only by the 1147: 914:, who occupied the southern part of the 322:. The confederacy had its origin in the 133: 2886: 2818:Revision of Polybius' manpower figures: 2810: 1875:of an average size of 370 km. The 1737:, a single neighbouring Etruscan city. 1630:river, annexing the territories of the 936:" was attributed to the legendary king 630:made up of mixed Roman/Latin colonists. 368:in the allied military formations, the 1688:War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 1025:. He was succeeded by his son-in-law, 611:"), a small region south of the river 349:and not a simple military obligation. 1760:) had been founded by colonists from 1675:Gallic tribe, with a Latin colony at 1395:amounted to no more than a series of 7: 707:. An isolated Italic group were the 58:adding citations to reliable sources 1658:. The years after the departure of 1364:), was allocated just 1 of the 193 649:Ethnic composition of ancient Italy 552:about their second-class status as 406:of the Roman battle-line, with the 3184:Eckstein (2006) 2-4, 118-9, 181 ff 1756:The southern Greek city of Taras ( 1572:Roman conquest of Italy 338–264 BC 927:Background: early Rome (to 338 BC) 810:, still retaining a derived name ( 25: 2820:The following criteria are used: 1895:), the exits to mountain passes ( 1598:coin issued by the Greek city of 241:in English) were confederates of 3832:Military history of ancient Rome 2580: 1479:External relations of early Rome 982:The Roman monarchy, although an 202: 165: 34: 2956:Cornell (1995) 96, 103, 203–209 1385:) for or against propositions ( 279:), derived their name from the 45:needs additional citations for 3292:Cary & Scullard (1984) 104 3274:Cary & Scullard (1984) 102 3220:Livy VII.30.21; X.20.9; X.31.2 2754:during the Sullan civil wars. 2133:Roman army of the mid-Republic 2117:, the Romans used Greek-style 1021:, was elected king of Rome as 695:dialects, all closely related 483:on a 50–50 basis with Romans. 27:Confederates of Roman Republic 1: 2099:c. 225 BC. (Obverse) head of 1899:), major road intersections ( 1111:(voting constituency) at the 529:In the century following the 336:in 510 BC. This provided for 3807:A History of the Roman World 3759:Cary & Scullard (1980): 3265:Cornell (1995) 381 (table 9) 1555:Gallic tribe. Routed at the 1437:In the period following the 1137:, an assembly restricted to 595:Meanings of the term "Latin" 506:joined the invaders, mostly 414:was supplied by the Italian 283:of which Rome was part (the 18:Roman military confederation 3726:(start of first century AD) 1215:Officers/legionary cavalry 1198:Officers/legionary cavalry 3848: 3621:Goldsworthy (2001) 17, 18. 2733:Roman unification of Italy 2695:minor compatriots' revolt. 2488:. The loyalty of the then 2130: 2107:. Until the launch of the 1962:Benefits of Roman hegemony 1797:Pattern of Roman expansion 1031:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus 652: 3800:Cambridge Ancient History 3748:Cambridge Ancient History 3157:Livy VI.2; Polybius II.18 1023:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus 422:provided around half the 3805:Scullard, H. H. (1984): 3792:Goldsworthy, A. (2003): 3786:Goldsworthy, A. (2001): 3771:Eckstein, A. M. (2006): 3328:Scullard (1980) 149–160. 3094:Cornell (1995) 371, 373. 3049:Cornell (1995) 369, 370. 1844:civitates sine suffragio 655:Ancient peoples of Italy 563:out of the patchwork of 522:(216 BC), over half the 396:Roman military structure 293:Roman expansion in Italy 3794:The Complete Roman Army 3765:Cornell, T. J. (1995): 3736:(mid-second century BC) 3585:Livy XXII.32, XXIII.30. 3139:Cornell (1995) 304-309. 2992:Cornell (1995) 226–229. 