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receiving a massage and resting), required separated rooms which the Romans built to accommodate those functions. The segregation of the sexes and the additions of diversions not directly related to bathing also directly impacted the shape and form of bathhouses. The elaborate Roman bathing ritual and its resultant architecture served as precedents for later
European and American bathing facilities. Formal garden spaces and opulent architectural arrangement equal to those of the Romans reappeared in Europe by the end of the eighteenth century. Major American spas followed suit a century later.
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151:, the Romans had enough water not only for domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses but also for their leisurely pursuits. Aqueducts provided water that was later heated for use in the baths. Today, the extent of the Roman bath is revealed at ruins and in archaeological excavations in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
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There were many activities that occurred in a Roman bathing complex that differ from modern conceptions of bathing. It was common for the people of
Ancient Rome to spend a lot of time at the baths because of all of the different aspects to the complex, but it is unclear whether or not it was required
125:
Greek mythology specified that certain natural springs or tidal pools were blessed by the gods to cure disease. Around these sacred pools, Greeks established bathing facilities for those desiring to heal. Supplicants left offerings to the gods for healing at these sites and bathed themselves in hopes
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provided spaces for exercise and athletic competitions. Inside the bathhouses proper, marble mosaics tiled the elegant floors. The stuccoed walls frequently sported frescoes of trees, birds, and other pastoral images. Sky-blue paint, gold stars, and celestial imagery adorned interior domes. Statuary
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developed a primitive steam bath. At
Serangeum, an early Greek balneum (bathhouse, loosely translated), bathing chambers were cut into the hillside into the rock above the chambers held bathers' clothing. One of the bathing chambers had a decorative mosaic floor depicting a driver and chariot pulled
45:
played a major part in ancient Roman culture and society. It was one of the most common daily activities and was practised across a wide variety of social classes. Though many contemporary cultures see bathing as a very private activity conducted in the home, bathing in Rome was a communal activity.
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One major component of a visit to the baths was working out and building athleticism. In Roman baths, there was often a palaestra, an outdoor courtyard surrounded by columns, which bathers would utilize like a modern day gym. Some activities that would occur in the palaestra included boxing, discus
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Inside the baths, visitors were usually completely nude, thus removing the indications of class difference usually found in clothing. At times throughout the empire, it was even common for women and men to bathe together at the same time, although there are other indications of separate facilities
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The layout of Roman baths contained other architectural features of note. Because wealthy Romans brought slaves to attend to their bathing needs, the bathhouse usually had three entrances: one for men, one for women, and one for slaves. The symmetry preference in Roman architecture usually meant a
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These Roman baths varied from simple to exceedingly elaborate structures, and they varied in size, arrangement, and decoration. Many historians construct a specific path which bathers would have taken through a Roman bath, but there is no fixed evidence that confirms any of these theories or that
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by four horses, a woman followed by two dogs, and a dolphin below. Thus, the early Greeks used natural features, but expanded them and added their own amenities, such as decorations and shelves. During the later Greek civilization, bathhouses were often built in conjunction with athletic fields.
408:. Initially a common Greek practice, this athletic competition in daily life became widespread in the Roman world. Another important aspect of a visit to the baths was the ritual of cleaning the body. This was done using oil rubbed into the skin of a bather which would then be scraped off with a
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Thus, the Romans elevated bathing to fine art, and their bathhouses physically reflected these advancements. The Roman bath, for instance, included a far more complex ritual than a simple immersion or sweating procedure. The various parts of the bathing ritual (undressing, bathing, sweating,
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symmetrical facade, even though the women's area was usually smaller than the men's because of fewer patrons. Usually, solid walls or placement on opposite sides of the building separated the men's and women's sections. Roman bathhouses often contained a courtyard, or
211:(cold room) with its tank of cold water. The caldarium, heated by a brazier underneath the hollow floor, contained cold-water basins which the bather could use for cooling. After taking this series of sweat and/or immersion baths, the bather returned to the cooler
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Roman bathhouses offered amenities in addition to the bathing ritual. Ancillary spaces in the bathhouse proper housed food and perfume-selling booths, libraries, and reading rooms. Stages accommodated theatrical and musical performances. Adjacent
63:
Although the wealthiest Romans might set up a bath in their townhouses or their country villas, heating a series of rooms or even a separate building especially for this purpose, and soldiers might have a bathhouse provided at their fort (as at
122:, Crete, and the luxurious alabaster bathtubs excavated in Akrotiri, Santorini; both date from the mid-2nd millennium BC. They established public baths and showers within their gymnasium complexes for relaxation and personal hygiene.