2871:Capua's rebel senators: 2798:Constitutio Antoniniana 2081:era. (Obverse) head of 1447:, the extension of the 1029:, and then by his son, 880:. The Romans called it 791:(leading power) of the 697:Indo-European languages 3767:The Beginnings of Rome 3576:Livy XXII.61, XXIV.45. 3010:Cornell (1995) 379-80. 2974:Cornell (1995) 141–42. 2947:Cornell (1995) 180–181 2714:Battle of the Metaurus 2712:'s relief army at the 2643:Of the Roman citizens 2128: 2113:c. 211 BC, during the 2086: 2066: 1807:civitas sine suffragio 1718: 1604: 1585: 1532: 1075:Conflict of the Orders 1006:when he was appointed 888:dialects, part of the 672: 253:) along with the core 154: 3753:Brunt, P. A. (1971): 3405:Goldsworthy (2001) 49 3396:Goldsworthy (2000) 53 3175:Eckstein (2006) 132-3 3166:Cornell (1995) 318-22 3112:Cornell (1995) 209-11 2965:Cornell (1995) 119–21 2902:Goldsworthy (2003) 44 2766:, the inhabitants of 2092: 2072: 2056: 1751:Social War (91–88 BC) 1704: 1591: 1579: 1522: 1309:Under 400 (or 1,100) 1279:400 (or 1,100)–2,500 1131:tribunes of the plebs 1085:tribunes of the plebs 662: 297:Social War (91–87 BC) 275:) and semi-citizens ( 141:around 100 BC. Roman 137: 3256:Cornell (1995) 351-2 3238:Eckstein (2006) 151. 2591:factual accuracy is 1516:Neapolis and Velia. 1285:Legionary infantry ( 1041:patrician-dominated 975:(585 hectares, inc. 539:aggressive expansion 465:system of government 295:(509-264 BC) to the 54:improve this article 3702:Briscoe (1989) 74-5 3630:Eckstein (2006) 162 3423:Brunt (1971) 45-60. 3369:Staveley (1989) 426 3337:Staveley (1989) 427 3319:Eckstein (2006) 133 3301:Staveley (1989) 422 3283:Staveley (1989) 421 3247:Cornell (1995) 351. 3229:Eckstein (2006) 141 3211:Eckstein (2006) 138 3148:Cornell )(1995) 320 3121:Cornell (1995) 299. 3103:Cornell (1995) 372. 3040:Cornell (1995) 378. 2893:Cornell (1995) 170. 2271: 2188:In most cases, the 1903:) and river fords ( 1322:N.B. An extra four 1271:Legionary infantry 1257:Legionary infantry 1243:Legionary infantry 1152: 1102:checks and balances 622:The inhabitants of 261:) and the extended 3553:Briscoe (1989) 76. 3509:Cornell (1995) 364 3387:Cornell (1989) 386 3346:Cornell (1989) 383 3130:Cornell (1995) 305 3085:Cornell (1995) 373 3076:Cornell (1995) 269 3058:Cornell (1995) 370 3022:Cornell (1995) 380 2929:Cornell (1995) 198 2911:Cornell (1995) 346 2661:Of Rome's Italian 2514:Battle of Sentinum 2264: 2146:delegation to the 2129: 2087: 2067: 1719: 1605: 1586: 1533: 1229:Legionary cavalry 1192:n.a. (hereditary) 1148: 1114:comitia centuriata 1095:By c. 300 BC, the 673: 494:by the Greek king 310:Treaties known as 155: 3482:Brunt (1971) 50-1 2724:Course of the war 2692:Strait of Messina 2632: 2631: 2624: 2454: 2439: 2438: 2331:Central Italians 2248:tumultus Gallicus 1992:tumultus Gallicus 1343: 1319: 1318: 1315:Fleets (oarsmen) 1302: 1133:, elected by the 1059:Roman magistrates 990:, from root-verb 781:Strait of Messina 492:invasion of Italy 386:and surrendering 380:military alliance 320:Italian peninsula 305:Roman citizenship 130: 129: 122: 104: 16:(Redirected from 3839: 3755:Italian Manpower 3703: 3700: 3694: 3693:Brunt (1971) 422 3691: 3685: 3684:Brunt (1971) 418 3682: 3676: 3673: 3667: 3664: 3658: 3655: 3649: 3646: 3640: 3637: 3631: 3628: 3622: 3619: 3613: 3610: 3604: 3601: 3595: 3592: 3586: 3583: 3577: 3574: 3568: 3565: 3554: 3551: 3540: 3537: 3531: 3528: 3522: 3519: 3510: 3507: 3501: 3498: 3492: 3489: 3483: 3480: 3474: 3471: 3460: 3457: 3451: 3448: 3442: 3439: 3433: 3430: 3424: 3421: 3415: 3412: 3406: 3403: 3397: 3394: 3388: 3385: 3379: 3376: 3370: 3367: 3356: 3353: 3347: 3344: 3338: 3335: 3329: 3326: 3320: 3317: 3311: 3308: 3302: 3299: 3293: 3290: 3284: 3281: 3275: 3272: 3266: 3263: 3257: 3254: 3248: 3245: 3239: 3236: 3230: 3227: 3221: 3218: 3212: 3209: 3203: 3200: 3194: 3191: 3185: 3182: 3176: 3173: 3167: 3164: 3158: 3155: 3149: 3146: 3140: 3137: 3131: 3128: 3122: 3119: 3113: 3110: 3104: 3101: 3095: 3092: 3086: 3083: 3077: 3074: 3068: 3065: 3059: 3056: 3050: 3047: 3041: 3038: 3032: 3029: 3023: 3020: 3011: 3008: 3002: 2999: 2993: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2975: 2972: 2966: 2963: 2957: 2954: 2948: 2945: 2939: 2936: 2930: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2912: 2909: 2903: 2900: 2894: 2891: 2875: 2868: 2862: 2815: 2627: 2620: 2616: 2613: 2607: 2604:reliably sourced 2584: 2583: 2576: 2572:Second Punic War 2552:) and lost two ( 2444: 2404:Lucani, Bruttii 2272: 2259:Italian Manpower 2244:Second Punic War 2231:Battle of Cannae 2115:Second Punic War 1996:conquest of Gaul 1492:Foedus Cassianum 1321: 1300: 1153: 1135:concilium plebis 1080:concilium plebis 951:Second Punic War 531:Second Punic War 520:Battle of Cannae 325:foedus Cassianum 240: 239: 236: 235: 232: 229: 226: 223: 220: 217: 214: 211: 208: 191: 190: 187: 186: 183: 180: 177: 174: 171: 125: 118: 114: 111: 105: 103: 62: 38: 30: 21: 3847: 3846: 3842: 3841: 3840: 3838: 3837: 3836: 3812: 3811: 3778:Goldsworthy, A. 3761:History of Rome 3750:2nd Ed Vol VIII 3743: 3724:Ab Urbe Condita 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3697: 3692: 3688: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3665: 3661: 3656: 3652: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3612:Livy XXIII.7-10 3611: 3607: 3602: 3598: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3566: 3557: 3552: 3543: 3538: 3534: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3486: 3481: 3477: 3472: 3463: 3459:Brunt (1971) 49 3458: 3454: 3449: 3445: 3441:Brunt (1971) 48 3440: 3436: 3432:Brunt (1971) 45 3431: 3427: 3422: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3391: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3341: 3336: 3332: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3310:Staveley (1989) 3309: 3305: 3300: 3296: 3291: 3287: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3255: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3237: 3233: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3201: 3197: 3192: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3170: 3165: 3161: 3156: 3152: 3147: 3143: 3138: 3134: 3129: 3125: 3120: 3116: 3111: 3107: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3021: 3014: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2983:Cornell (1995). 2982: 2978: 2973: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2937: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2901: 2897: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2878: 2869: 2865: 2816: 2812: 2807: 2762:By the time of 2760: 2735: 2726: 2628: 2617: 2611: 2608: 2597: 2589:This section's 2585: 2581: 2574: 2526: 2478: 2460: 2303:Latin colonies 2239: 2135: 2079:First Punic war 2051: 1964: 1799: 1766:natural harbour 1609:First Punic War 1574: 1481: 1467:of ex-Consuls ( 1209:rating unknown 1180: 1173: 1160: 1159:Property Rating 1093: 1053:, later called 1027:Servius Tullius 996:comitia curiata 938:Servius Tullius 929: 793:Italiote league 657: 651: 597: 418:. Although the 205: 201: 192:in English) or 168: 164: 126: 115: 109: 106: 63: 61: 51: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3845: 3843: 3835: 3834: 3829: 3827:Roman Republic 3824: 3814: 3813: 3810: 3809: 3803: 3802:2nd Ed Vol VII 3796: 3790: 3784: 3775: 3769: 3763: 3757: 3751: 3742: 3739: 3738: 3737: 3727: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3704: 3695: 3686: 3677: 3668: 3659: 3650: 3641: 3632: 3623: 3614: 3605: 3603:Livy XXIII.2-4 3596: 3587: 3578: 3569: 3555: 3541: 3532: 3523: 3511: 3502: 3493: 3484: 3475: 3461: 3452: 3443: 3434: 3425: 3416: 3414:Polybius II.24 3407: 3398: 3389: 3380: 3371: 3357: 3348: 3339: 3330: 3321: 3312: 3303: 3294: 3285: 3276: 3267: 3258: 3249: 3240: 3231: 3222: 3213: 3204: 3202:Polybius I.6.6 3195: 3186: 3177: 