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for a person to spend this much time at every visit to the baths. The process of going to the baths could be described as a cross between working out at the gym, going to the spa, meeting friends for social activities, and bathing.
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The Romans emulated many of the Greeks' bathing practices and surpassed them in the size of their baths. As in Greece, the Roman bath became a focal center for social and recreational activity. With the expansion of the
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Such was the importance of baths to Romans that a catalogue of buildings in Rome from 354 AD documented 952 baths of varying sizes in the city. Public baths became common throughout the empire as a symbol of
60:" or a way to define themselves as Roman. They were some of the most common and most important public buildings in the empire as some of the first buildings built after the empire would conquer a new area.
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As a social arena, the baths were often used to convene with those of a higher social status. Because both wealthy and poor Romans went to the baths, there was great opportunity for a client to talk to a
412:, a metal scraper with a dull blade and a handle. They believed that the oil would absorb the dirt on a person's body and encourage sweating that would lead to unclogged pores and better general health.
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While the baths were enjoyed by almost every Roman, some criticized them. The water was not renewed often and the remains of oil, dirt or even excrement were kept warm, providing a milieu for bacteria.
278:, but there is evidence it wasn't. To many Roman moralists, baths illustrated how far the Rome of their own day had fallen into decline and so became a negative image; Cato the Elder publicly attacked
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that formed the foundation for modern spa procedures. These Aegean people utilized small bathtubs, washbasins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness. The earliest such findings are the baths in the
193:— a room just inside the entrance where the bather stored their clothes. This would often be the first room somebody visiting the baths would enter. Next, the bather progressed into the
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52:). In some ways, these resembled modern-day destination spas as there were facilities for a variety of activities from exercising to sunbathing to swimming and massage.
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While the extremely wealthy could afford bathing facilities in their homes, private baths were very uncommon, and most people bathed in the communal baths (
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351:, among other locations. These baths became centers for recreational and social activities in Roman communities. Libraries, lecture halls, gymnasiums, and
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an interior courtyard, and in other cases, they placed it in front of the bathhouse proper and incorporated it into the formal approach. Sometimes the
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can corrupt our bodies, but baths, wine, and sex make life worth living"), epitaph of
Tiberius Claudius Secundus, CIL VI.15258, Rome, 1st C.)
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The Romans also constructed baths in their colonies, taking advantage of the natural hot springs occurring in North Africa, such as the
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147:, the idea of the public bath spread to all parts of the Mediterranean and into regions of Europe and North Africa. By constructing
87:), might be privately owned, while they were public in the sense that they were open to the populace for a fee. Larger baths called
846:"Such as bathing appears to thee, oil, sweat, dirt, filthy water, all things disgusting, so is every part of life and everything."
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95:, could hold up to 3,000 bathers. Fees for both types of baths were quite reasonable, within the budget of most free Roman males.
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there even was a specific order to bathing practices. However, one of the most commonly interpreted sequences is shown next.
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became part of some bath complexes. In addition, the Romans used the hot thermal waters to relieve their suffering from
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There is little to no evidence that bathhouses originated in Greece at all or even a public washing area or fountains.
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Some of the earliest descriptions of western bathing practices came from Greece. The Greeks began bathing
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Republican bathhouses often had separate bathing facilities for women and men, but by the 1st century AD
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throwing, weight lifting, and wrestling–activities which are all depicted in mosaics from baths in
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Out of the Vapors: A Social and
Architectural History of Bathhouse Row, Hot Springs National Park
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were instead about the associated noise that interrupted his work when he resided above a bath.
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balnea vina Venus / corrupt corpora / nostra se<t> Vitam faciunt / balnea vina Venus
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were owned by the state and often covered several city blocks. The largest of these, the
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for a massage with oils and final scraping with metal implements called
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A bronze strigil used to scrape oil and sweat off the body of a bather
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818:. 8th International Toy Research Association World Conference. Paris.
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Women In Roman Baths* Roy Bowen Ward Miami
University, Oxford, Ohio
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536:. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
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Roman
Passions : a History of Pleasure in Imperial Rome
464:. In fact, several tombstones from across the empire claim:
274:. However, gender separation might have been restored by
762:"Roman Baths: An Alternate Mode of Viewing the Evidence"
311:, as well as in Europe where they constructed baths at
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was common and is a practice frequently referred to in
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Hoops and Coming of Age in Greek and Roman
Antiquity
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The fires of
Vesuvius : Pompeii lost and found
291:and fountains decorated the interior and exterior.
670:Paige, John C; Laura Woulliere Harrison (1987).
938:ThermeMuseum (Museum of the Thermae) in Heerlen
943:The Economy of Prostitution in the Roman World
710:Daily life in ancient Rome : a sourcebook
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205:(hot room) for a steam, and finally into the
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898:. Hackett Publishing Company. p. 256.
741:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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636:"Ancient Mediterranean Baths and Bathing"
895:Daily Life In Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook
363:, and overindulgence in food and drink.
713:. Brian K. Harvey. Indianapolis. 2016.
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428:Social concerns about bathing practices
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383:The palaestra at the Stabian Baths in
571:. London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC.
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243:held a swimming pool. Most often a
679:. U.S. Department of the Interior.
481:The objections of the philosopher
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456:complained about the dirtiness.
420:or try and get an invitation to
812:Dasen, VĂ©ronique (2018-07-11).
609:Etruscan and Roman architecture
282:for his use of the bathhouses.
27:Custom of ancient Roman society
219:. Some baths also contained a
1:
924:, chapter 1, Robert C. Knapp.
910:Epistulae morales ad Lucilium
163:Central Thermae (Herculaneum)
1543:Frontiers and fortifications
299:Roman baths in Bath, England
1602:Decorations and punishments
199:(warm room), then into the
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2509:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
1084:historiography of the fall
611:. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
495:Legacy of the Roman Empire
2890:External wars and battles
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760:Henderson, Tanya (2007).
120:palace complex at Knossos
79:Small bathhouses, called
441:, a medical treatise by
187:Most baths contained an
176:in the Forum Thermae at
2885:Roman–Iranian relations
1360:Optimates and populares
892:Brian K Harvey (2016).
500:Victorian Turkish baths
371:Roman bathing practices
2895:Civil wars and revolts
2161:Sextus Pompeius Festus
1808:Conflict of the Orders
1167:Legislative assemblies
880:Aulus Cornelius Celsus
565:Laurence, Ray (2009).
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745:) CS1 maint: others (
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2381:Sidonius Apollinaris
2071:Ammianus Marcellinus
1410:Tribune of the plebs
530:Beard, Mary (2008).
2916:Ancient Roman baths
2790:Distinguished women
2441:Velleius Paterculus
2281:Nicolaus Damascenus
2261:Marcellus Empiricus
1650:Republican currency
605:Ward-Perkins, J. B.
392:for women and men.
93:Baths of Diocletian
2564:Phlegon of Tralles
2371:Seneca the Younger
1845:Naming conventions
1575:Personal equipment
1108:Later Roman Empire
918:Seneca the Younger
860:. Quoted in Knapp.