3168: 3159: 3150: 3141: 3132: 3123: 3114: 3105: 3096: 3087: 3078: 3069: 3067:Polybius VI.13 3060: 3051: 3042: 3033: 3024: 3012: 3003: 2994: 2985: 2976: 2967: 2958: 2949: 2940: 2931: 2922: 2913: 2904: 2895: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2877: 2876: 2863: 2861: 2860: 2847: 2844: 2836:sine suffragio 2832: 2809: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2768:Cisalpine Gaul 2759: 2758:Imperial times 2756: 2734: 2731: 2725: 2722: 2697: 2696: 2688:Tyrrhenian Sea 2666: 2659: 2648: 2645:sine suffragio 2630: 2629: 2588: 2586: 2579: 2573: 2570: 2525: 2522: 2486:Samnite league 2477: 2474: 2459: 2456: 2447:sine suffragio 2437: 2436: 2431: 2426: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2400: 2397: 2394: 2391: 2387: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2377: 2373: 2372: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2356: 2355: 2352: 2349: 2346: 2342: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2332: 2328: 2327: 2324: 2321: 2318: 2314: 2313: 2310: 2307: 2304: 2300: 2299: 2296: 2293: 2290: 2286: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2276: 2238: 2235: 2160:Samnite League 2131:Main article: 2050: 2047: 1963: 1960: 1866:sine suffragio 1854:sine suffragio 1815:sine suffragio 1798: 1795: 1692:terrores multi 1573: 1570: 1489:treaty called 1480: 1477: 1317: 1316: 1313: 1310: 1307: 1293: 1292: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1273: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1263: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1245: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1235: 1231: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1217: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1200: 1199: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1183: 1182: 1177: 1170: 1157: 1097:Roman Republic 1092: 1089: 1012:Roman emperors 928: 925: 924: 923: 908: 893: 882:Cisalpine Gaul 870:pianura padana 858: 823: 796: 739:, Poseidonia ( 713: 653:Main article: 650: 647: 639: 638: 631: 624:Latin colonies 620: 617:Latin language 596: 593: 388:foreign policy 338:mutual defence 334:Roman monarchy 330:Roman republic 255:Roman citizens 128: 127: 42: 40: 33: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3844: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3819: 3817: 3808: 3804: 3801: 3797: 3795: 3791: 3789: 3785: 3783: 3782:Roman Warfare 3779: 3776: 3774: 3770: 3768: 3764: 3762: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3749: 3745: 3744: 3740: 3735: 3731: 3728: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3699: 3696: 3690: 3687: 3681: 3678: 3675:Livy XXIII.41 3672: 3669: 3666:Livy XXVII.49 3663: 3660: 3654: 3651: 3645: 3642: 3639:Livy XXV.8-11 3636: 3633: 3627: 3624: 3618: 3615: 3609: 3606: 3600: 3597: 3594:Livy XXIII.15 3591: 3588: 3582: 3579: 3573: 3570: 3567:Livy XXII.61. 3564: 3562: 3560: 3556: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3542: 3536: 3533: 3527: 3524: 3518: 3516: 3512: 3506: 3503: 3497: 3494: 3488: 3485: 3479: 3476: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3462: 3456: 3453: 3447: 3444: 3438: 3435: 3429: 3426: 3420: 3417: 3411: 3408: 3402: 3399: 3393: 3390: 3384: 3381: 3378:Livy XXIII.22 3375: 3372: 3366: 3364: 3362: 3358: 3352: 3349: 3343: 3340: 3334: 3331: 3325: 3322: 3316: 3313: 3307: 3304: 3298: 3295: 3289: 3286: 3280: 3277: 3271: 3268: 3262: 3259: 3253: 3250: 3244: 3241: 3235: 3232: 3226: 3223: 3217: 3214: 3208: 3205: 3199: 3196: 3193:Livy VII.9-10 3190: 3187: 3181: 3178: 3172: 3169: 3163: 3160: 3154: 3151: 3145: 3142: 3136: 3133: 3127: 3124: 3118: 3115: 3109: 3106: 3100: 3097: 3091: 3088: 3082: 3079: 3073: 3070: 3064: 3061: 3055: 3052: 3046: 3043: 3037: 3034: 3028: 3025: 3019: 3017: 3013: 3007: 3004: 2998: 2995: 2989: 2986: 2980: 2977: 2971: 2968: 2962: 