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109:Baths of Caracalla
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2326:Pliny the Younger
2081:Asconius Pedianus
2041:Romance languages
1913:Civil engineering
1655:Imperial currency
1528:Political control
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1488:
1123:
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720:978-1-58510-795-7
578:978-1-4411-0339-0
543:978-0-674-02976-7
309:Hammam Essalihine
16:(Redirected from
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2855:Magistri equitum
2770:Cities and towns
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2689:Constantinopolis
2499:Diodorus Siculus
2431:Valerius Maximus
2366:Seneca the Elder
2286:Nonius Marcellus
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1607:Hippika gymnasia
1570:Infantry tactics
1476:Consular tribune
1466:Magister equitum
1415:Military tribune
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1335:Princeps senatus
1325:Magister militum
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2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2066:Aelius Donatus
2062:
2060:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2034:Ecclesiastical
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1988:
1983:
1977:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1889:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1878:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1836:
1835:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1794:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1783:
1782:
1777:
1775:Toys and games
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1746:
1745:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1669:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1621:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1557:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1499:
1497:
1491:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1484:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1440:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1386:
1384:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1315:Vigintisexviri
1312:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1275:Cursus honorum
1272:
1267:
1261:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1213:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1202:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1133:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1098:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1074:Western Empire
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1050:
1048:
1042:
1041:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1021:
1015:
1009:
1003:
1002:
1000:
999:
994:
988:
985:
984:
978:
976:
975:
968:
961:
953:
947:
946:
940:
933:
930:
927:
926:
901:
884:
862:
839:
821:
801:
766:Past Imperfect
752:
719:
691:
682:
651:
624:
617:
601:Boëthius, Axel
592:
577:
557:
542:
510:
509:
507:
504:
503:
502:
497:
490:
487:
429:
426:
372:
369:
353:formal gardens
165:– men's sector
139:
136:
100:
97:
70:Hadrian's Wall
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2928:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2765:
2756:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2221:Julius Paulus
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2156:Fabius Pictor
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1893:Amphitheatres
1891:
1890:
1888:
1886:
1882:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1787:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1630:Deforestation
1628:
1626:
1623:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1614:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1580:Siege engines
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1513:Establishment
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1444:Extraordinary
1442:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1430:Promagistrate
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1217:Twelve Tables
1215:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1109:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1093:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1004:
998:
995:
993:
990:
989:
986:
981:
974:
969:
967:
962:
960:
955:
954:
951:
944:
941:
939:
936:
935:
931:
923:
919:
915:
912:
911:
905:
902:
897:
894:
888:
885:
881:
877:
873:
872:
866:
863:
859:
855:
851:
850:
843:
840:
836:
833:, Chapter 1,
832:
831:
825:
822:
817:
816:
808:
806:
802:
797:
793:
789:
785:
780:
775:
771:
767:
763:
756:
753:
748:
744:
738:
730:
726:
722:
716:
712:
711:
704:
702:
700:
698:
696:
692:
686:
683:
675:
674:
666:
664:
662:
660:
658:
656:
652:
641:
637:
631:
629:
625:
620:
618:0-14-056032-7
614:
610:
606:
602:
596:
593:
588:
584:
580:
574:
570:
569:
561:
558:
553:
549:
545:
539:
535:
534:
526:
524:
522:
520:
518:
516:
512:
505:
501:
498:
496:
493:
492:
488:
486:
484:
479:
477:
473:
468:
463:
459:
455:
450:
444:
440:
439:
434:
427:
425:
423:
419:
413:
411:
407:
397:
393:
386:
381:
377:
370:
368:
364:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
307:
300:
296:
292:
289:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
256:mixed bathing
252:
250:
247:outlined the
246:
242:
238:
234:
233:
226:
224:
223:
218:
214:
210:
209:
204:
203:
198:
197:
192:
191:
185:
179:
175:
171:
164:
160:
156:
152:
150:
146:
137:
135:
132:
129:
123:
121:
117:
110:
105:
98:
96:
94:
90:
86:
82:
77:
75:
74:Bearsden fort
71:
67:
61:
59:
53:
51:
50:
44:
37:
32:
19:
18:Roman bathing
2835:Institutions
2699:Leptis Magna
2652:Major cities
2559:Philostratus
2346:Quadrigarius
2166:Rufus Festus
2029:Contemporary
1750:Romanization
1682:
1673:Architecture
1280:Collegiality
1129:Constitution
980:Ancient Rome
942:
921:
920:. Quoted in
908:
904:
896:
893:
887:
869:
865:
847:
842:
828:
824:
814:
769:
765:
755:
709:
685:
672:
643:. Retrieved
639:
608:
595:
567:
560:
532:
480:
452:The emperor
451:
447:
436:
414:
402:
390:
374:
365:
335:in Germany,
327:in England,
303:
284:
253:
248:
240:
236:
230:
227:
220:
212:
206:
200:
194:
188:
186:
182:
173:
158:
145:Roman Empire
141:
133:
124:
113:
88:
84:
80:
78:
62:
54:
47:
41:
2830:Geographers
2514:Dioscorides
2494:Cassius Dio
2116:Cassiodorus
2019:Renaissance
1625:Agriculture
1597:Auxiliaries
1538:Engineering
1375:Magistrates
1227:Citizenship
1222:Mos maiorum
1157:Late Empire
871:De Medicina
849:Meditations
438:De Medicina
319:in France,
208:frigidarium
190:apodyterium
159:Apodyterium
2719:Mediolanum
2659:Alexandria
2624:Themistius
2589:Porphyrius
2416:Tertullian
2351:Quintilian
2341:Propertius
2236:Lactantius
2186:Fulgentius
2121:Censorinus
1943:Sanitation
1928:Metallurgy
1885:Technology
1850:Demography
1798:Patricians
1765:Spectacles
1723:Literature
1718:Hairstyles
1555:Technology
1305:Praefectus
1257:Government
1247:Litigation
1232:Auctoritas
1177:Centuriate
1064:Principate
1059:Pax Romana
1019:Foundation
645:2022-04-28
587:1027148260
506:References
357:rheumatism
272:Quintilian
249:palaestra'
213:tepidarium
196:tepidarium
174:Tepidarium
2875:Quaestors
2805:Empresses
2795:Dynasties
2785:Dictators
2760:and other
2749:Volubilis
2744:Vindobona
2704:Londinium
2629:Theodoret
2599:Procopius
2579:Polyaenus
2554:Pausanias
2456:Vitruvius
2401:Symmachus
2396:Suetonius
2306:Petronius
2291:Obsequens
2256:Macrobius
2251:Lucretius
2176:Frontinus
2151:Eutropius
2136:Columella
2086:Augustine
2076:Appuleius
2024:Neo-Latin
1999:Classical
1990:Versions
1898:Aqueducts
1840:Patronage
1760:Sexuality
1733:Mythology
1708:Education
1698:Cosmetics
1523:Campaigns
1518:Structure
1471:Decemviri
1330:Imperator
1029:overthrow
874:, V, 26,
796:191339893
788:1718-4487
737:cite book
729:924682988
552:225874239
470:("Baths,
361:arthritis
333:Wiesbaden
251:s edges.
245:colonnade
237:palaestra
232:palaestra
222:laconicum
202:caldarium
149:aqueducts
58:Romanitas
2910:Category
2880:Tribunes
2870:Praetors
2820:Generals
2800:Emperors
2709:Lugdunum
2694:Eboracum
2684:Carthage
2669:Aquileia
2584:Polybius
2574:Plutarch
2544:Libanius
2534:Josephus
2529:Herodian
2421:Tibullus
2336:Priscian
2311:Phaedrus
2271:Manilius
2216:Jordanes
2201:Hydatius
2131:Claudian
2111:Catullus
2101:Boëthius
2096:Ausonius
2014:Medieval
1986:Alphabet
1958:Theatres
1933:Numerals
1918:Concrete
1908:Circuses
1875:Bagaudae
1865:Adoption
1860:Marriage
1833:Assembly
1738:Religion
1713:Folklore
1693:Clothing
1688:Calendar
1645:Currency
1635:Commerce
1533:Strategy
1495:Military
1481:Triumvir
1461:Dictator
1456:Interrex
1435:Governor
1420:Quaestor
1383:Ordinary
1365:Province
1355:Tetrarch
1345:Augustus
1310:Vicarius
1300:Officium
1237:Imperium
1187:Plebeian
1147:Republic
1069:Dominate
1036:Republic
997:Timeline
607:(1970).