2959: 2953: 2950: 2944: 2941: 2935: 2932: 2926: 2923: 2917: 2914: 2908: 2905: 2899: 2896: 2890: 2887: 2881: 2872: 2867: 2864: 2857: 2853: 2852:socii navales 2848: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2821: 2819: 2814: 2811: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2799: 2794: 2789: 2787: 2786: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2757: 2755: 2753: 2749: 2744: 2742: 2741: 2732: 2730: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2715: 2711: 2705: 2701: 2693: 2689: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2667: 2664: 2660: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2646: 2642: 2641: 2640: 2638: 2626: 2623: 2615: 2605: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2587: 2578: 2577: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2533: 2531: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2475: 2473: 2470: 2465: 2457: 2455: 2452: 2448: 2443: 2435: 2432: 2430: 2427: 2425: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2416: 2412: 2409: 2406: 2403: 2402: 2398: 2395: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2374: 2370: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2358: 2357: 2353: 2350: 2347: 2344: 2343: 2339: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2325: 2322: 2319: 2316: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2305: 2302: 2301: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2288: 2287: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2274: 2273: 2270: 2268: 2262: 2260: 2255: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2236: 2234: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2211: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2200: 2199:socii navales 2195: 2191: 2186: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2167: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2134: 2126: 2122: 2121: 2116: 2112: 2111: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2097: 2093:Roman silver 2091: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2073:Roman copper 2071: 2064: 2060: 2055: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2023: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1997: 1993: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1975: 1973: 1969: 1961: 1959: 1957: 1954:from Rome to 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1934: 1930: 1924: 1921: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1835: 1833: 1832: 1831:ager publicus 1827: 1823: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1803: 1796: 1794: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1754: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1703: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1669:ager Gallicus 1666: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1620: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1601: 1597: 1596: 1590: 1583: 1578: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1554: 1549: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1538:Mount Algidus 1530: 1526: 1521: 1517: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1493: 1487: 1478: 1476: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1461: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1389: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1350: 1344: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1298: 1295: 1294: 1290: 1289: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1242: 1239: 1237:7,500–10,000 1236: 1233: 1232: 1228: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1218: 1214: 1211: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1201: 1197: 1194: 1191: 1189:(patricians) 1188: 1185: 1184: 1178: 1176: 1171: 1169:after 211 BC) 1168: 1164: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1151: 1146: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1119:Field of Mars 1116: 1115: 1110: 1109: 1103: 1098: 1090: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1015: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1004:Julius Caesar 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 980: 978: 974: 970: 965: 960: 958: 957: 952: 947: 943: 939: 935: 926: 921: 917: 913: 909: 906: 902: 898: 894: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 859: 857: 853: 849: 845: 840: 836: 835:bay of Naples 832: 828: 824: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 721:Magna Graecia 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 677: 676: 670: 666: 661: 656: 648: 646: 644: 636: 632: 629: 626:. These were 625: 621: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 601: 600: 594: 592: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 557: 556: 551: 546: 544: 540: 536: 532: 527: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 484: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 445: 440: 435: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 408:Roman legions 405: 401: 397: 392: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 372: 367: 363: 359: 355: 350: 348: 344: 343:Tarquin kings 339: 335: 331: 327: 326: 321: 318:of the whole 317: 313: 308: 306: 303:were awarded 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 281:Italic people 278: 274: 270: 266: 265: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 238: 199: 198: 197: 189: 162: 161: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 124: 121: 113: 102: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 81: 78: 74: 71: – 70: 66: 65:Find sources: 59: 55: 49: 48: 43:This article 41: 37: 32: 31: 19: 3806: 3799: 3793: 3787: 3781: 3772: 3766: 3760: 3754: 3747: 3733: 3723: 3698: 3689: 3680: 3671: 3662: 3657:Brunt (1971) 3653: 3644: 3635: 3626: 3617: 3608: 3599: 3590: 3581: 3572: 3539:Livy XXVII.9 3535: 3530:Livy XXII.7. 3526: 3521:Livy XXIII.6 3505: 3496: 3487: 3478: 3455: 3450:Livy XXIII.5 3446: 3437: 3428: 3419: 3410: 3401: 3392: 3383: 3374: 3351: 3342: 3333: 3324: 3315: 3306: 3297: 3288: 3279: 3270: 3261: 3252: 3243: 3234: 3225: 3216: 3207: 3198: 3189: 3180: 3171: 3162: 3153: 3144: 3135: 3126: 3117: 3108: 3099: 3090: 3081: 3072: 3063: 3054: 3045: 3036: 3027: 3006: 2997: 2988: 2979: 2970: 2961: 2952: 2943: 2934: 2925: 2916: 2907: 2898: 2889: 2870: 2866: 2851: 2835: 2828: 2824: 2817: 2813: 2796: 2790: 2783: 2779: 2761: 2748:Roman tribes 2745: 2738: 2736: 2727: 2718: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2669: 2662: 2651: 2644: 2636: 2633: 2618: 2609: 2590: 2561: 2546: 2540: 2536: 2534: 2527: 2517: 2509: 2505: 2489: 2482:Samnite Wars 2479: 2476:Samnite Wars 2468: 2463: 2461: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2440: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2360: 2266: 2265: 2258: 2256: 2251: 2247: 2240: 2229:e.g. at the 2226: 2222: 2218: 2212: 2208: 2203: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2187: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2168: 2163: 2156:Latin League 2148:Roman Senate 2143: 2139: 2136: 2118: 2108: 2094: 2077:coin of the 2074: 2062: 2042: 2040: 2024: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2006: 2002: 2000: 1991: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1976: 1971: 1967: 1965: 1952:Via Flaminia 1937: 1925: 1919: 1917: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1870: 1868:colleagues. 