489:See also
462:gangrene
345:Aquincum
306:Algerian
241:palestra
217:strigils
128:Spartans
116:regimens
83:(plural
72:, or at
66:Cilurnum
2850:Legions
2810:Fiction
2780:Consuls
2775:Climate
2729:Ravenna
2724:Pompeii
2714:Lutetia
2679:Bononia
2674:Berytus
2664:Antioch
2639:Zosimus
2634:Zonaras
2609:Sozomen
2594:Priscus
2569:Photius
2411:Terence
2406:Tacitus
2391:Statius
2376:Servius
2361:Sallust
2316:Plautus
2296:Orosius
2276:Martial
2231:Juvenal
2206:Hyginus
2191:Gellius
2050:Writers
1981:History
1963:Thermae
1953:Temples
1903:Bridges
1870:Slavery
1818:Equites
1790:Society
1770:Theatre
1743:Deities
1703:Cuisine
1683:Bathing
1665:Culture
1640:Finance
1617:Economy
1508:Borders
1503:History
1405:Tribune
1400:Praetor
1290:Legatus
1285:Emperor
1172:Curiate
1142:Kingdom
1137:History
1113:History
1096:decline
1054:History
1024:Kingdom
1007:History
992:Outline
916:.1, 2,
410:strigil
385:Pompeii
349:Hungary
341:Austria
264:Juvenal
260:Martial
178:Pompeii
89:thermae
81:balneum
49:thermae
43:Bathing
2860:Nomina
2845:Legacy
2825:Gentes
2762:topics
2758:Lists
2739:Smyrna
2619:Strabo
2549:Lucian
2539:Julian
2489:Arrian
2484:Appian
2474:Aelian
2451:Vergil
2226:Justin
2211:Jerome
2196:Horace
2181:Fronto
2171:Florus
2146:Ennius
2126:Cicero
2106:Caesar
2004:Vulgar
1828:Tribes
1755:Romans
1565:Legion
1548:castra
1425:Aedile
1395:Censor
1390:Consul
1350:Caesar
1320:Lictor
1242:Status
1182:Tribal
1162:Senate
1152:Empire
1046:Empire
982:topics
794:
786:
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615:
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550:
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483:Seneca
474:, and
458:Celsus
422:dinner
418:patron
343:, and
329:Aachen
325:Buxton
288:stadia
85:balnea
38:, Rome
2524:Galen
2466:Greek
2436:Varro
2246:Lucan
2058:Latin
1973:Latin
1948:Ships
1938:Roads
1923:Domes
1855:Women
1803:Plebs
1728:Music
1270:Forum
1265:Curia
856:.24,
792:S2CID
677:(PDF)
406:Ostia
337:Baden
317:Vichy
268:Pliny
2840:Laws
2815:Film
2734:Roma
2301:Ovid
2241:Livy
2009:Late
1823:Gens
1780:Wine
1592:Navy
1560:Army
1199:SPQR
1101:fall
1079:fall
784:ISSN
747:link
743:link
725:OCLC
715:ISBN
613:ISBN
583:OCLC
573:ISBN
548:OCLC
538:ISBN
472:wine
331:and
323:and
321:Bath
315:and
270:and
262:and
107:The
1994:Old
1678:Art
1451:Rex
1295:Dux
1209:Law
876:28d
774:doi
640:obo
476:sex
347:in
339:in
161:at
68:on
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