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1836: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1819: 1814: 1811:ager Romanus 1810: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1777: 1755: 1747:Samnite wars 1739: 1726: 1720: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1685: 1680: 1668: 1624:Latin League 1621: 1616: 1613:ager Romanus 1612: 1606: 1593: 1550: 1546:ager Romanus 1545: 1534: 1525:Servian Wall 1523:Gate in the 1501: 1496: 1490: 1482: 1468: 1464: 1462: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1442: 1438: 1436: 1430: 1416: 1412: 1407: 1405: 1392: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1360:, under 400 1357: 1353: 1347: 1345: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1320: 1304:capite censi 1303: 1296: 1286: 1265:2,500–5,000 1251:5,000–7,500 1203: 1186: 1174: 1166: 1162: 1149: 1143: 1134: 1126: 1122: 1112: 1106: 1094: 1078: 1071: 1035: 1016: 995: 991: 987: 981: 967:discredited 961: 954: 945: 934:Servian Wall 930: 869: 788: 720: 705:Samnite Wars 674: 642: 640: 634: 627: 598: 588: 576: 572: 553: 549: 547: 542: 528: 523: 515: 503: 487: 485: 476: 456: 442: 438: 436: 432:Roman Senate 419: 415: 399: 393: 383: 375: 369: 365: 361: 353: 351: 323: 311: 309: 277:Cives Latini 276: 273:Socii Latini 272: 268: 262: 259:Cives Romani 258: 250: 194: 193: 159: 158: 156: 150: 146: 142: 131: 116: 107: 97: 90: 83: 76: 64: 52:Please help 47:verification 44: 3648:Livy XXX.20 3473:Livy XXIV.2 2524:Pyrrhic War 1944:Via Salaria 1897:Alba Fucens 1877:territorium 1873:territorium 1840:iura Latina 1557:river Allia 1397:referendums 816:Roman kings 605:Latin tribe 585:Roman state 565:ethnicities 316:city-states 247:Roman Italy 139:Roman Italy 3816:Categories 3709:References 2938:Livy VI.32 2675:Ionian Sea 2656:Social War 2612:March 2018 2550:Beneventum 2359:Campanians 2317:Etruscans 2275:Contingent 2059:Social War 2032:Metapontum 2026:cities of 1983:pax Romana 1727:pax Romana 1696:pax Romana 1469:consulares 1453:prorogatio 1444:prorogatio 1439:Lex Ovinia 1431:Lex Ovinia 1418:Lex Ovinia 1401:parliament 1388:rogationes 1358:proletarii 1336:proletarii 1297:Proletarii 1206:(knights) 969:A. Alfoldi 942:centuriate 827:Campanians 785:Ionian Sea 777:Tyrrhenian 769:Metapontum 581:Social War 444:pax Romana 153:in orange. 145:in green, 110:March 2023 80:newspapers 3734:Histories 3500:Livy X.30 3031:Livy I.43 2920:Livy VI.1 2882:Citations 2793:Caracalla 2752:Populares 2740:peregrini 2729:revolt). 2710:Hasdrubal 2600:talk page 2376:Apulians 2345:Samnites 2075:aes grave 1940:Via Appia 1911:from the 1909:Etruscans 1905:Interamna 1849:peregrini 1826:dediticii 1742:manipular 1731:Tarquinii 1723:Latin War 1715:Tarquinia 1562:Praeneste 1473:oligarchy 1374:centuriae 1370:centuriae 1366:centuriae 1354:centuriae 1328:centuriae 1324:centuriae 1223:10,000–? 1175:centuriae 1067:Quaestors 1065:and four 1061:: (three 1047:plebeians 1043:oligarchy 1019:Tarquinii 984:autocracy 946:centuriae 897:Ligurians 800:Etruscans 701:manipular 575:rebelled 555:peregrini 481:war booty 453:Po Valley 451:from the 196:foederati 3780:(2000): 3730:Polybius 3355:Staveley 2776:Tiberius 2764:Augustus 2593:disputed 2566:triumphs 2554:Heraclea 2298:231,000 2292:213,000 2278:Infantry 2267:Iuniores 2252:iuniores 2237:Manpower 2158:and the 2125:Neapolis 2120:drachmae 2110:denarius 2105:Hercules 2096:didrachm 2028:Tarentum 1998:itself. 1956:Arretium 1933:Paeligni 1913:Samnites 1893:Ariminum 1885:Coloniae 1791:Augustus 1782:Archytas 1778:Calabria 1774:Illyrian 1770:Messapii 1758:Tarentum 1717:, Italy) 1711:Achilles 1677:Ariminum 1656:Picentes 1640:Sidicini 1628:Volturno 1603:Tarentum 1600:Tarentum 1449:imperium 1383:centuria 1362:drachmae 1340:drachmae 1332:drachmae 1187:Patricii 1181:service 1179:Military 1163:drachmae 1139:plebeian 1108:centuria 1051:Praetors 1038:Lucretia 1008:dictator 920:Illyrian 912:Messapii 874:Augustus 856:Suessula 833:and the 831:Volturno 820:Raetians 783:and the 773:Tarentum 765:Heraclea 737:Neapolis 685:Samnites 665:Piedmont 628:coloniae 577:en masse 535:Germanic 500:Hannibal 473:language 430:and the 301:Po river 149:in red, 3714:Ancient 2785:auxilia 2679:citadel 2558:Asculum 2530:Pyrrhus 2498:Hernici 2494:Aurunci 2434:671,000 2424:615,000 2413:48,000 2407:45,000 2399:34,000 2393:30,000 2390:Greeks 2385:56,000 2379:50,000 2371:42,000 2365:37,000 2354:77,000 2348:70,000 2340:44,000 2334:40,000 2326:54,000 2320:50,000 2312:85,000 2306:80,000 2295:18,000 2289:Romans 2281:Cavalry 2215:legions 2190:socius' 2152:Consuls 2036:Rhegium 1948:Picenum 1901:Venusia 1881:colonia 1822:colonia 1707:Troilus 1673:Senones 1665:Paestum 1660:Pyrrhus 1644:Hernici 1632:Aurunci 1592:Silver 1584:, Italy 1553:Senones 1505:Sabines 1486:Tarquin 1457:comitia 1423:Censors 1413:comitia 1411:of the 1393:comitia 1379:comitia 1349:equites 1288:velites 1262:Fourth 1234:Second 1204:Equites 1167:denarii 1063:Aediles 1055:Consuls 977:Piraeus 964:Romulus 916:Apulian 905:Iberian 901:Liguria 886:Gaulish 868:river ( 852:Acerrae 839:Opician 812:Tuscany 789:hegemon 749:Rhegium 741:Paestum 725:trireme 712:Venice. 689:Umbrian 669:Gaulish 512:Samnite 496:Pyrrhus 469:coinage 428:consuls 412:cavalry 358:annexed 347:tribute 94:scholar 69:"Socii" 3788:Cannae 3741:Modern 2856:Strabo 2772:Italia 2683:Arpini 2502:Piceni 2500:, and 2449:, not 2429:56,000 2410:3,000 2396:4,000 2382:6,000 2368:5,000 2351:7,000 2337:4,000 2323:4,000 2309:5,000 2284:Total 2204:socius 2144:ad hoc 2140:socius 1968:socius 1950:, the 1889:Antium 1762:Sparta 1648:Sabini 1636:Volsci 1513:Volsci 1465:clique 1427:census 1408:ad hoc 1301:a.k.a. 1276:Fifth 1248:Third 1220:First 992:regere 973:Athens 890:Celtic 779:, the 761:Thurii 757:Croton 717:Greeks 709:Veneti 681:Italic 609:Latium 571:. The 569:states 561:nation 457:socius 424:levies 404:flanks 376:foedus 354:foedus 312:foedus 289:Latium 285:Latins 269:Latini 267:. The 264:Latini 251:Italia 147:Latini 96: 89: 82: 75: 67: 3822:Socii 2840:Varro 2829:socii 2825:socii 2805:Notes 2795:(the 2780:socii 2670:socii 2663:socii 2652:socii 2637:socii 2562:socii 2541:socii 2537:socii 2518:socii 2510:socii 2506:socii 2490:socii 2469:socii 2464:socii 2451:socii 2419:Total 2194:socii 2183:socii 2171:socii 2164:socii 2083:Janus 2063:socii 2043:socii 2020:socii 2016:socii 2012:socii 2007:socii 2003:socii 1987:socii 1979:socii 1972:socii 1929:Marsi 1920:socii 1862:socii 1772:, an 1681:socii 1652:Aequi 1617:socii 1595:nomos 1582:Lazio 1566:Tibur 1509:Aequi 1497:socii 1156:Class 1127:leges 1123:leges 1000:caste 862:Gauls 844:Capua 808:Tiber 753:Locri 745:Velia 733:Cumae 729:Capua 693:Oscan 643:Socii 635:socii 613:Tiber 589:socii 573:socii 550:socii 543:socii 524:socii 516:socii 508:Oscan 504:socii 488:socii 477:socii 449:Gauls 439:socii 420:socii 416:socii 384:socii 366:socii 362:socii 160:socii 151:Socii 143:Cives 101:JSTOR 87:books 3720:Livy 2556:and 2227:alae 2223:alae 2219:alae 2179:alae 2175:alae 2101:Mars 2034:and 1931:and 1858:alae 1787:Nike 1735:Veii 1654:and 1564:and 1542:Veii 1529:tufa 1511:and 910:The 895:The 878:Gaul 860:The 848:Nola 825:The 806:and 804:Arno 798:The 771:and 731:and 715:The 691:and 679:The 603:The 567:and 471:and 461:laws 400:alae 371:alae 243:Rome 157:The 73:news 1946:to 1709:by 1282:30 1268:20 1254:20 1240:20 1226:80 1212:12 1172:No. 988:rex 743:), 56:by 3818:: 3732:, 3722:, 3558:^ 3544:^ 3514:^ 3464:^ 3360:^ 3015:^ 2496:, 2030:, 1974:. 1891:, 1793:. 1683:. 1650:, 1646:, 1638:, 1634:, 1507:, 1403:. 1312:1 1306:) 1291:) 1195:6 1165:: 1014:. 956:as 866:Po 854:, 850:, 767:, 763:, 759:, 755:, 751:, 747:, 637:). 467:, 463:, 434:. 307:. 234:aɪ 228:eɪ 185:aɪ 176:oʊ 2625:) 2619:( 2614:) 2610:( 2606:. 2596:. 2548:( 2453:. 2442:* 2361:* 2127:) 1299:( 1161:( 619:. 257:( 249:( 237:/ 231:t 225:r 222:ˈ 219:ə 216:d 213:ɛ 210:f 207:ˌ 204:/ 200:( 188:/ 182:i 179:ʃ 173:s 170:ˈ 167:/ 163:( 123:) 117:( 112:) 108:( 98:· 91:· 84:· 77:· 50:. 20:)

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